1.
Enrico Malatesta
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Errico Malatesta was an Italian anarchist. He spent much of his life exiled from Italy and in total spent more than ten years in prison, Malatesta wrote and edited a number of radical newspapers and was also a friend of Mikhail Bakunin. Errico Malatesta was born to a family of landowners in Santa Maria Capua Vetere. The first of a series of arrests came at age fourteen. Malatesta was introduced to Mazzinian Republicanism while studying medicine at the University of Naples, however, in 1872 he met Mikhail Bakunin, with whom he participated in the St Imier congress of the International. For the next four years, Malatesta helped spread Internationalist propaganda in Italy, in April 1877, Malatesta, Carlo Cafiero, the Russian Stepniak and about thirty others started an insurrection in the province of Benevento, taking the villages of Letino and Gallo without a struggle. The revolutionaries burned tax registers and declared the end of the Kings reign and were met by enthusiasm, after leaving Gallo, however, they were arrested by government troops and held for sixteen months before being acquitted. After Giovanni Passannantes murder attempt on the king Umberto I, the radicals were kept under constant surveillance by the police, even though the anarchists claimed to have no connection to Passannante, Malatesta, being an advocate of social revolution, was included in this surveillance. After returning to Naples, he was forced to leave Italy altogether in the fall of 1878 because of these conditions and he went to Egypt briefly, visiting some Italian friends but was soon expelled by the Italian Consul. It was there that he befriended Élisée Reclus and Peter Kropotkin, the Swiss respite was brief, however, and after a few months he was expelled from Switzerland, traveling first to Romania before reaching Paris, where he worked briefly as a mechanic. In 1881 he set out for a new home in London and he would come and go from that city for the next 40 years. There Malatesta worked as an ice cream seller and a mechanic, and participated in the 1872 congress of the International, Malatestas mistress in the 1870s, Emilia Tronzio, was the step-sister of the internationalist Tito Zanardelli. With Malatestas consent and support she married Giovanni Defendi, who came to stay with Malatesta in London in 1881 after being released from jail, Malatesta attended the Anarchist Congress that met in London from 14 July 1881. Other delegates included Peter Kropotkin, Francesco Saverio Merlino, Marie Le Compte, Louise Michel, while respecting complete autonomy of local groups the congress defined propaganda actions that all could follow and agreed that propaganda by the deed was the path to social revolution. With the outbreak of the Anglo-Egyptian War in 1882, Malatesta organized a group to help fight against the British. In August, he and three men departed for Egypt. They landed in Abu Qir, then travelled towards Ramleh, Alexandria, after a difficult crossing of Lake Mariout, they were surrounded and detained by British forces, without having undertaken any fighting. He secretly returned to Italy the following year, in Florence he founded the weekly anarchist paper La Questione Sociale in which his most popular pamphlet, Fra Contadini, first appeared
2.
Santa Maria Capua Vetere
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Santa Maria Capua Vetere is a town and comune in the province of Caserta, part of the region of Campania. For the history of ancient Capua, see History of Ancient Capua, in the area several settlements of the Villanovan culture were present in pre-historical times, and these were probably enlarged by the Oscans and Etruscans. In the 4th century BCE Capuae was the largest city in Italy after Rome, the city was damaged by Vandal ravages but later recovered and became the seat of an independent Lombard principate. However, during the struggle of the succession to the Duchy of Benevento, the survivors mostly fled and founded the modern Capua in the site of the ancient River port of Casilinum. King Robert of Anjou made Santa Maria Maggiore one of his summer residences, the town was known as Santa Maria Maggiore until 1861. For information about main ancient landmarks in the comune of Santa Maria Capua Vetere, the main other landmark of Santa Maria Capua Vetere is the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, founded, according to the tradition, by Pope Symmachus in the 5th century. The church had originally a nave, but was enlarged by Lombard Prince Arechis II of Benevento in 787. Marcello Trotta, footballer, was born here, errico Malatesta, was an Italian anarchist, social and political activist, writer and revolutionary. Murcia, Spain Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli Bishopric of Capua Media related to Santa Maria Capua Vetere at Wikimedia Commons Santa Maria Capua Vetere
3.
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
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The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was the largest of the states of Italy before the Italian unification. It was formed as a union of the Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies lasted from 1815 until 1860, when it was annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia to form the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The capitals of the Two Sicilies were in Naples and in Palermo, the kingdom extended over the Mezzogiorno and the island of Sicily. Many went to the United States, Australia and Argentina, the kingdom was heavily agricultural, like the other Italian states, the church owned 50–65% of the land by 1750. The name Two Sicilies originated from the division of the medieval Kingdom of Sicily, until 1285, the island of Sicily and the Mezzogiorno each formed part of the Kingdom of Sicily. As a result of the War of the Sicilian Vespers, the King of Sicily lost the island of Sicily to the Crown of Aragon, but remained ruler over the peninsular part of the realm. Although his territory became known as the Kingdom of Naples, he and his successors never gave up the title of King of Sicily, at the same time, the Aragonese rulers of the island of Sicily called their realm the Kingdom of Sicily as well. Thus, formally, there were two kingdoms calling themselves Sicily, hence, the Two Sicilies, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies resulted from the re-unification of the Kingdom of Sicily with the Kingdom of Naples, by King Alfonso V of Aragon in 1442. The two states had functioned as separate realms since the War of the Sicilian Vespers in 1282, in 1501, King Ferdinand II of Aragon, son of John II, conquered Naples and reunified the two kingdoms under the authority of the newly united Spanish throne. The Kings of Spain then bore the title King of Both Sicilies or King of Sicily, at the end of that war, the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 granted Sicily to the Duke of Savoy until the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714 left Naples to the Emperor Charles VI. In 1720 the Emperor and Savoy exchanged Sicily for Sardinia, thus reuniting Naples and Sicily. In 1734, Charles, Duke of Parma, son of Philip V of Spain, took the Sicilian crown from the Austrians and became Charles VII & V, giving Parma to his younger brother, Philip. Apart from an interruption under Napoleon, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies remained under the Bourbon line continually until 1860. In January 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, in the name of the French Republic, captured Naples and proclaimed the Parthenopaean Republic, King Ferdinand fled from Naples to Sicily until June of that year. In 1806, Napoleon, by then French Emperor, again dethroned King Ferdinand and appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, throughout this Napoleonic interruption, King Ferdinand remained in Sicily, with Palermo as his capital. The Congress of Vienna restored King Ferdinand in 1815 and he established a concordat with the Papal States, which previously had a claim to the land. The expedition resulted in a series of defeats for the Sicilian armies facing the growing troops of Garibaldi. After the capture of Palermo and Sicily, Garibaldi disembarked in Calabria and moved towards Naples, the last battles took place at Volturnus in 1860 and at the siege of Gaeta, where King Francis II had sought shelter, hoping for French help, which never came
4.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
5.
Anarchism
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
6.
Anarchist schools of thought
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Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. William Godwin, in founding philosophical anarchism, developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought. Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, according to The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought, philosophical anarchism is a component especially of individualist anarchism. Godwin opposed revolutionary action and saw a state as a present necessary evil that would become increasingly irrelevant. Godwin advocated extreme individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated, Godwin felt discrimination on any grounds besides ability was intolerable. They may oppose the elimination of the state by violent means out of concern that it would be left unsecured against the establishment of a more harmful. Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labor movements, then took an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and this influenced individualist anarchists in the United States such as Benjamin Tucker and William B. Josiah Warren proposed similar ideas in 1833 after participating in a failed Owenite experiment, in the 1840s and 1850s, Charles A. Dana, and William B. Greene introduced Proudhons works to the US. Greene adapted Proudhons mutualism to American conditions and introduced it to Benjamin R. Tucker, mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. Many mutualists believe a market without government intervention drives prices down to labor-costs, eliminating profit, rent, firms would be forced to compete over workers just as workers compete over firms, raising wages. Some see mutualism as between individualist and collectivist anarchism, in What Is Property, Proudhon develops a concept of liberty, equivalent to anarchy, which is the dialectical synthesis of communism and property. Greene, influenced by Pierre Leroux, sought mutualism in the synthesis of three philosophies – communism, capitalism and socialism, Social anarchism is an umbrella term used to identify a broad category of anarchism independent of individualist anarchism. Social anarchism is used to specifically describe anarchist tendencies within anarchism that have an emphasis on the communitarian and cooperative aspects of anarchist theory, Social anarchism includes collectivist anarchism, anarcho-communism, libertarian socialism, anarcho-syndicalism and social ecology. Collectivist anarchism is a form of anarchism most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, Johann Most. Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, Workers would be compensated for their work on the basis of the amount of time they contributed to production, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in anarcho-communism. Although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a transition to a communist system of distribution according to need. Collective anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, some collectivist anarchists do not oppose the use of currency
7.
Anarcho-capitalism
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Anarcho-capitalism is a political philosophy that advocates the elimination of the state in favor of individual sovereignty, private property, and free markets. Anarcho-capitalists believe that, in the absence of statute, society would improve itself through the discipline of the free market, in an anarcho-capitalist society, law enforcement, courts, and all other security services would be operated by privately funded competitors rather than centrally through taxation. Money, along all other goods and services, would be privately and competitively provided in an open market. Various theorists have espoused legal philosophies similar to anarcho-capitalism, a Rothbardian anarcho-capitalist society would operate under a mutually agreed-upon libertarian legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow. This pact would recognize self-ownership and the principle, although methods of enforcement vary. Anarcho-capitalists argue for a society based on the trade of private property. However, they also recognize charity and communal arrangements as part of the same voluntary ethic, though anarcho-capitalists are known for asserting a right to private property, some propose that non-state public or community property can also exist in an anarcho-capitalist society. For them, what is important is that it is acquired and transferred without help or hindrance from the compulsory state, anarcho-capitalists see free-market capitalism as the basis for a free and prosperous society. Many anarchists view capitalism as an authoritarian and hierarchical system. On the Nolan chart, anarcho-capitalists are located at the northernmost apex of the libertarian quadrant – since they reject state involvement in economic and personal affairs. Many also argue that subsidized monopolies tend to be corrupt and inefficient, many anarchists also argue that private defense and court agencies would have to have a good reputation in order to stay in business. Rothbard bases his philosophy on natural law grounds and also provides economic explanations of why he thinks anarcho-capitalism is preferable on pragmatic grounds as well. David D. Friedman says he is not an absolutist rights theorist but is not a utilitarian, however. Peter Leeson argues that the case for anarchy derives its strength from empirical evidence, hans-Hermann Hoppe, meanwhile, uses argumentation ethics for his foundation of private property anarchism, which is closer to Rothbards natural law approach. I define anarchist society as one where there is no possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual. In effect, this means no one else may justly invade, or aggress against. It follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or mixes his labor with, from these twin axioms – self-ownership and homesteading – stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free-market society. This system establishes the right of man to his own person, the right of donation, of bequest
8.
Christian anarchism
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Christian anarchism is a movement in political theology that claims anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the Gospels. Christian anarchists denounce the state as they claim it is violent, deceitful and, more than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism. Most Christian anarchists are pacifists and reject the use of violence, Leo Tolstoys The Kingdom of God Is Within You is often regarded as a key text for modern Christian anarchism. Jacques Ellul, a French philosopher and Christian anarchist, notes that the verse of the Book of Judges states that there was no king in Israel. Subsequently, as recorded in the first Book of Samuel the people of Israel wanted a king so as to be like other nations, God declared that the people had rejected him as their king. He warned that a king would lead to militarism, conscription and taxation. Samuel passed on Gods warning to the Israelites but they demanded a king. Much of the subsequent Old Testament chronicles the Israelites trying to live with this decision, more than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism. Alexandre Christoyannopoulos explains that the Sermon perfectly illustrates Jesuss central teaching of love, Christian anarchists claim that the state, founded on violence, contravenes the Sermon and Jesus call to love our enemies. The gospels tell of Jesuss temptation in the desert, for the final temptation, Jesus is taken up to a high mountain by Satan and told that if he bows down to Satan he will give him all the kingdoms of the world. Christian anarchists use this as evidence that all Earthly kingdoms and governments are ruled by Satan, Jesus refuses the temptation, choosing to serve God instead, implying that Jesus is aware of the corrupting nature of Earthly power. Christian eschatology and various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the state, whether or not Christianity is compatible with anarchism is a point of contention, as some hold that one cannot consistently be a Christian and anarchist simultaneously. Critics include Christians and anarchists as well as those who reject both categories, for example, anarcho-syndicalists often cite the phrase no gods, no masters and Christians often cite Romans 13. Others, such as Friedrich Nietzsche and Frank Seaver Billings, criticize Christianity, according to Alexandre Christoyannopoulos, several of the Church Fathers writings suggest anarchism as Gods ideal. Christian anarchists, such as Keven Craig, insist that these communities were centred on true love and they also allege that the reason the early Christians were persecuted was not because they worshipped Jesus Christ, but because they refused to worship human idols claiming divine status. Given that they refused to worship the Roman Emperor they refused to swear any oath of allegiance to the Empire, for Christian anarchists the moment which epitomises the degeneration of Christianity is the conversion of Emperor Constantine after his victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. Following this event Christianity was legalised under the Edict of Milan in 313, Francis of Assisi was an ascetic preacher, pacifist and nature lover. As the son of a wealthy cloth merchant he led a privileged life and fought as a soldier
9.
Collectivist anarchism
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Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary anarchist doctrine that advocates the abolition of both the state and private ownership of the means of production. It instead envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves, for the collectivization of the means of production, it was originally envisaged that workers will revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market and this contrasts with anarcho-communism where wages would be abolished, and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods to each according to his need. Thus, Bakunins Collectivist Anarchism, not with standing the title, is seen as a blend of individualism and collectivism, Collectivist anarchism is most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, the anti-authoritarian sections of the First International, and the early Spanish anarchist movement. Giuseppe Fanelli met Bakunin at Ischia in 1866, in October 1868 Bakunin sponsored Fanelli to travel to Barcelona to share his libertarian visions and recruit revolutionists to the International Workingmens Association. Fanellis tour took him first to Barcelona, where he met, Recluse and Fanelli were at odds over Recluses friendships with Spanish republicans, and Fanelli soon left Barcelona for Madrid. Fanelli stayed in Madrid until the end of January 1869, conducting meetings to introduce Spanish workers, including Anselmo Lorenzo, in February 1869 Fanelli left Madrid, journeying home via Barcelona. Bakunin was a supporter of the Commune, which was brutally suppressed by the French government. He saw the Commune as above all a rebellion against the State, the collectivist anarchists at first used the term collectivism to distinguish themselves from the mutualism of the followers of Proudhon and the state socialists associated with Karl Marx. Bakunin wrote, we shall always protest against anything that may in any way resemble communism or state socialism, Bakunin was Marx’s flamboyant chief opponent, and presciently warned against the emergence of a communist authoritarianism that would take power over working people. The anti-authoritarian majority, which included most sections of the International, more importantly, Bakunin criticized authoritarian socialism and the concept of dictatorship of the proletariat which he adamantly refused. If you took the most ardent revolutionary, vested him in absolute power, the anti-authoritarian sections of the First International proclaimed at the St. This revolutionary transformation could only be the outcome of the action of the proletariat itself, its trades bodies. By the early 1880s, most of the European anarchist movement had adopted an anarchist communist position, advocating the abolition of wage labour and distribution according to need. Ironically, the collectivist label then became commonly associated with Marxist state socialists who advocated the retention of some sort of wage system during the transition to full communism. The anarchist communist Peter Kropotkin attacked this position in his essay The Collectivist Wages System, Bakunins socialism was known as collectivist anarchism, where socially, it seeks the confirmation of political equality by economic equality. Collectivist anarchism advocates the abolition of both the state and private ownership of the means of production and it instead envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. For the collectivization of the means of production, it was envisaged that workers will revolt
10.
Anarcho-communism
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Some anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society. Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution, the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections. To date, the examples of anarchist communist societies were the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution. Anarchist communist currents appeared during the English Civil War and the French Revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, an early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as libertarian. Unlike Proudhon, he argued that, it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, returning to New York he was able to serialise his book in his periodical Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement social. Published in 27 issues from June 9,1858 to February 4,1861 and this was the first anarchist journal to use the term libertarian. The French anarchist journalist Sébastien Faure, later founder and editor of the four-volume Anarchist Encyclopedia, started the weekly paper Le Libertaire in 1895. He saw anarchic initiative, reasoned will and the autonomy of each as the conditions for the revolution of the proletariat. In Déjacques view, a government resulting from an insurrection remains a reactionary fetter on the initiative of the proletariat. As Bakunins associate, James Guillaume, put it in his essay, Ideas on Social Organization, When production comes to outstrip consumption. But, Errico Malatesta stated that instead of running the risk of making a confusion in trying to distinguish what you and I each do, let us all work, the federal congress at Florence has eloquently demonstrated the opinion of the Italian International on this point. The above report was made in an article by Malatesta and Cafiero in the Jura Federations bulletin later that year, Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist of anarchist communism, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. Kropotkin felt that cooperation is more beneficial than competition, arguing in his scientific work Mutual Aid. Aims of life vary with each and every individual, and the society is civilized, the more will individuality be developed. He supported the expropriation of property into the commons or public goods. Some support a form of trade in the form of non-monetary commons. Others such as Tiziana Terranova easily see anarcho-communism being compatible with a non-hierarchical, open access, free association, so between 1880 and 1890 with the perspective of an immanent revolution, who was opposed to the official workers movement, which was then in the process of formation. They were opposed not only to political struggles but also to strikes which put forward wage or other claims, but While they were not opposed to strikes as such, they were opposed to trade unions and the struggle for the eight-hour day
11.
Egoist anarchism
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Stirners main work is The Ego and Its Own, also known as The Ego and His Own. This work was first published in 1844 in Leipzig, and has appeared in numerous editions and translations. Stirners philosophy is usually called egoism, Stirner held that the only limitation on the rights of the individual is his power to obtain what he desires. He proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions—including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, Stirner wanted to abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members. Max Stirners idea of the union of Egoists, was first expounded in The Ego, the Union is understood as a non-systematic association, which Stirner proposed in contradistinction to the state. The Union is understood as a relation between egoists which is renewed by all parties support through an act of will. The Union requires that all parties participate out of a conscious egoism, If one party silently finds themselves to be suffering, but puts up and keeps the appearance, the union has degenerated into something else. This union is not seen as an authority above a persons own will and this idea has received interpretations for politics, economics, romance, and sex. Stirner claimed that property comes about through might, Whoever knows how to take, to defend, what I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing, I do not step shyly back from your property, but look upon it always as my property, in which I respect nothing. Pray do the like with what you call my property and his concept of egoistic property not only rejects moral restraint on how one obtains and uses things, but includes other people as well. Though Stirners philosophy is individualist, it has influenced some libertarian communists and anarcho-communists, forms of libertarian communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are influenced by Stirner. Anarcho-communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own, the Scottish born German writer John Henry Mackay found out about Stirner while reading a copy of Friedrich Albert Lange´s History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance. Later he looked for a copy of The Ego and Its Own and after being fascinated with it he wrote a biography of Stirner, published in German in 1898. Mackay´s propaganda of stirnerist egoism and of male homosexual and bisexual rights influenced Adolf Brand who published the worlds first ongoing homosexual publication, Der Eigene in 1896. The name of that publication was taken from Stirner, who had influenced the young Brand. Der Eigene concentrated on cultural and scholarly material, and may have averaged around 1500 subscribers per issue during its lifetime, Benjamin Tucker followed this journal from the United States. Another later German anarchist publication influenced deeply by Stirner was Der Einzige and it appeared in 1919, as a weekly, then sporadically until 1925 and was edited by cousins Anselm Ruest and Mynona
12.
Existentialist anarchism
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Some observers believe existentialism forms a philosophical ground for anarchism. Anarchist historian Peter Marshall claims, there is a link between the existentialists stress on the individual, free choice, and moral responsibility and the main tenets of anarchism. Anarchism had a proto-existentialist view mainly in the writings of German individualist anarchist Max Stirner, Existentialism, according to Herbert Read, is eliminating all systems of idealism, all theories of life or being that subordinate man to an idea, to an abstraction of some sort. It is also eliminating all systems of materialism that subordinate man to the operation of physical, in this respect, existentialism has much in common with Max Stirners egoism. This was the result of a popular association during this period between his ideas and those of Max Stirner. As such, Nietzsches Übermensch was representative of the freedom for people to define the nature of their own existence, as well as the desire for a new human who was to be neither master nor slave. Nietzsches idealized individual invents his or her own values and creates the very terms under which they excel, taking no regard for God and it was these things that drew Nietzsche to anarchists and existentialists alike, showing the clear commonality between both. While influenced by Hegel early in his life, Bakunin later was stridently opposed to Hegel around the time he became an anarchist, the transcedentalists, particularly Henry David Thoreau, were influential to anarchism and existentialism. In the first and middle decades of the 20th century, a number of philosophers, before the Second World War, when existentialism was not yet in name, Franz Kafka and Martin Buber were among these thinkers who were also anarchists. Both are today seen as Jewish existentialists as well as Jewish anarchists. In this regard, he was speaking from experience, but he was influenced by his friend Otto Gross. Martin Buber is best known for his philosophy of dialogue, a form of religious existentialism centered on the distinction between the I-Thou relationship and the I-It relationship. In his essay Ich und Du published in 1923, he writes how we relate to other people through the I towards an It. Instead, he believes human beings should find meaningfulness in human relationships, through I towards Thou, following the Second World War, existentialism became a well-known and significant philosophical and cultural movement, and at this time undoubtedly influenced many anarchists. An influential exponent of atheist existentialism, Sartre throughout his works stressed the expansion of freedom in a world without God or a fixed human nature. This freedom may not always be completely joyous, as man is condemned to be free for Sartre and it was for a brief period between 1939 and 1940 that Sartre was an anarcho-pacifist. Towards the end of his life, Sartre explicitly embraced anarchism, although rejecting the term existentialism, Camus was a friend of Sartres, and has been considered part of the existentialist movement. Camus would also be associated with the French anarchist movement, the anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting in 1948 of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes as a sympathizer familiar with anarchist thought
13.
Anarcha-feminism
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Anarcha-feminism, also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism, combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy, anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class conflict and the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a component of feminist struggle. Susan Brown claims that, as anarchism is a philosophy that opposes all relationships of power. Contrary to popular belief and contemporary association with radical feminism, anarcha-feminism is not an inherently militant party and it is described to be an anti-authoritarian, anti-capitalist, anti-oppressive philosophy, with the goal of creating an equal ground between males and females. The term anarcha-feminism suggests the social freedom and liberty of women, mikhail Bakunin opposed patriarchy and the way the law to the absolute domination of the man. He argued that qual rights must belong to men and women so that women could become independent, Bakunin foresaw the end of the authoritarian juridical family and the full sexual freedom of women. Proudhon, on the hand, viewed the family as the most basic unit of society and of his morality. Since the 1860s, anarchisms radical critique of capitalism and the state has been combined with a critique of patriarchy, anarcha-feminists thus start from the precept that modern society is dominated by men. Authoritarian traits and values—domination, exploitation, aggression, competition, etc. —are integral to hierarchical civilizations and are seen as masculine, in contrast, non-authoritarian traits and values—cooperation, sharing, compassion, sensitivity—are regarded as feminine, and devalued. Anarcha-feminists have thus espoused creation of a non-authoritarian, anarchist society and they refer to the creation of a society, based on cooperation, sharing, mutual aid, etc. as the feminization of society. Anarcha-feminism began with late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists Emma Goldman, Voltairine de Cleyre, in the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha-feminist group, Mujeres Libres, linked to the Federación Anarquista Ibérica, organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. According to this Nietzschean concept of Federica Montsenys, women could realize through art, in China, the anarcho-feminist He Zhen argued that without womens liberation, society could not be liberated. A similar paper with the name was reportedly published later in Montevideo. La Voz de la Mujer described itself as “dedicated to the advancement of Communist Anarchism. ”Its central theme was the multiple natures of women’s oppression. An editorial asserted, “We believe that in society, nothing. Its beliefs can be seen from its attack on marriage and upon male power over women and its contributors, like anarchist feminists elsewhere, developed a concept of oppression that focused on gender. They saw marriage as an institution which restricted women’s freedom
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Green anarchism
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Green anarchism is a school of thought within anarchism which puts a particular emphasis on environmental issues. A green anarchist theory is one that extends anarchist ideology beyond a critique of human interactions. Important early influences were Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy and Élisée Reclus, in the late 19th century there emerged anarcho-naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies within individualist anarchist circles in France, Spain, Cuba, and Portugal. Anarchism started to have an ecological view mainly in the writings of American anarchist and transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau, in his book Walden he advocates simple living and self-sufficiency among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization. The work is part personal declaration of independence, social experiment, voyage of discovery, satire. The book compresses the time into a calendar year and uses passages of four seasons to symbolize human development. By immersing himself in nature, Thoreau hoped to gain a more understanding of society through personal introspection. Simple living and self-sufficiency were Thoreaus other goals, and the project was inspired by transcendentalist philosophy. As Thoreau made clear in his book, his cabin was not in wilderness but at the edge of town, as such Many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today in John Zerzan. John Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his compilation of writings called Against civilization, Readings. Élisée Reclus, also known as Jacques Élisée Reclus, was a renowned French geographer, writer and he produced his 19-volume masterwork La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, la terre et les hommes, over a period of nearly 20 years. In 1892 he was awarded the prestigious Gold Medal of the Paris Geographical Society for this work, according to Kirkpatrick Sale, His geographical work, thoroughly researched and unflinchingly scientific, laid out a picture of human-nature interaction that we today would call bioregionalism. Similarly, no contemporary ecologist would disagree with his comments that the truly civilised man understands that his nature is bound up with the interest of all and he repairs the damage caused by his predecessors and works to improve his domain. Reclus advocated nature conservation and opposed meat-eating and cruelty to animals, as a result, his ideas are seen by some historians as anticipating the modern social ecology and animal rights movements. Shortly before his death, Reclus completed LHomme et la terre, in it, he added to his previous greater works by considering humanitys development relative to its geographical environment. Reclus was also a proponent of naturism. In the late 19th century Anarchist naturism appeared as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies, mainly it had importance within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France, Portugal, and Cuba. Anarcho-naturism advocated vegetarianism, free love, nudism and a world view within anarchist groups
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Individualist anarchism
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Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. Benjamin R. Tucker, a famous 19th-century individualist anarchist, held that if the individual has the right to govern himself, Individualist anarchism of different kinds have a few things in common. The concentration on the individual and their will in preference to any construction such as morality, ideology, social custom, religion, metaphysics, the rejection of or reservations about the idea of revolution, seeing it as a time of mass uprising which could bring about new hierarchies. Instead they favor more evolutionary methods of bringing about anarchy through alternative experiences and experiments and this is also because it is not seen as desirable for individuals to wait for revolution to start experiencing alternative experiences outside what is offered in the current social system. In this way, Max Stirner recommended associations of egoists, individual experience and exploration therefore is emphasized. The egoist form of individualist anarchism, derived from the philosophy of Max Stirner, supports the individual doing exactly what he pleases – taking no notice of God, state, or moral rules. To Stirner, rights were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist, Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw associations of egoists drawn together by respect for each others ruthlessness. To the artist who embraces this philosophy it is anarchism, to the reformer, ethical anarchism. The former is concerned with philosophy, the latter with practical demonstration, the economic anarchist is concerned with constructing a society on the basis of anarchism. Economically he sees no harm whatever in the possession of what the individual produces by his own labor. The non-capitalist nature of the early U. S. can be seen from the dominance of self-employment. At the beginning of the 19th century, around 80% of the male population were self-employed. The great majority of Americans during this time were working their own land. And so Individualist anarchism is clearly a form of artisanal socialism, while communist anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism are forms of industrial socialism. And so a European tendency of individualist anarchism advocated violent individual acts of individual reclamation, propaganda by the deed, such individualist anarchist tendencies include French illegalism and Italian anti-organizational insurrectionarism. In France, Spain, and the United States, individualistic anarchists committed acts of terrorism that gave anarchism its reputation as a sinister conspiracy. Another important tendency within individualist anarchist currents emphasizes individual subjective exploration, Individualist anarchist philosophy attracted amongst artists, intellectuals and the well-read, urban middle classes in general. As a credo, individualist anarchism remained largely a bohemian lifestyle, most conspicuous in its demands for freedom and enamored of innovations in art, behavior
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Insurrectionary anarchism
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Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory, practice, and tendency within the anarchist movement that emphasizes insurrection within anarchist practice. It is critical of organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on a political programme. Instead, insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization and small affinity group based organization, insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack, permanent class conflict, and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies. Contemporary insurrectionary anarchism inherits the views and tactics of anti-organizational anarcho-communism and illegalism, platformist anarchist Joe Black says that There is a long tradition within anarchism of constructing ideologies out of a tactic. The long and deep involvement of anarchists in insurrections has, not surprisingly, an influential individualist concept of insurrection appears in the book of Max Stirner The Ego and Its Own from 1845. There he manifests, Mikhail Bakunin was historically important to the development of an anarchism that focused its force in insurrection, and since Bakunins time insurrectionary anarchists have been concentrated in Southern Europe. So between 1880 and 1890 with the perspective of an immanent revolution, who was opposed to the workers movement. They were opposed not only to political struggles but also to strikes which put forward wage or other claims, but While they were not opposed to strikes as such, they were opposed to trade unions and the struggle for the eight-hour day. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism, moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary, invitations to revolt. Such acts of rebellion, which could be individual were in the long run seen as act of rebellion, proponents and activists of these tactics among others included Johann Most, Luigi Galleani, Victor Serge, and Severino Di Giovanni. The Italian Giuseppe Ciancabilla wrote in Against organization that we dont want tactical programs and we dont form fixed programs and we dont form small or great parties. Nevertheless, he also says We do not oppose the organizers and they will continue, if they like, in their tactic. If, as I think, it not do any great good. But it seems to me that they have writhed throwing their cry of alarm, a resurgence of such ideas for Joe Black happened in the peculiar conditions of post war Italy and Greece. Towards the end of World War II there was a possibility of revolution in both countries. Greece was to suffer decades of military dictatorship while in Italy the Communist Party continued to hold back struggles, insurrectionalism was one of a number of new socialist ideologies which arose to address these particular circumstances. In Italy a tendency that did not identify either with the more classical Italian Anarchist Federation or with the platformist inclined started to emerge as local groups and these groups emphasized direct action, informal affinity groups and expropriation for financing anarchist activity. From within these groups the influential Italian insurrectionary anarchist Alfredo Maria Bonanno will emerge influenced by the practice of the Spanish exiled anarchist Josep Lluís i Facerias, the anarchist magazine Demolition Derby in Montreal also covered some insurrectionary anarchist news back in the day
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Left-wing market anarchism
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Those left-libertarians who support private property do so under the condition that recompense is offered to the local community. Warren was a follower of Robert Owen and joined Owens community at New Harmony, josiah Warren termed the phrase Cost the limit of price, with cost here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item. Therefore, he proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did and they could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce. He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental labor for labor store called the Cincinnati Time Store where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor. The store proved successful and operated for three years after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism and these included Utopia and Modern Times. Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews The Science of Society, published in 1852, was the most lucid, Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States. It is important to recognize that Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance, Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. Mutualism has been characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. Proudhon first characterised his goal as a form of society. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was a French activist and theorist, the founder of Mutualist philosophy, an economist and he was the first person to declare himself an anarchist and is among its most influential theorists. He is considered by many to be the father of anarchism and he became a member of the French Parliament after the revolution of 1848, whereupon and thereafter he referred to himself as a federalist. Proudhon, who was born in Besançon, was a printer who taught himself Latin in order to print books in the language. His best-known assertion is that Property is Theft. contained in his first major work, or, an Inquiry into the Principle of Right and Government, published in 1840. The books publication attracted the attention of the French authorities and it also attracted the scrutiny of Karl Marx, who started a correspondence with its author. The two influenced each other, they met in Paris while Marx was exiled there and their friendship finally ended when Marx responded to Proudhons The System of Economic Contradictions, or The Philosophy of Poverty with the provocatively titled The Poverty of Philosophy. The dispute became one of the sources of the split between the anarchist and Marxian wings of the International Working Mens Association, Proudhon favored workers associations or co-operatives as well as individual worker/peasant possession over private ownership or the nationalization of land and workplaces. He considered social revolution to be achievable in a peaceful manner and he unsuccessfully tried to create a national bank to be funded by what became an abortive attempt at an income tax on capitalists and shareholders. Similar in some respects to a union, it would have given interest-free loans
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Magonism
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Magonism is an anarchist, or more precisely anarcho-communist, school of thought precursor of the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The same Ricardo Flores Magón affirmed, Liberal Party members are not magonistas, in his literary work Verdugos y Víctimas, one of the characters responds indignantly when he was arrested and judged, Im not a magonist, I am an anarchist. They were also influenced by the works of Marx, Gorky, fernando Palomares, a Mayo indigenous, was one of the most active members of the Liberal Party who took part in the Cananea strike and libertarian campaign of 1911 in Mexicali and Tijuana. In the post-revolutionary Mexico, the figures of Flores Magón brothers was recollected by governments, also the magonistas considered not fighting to change the administrators of the state, but to abolish them. For this reason, the survived magonistas continued to spread anarchist propaganda, the Mexican Anarchist Federation, founded in 1941 and active for about 40 years, edited the newspaper Regeneración and spread magonist thought. In the 1980s the magonism survived among some youth anarcho-punk groups, in 1994, when the Zapatista Army of National Liberation took up arms in Chiapas, claimed the ideas of the Flores Magón brothers. In the popular uprising of Oaxaca of 2006, took part organizations, rubén Trejo, Magonismo, utopía y revolución, 1910-1913. 2005, Cultura Libre - ISBN 970-9815-00-8 M. Ballesteros, J. C, maldonado, Magonismo y Movimiento Indígena en México. 2003, Ce-Acatl AC An overview about the magonism Ricardo Flores Magón Archive
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Mutualism (economic theory)
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Integral to the scheme is the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism originated from the writings of philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, mutualists oppose the idea of individuals receiving an income through loans, investments, and rent, as they believe these individuals are not laboring. Though Proudhon opposed this type of income, he expressed that he had never intended. to forbid or suppress, by decree, ground rent. Insofar as they ensure the right to the full product of their labor, mutualists support markets. However, they argue for conditional titles to land, whose ownership is only so long as it remains in use or occupation, thus advocating personal property. Although mutualism is similar to the doctrines of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, unlike them. Proudhon himself described the liberty he pursued as the synthesis of communism, Mutualism, as a term, has seen a variety of related uses. Charles Fourier first used the French term mutualisme in 1822, although the reference was not to an economic system, the first use of the noun mutualist was in the New-Harmony Gazette by an American Owenite in 1826. In the early 1830s, a organization in Lyons, France. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings. Clarence Lee Swartz gives his own account of the origin of the term, claiming that he word mutualism seems to have been first used by John Gray,1826 also saw the publication of the Constitution of the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests at Kendal, Ohio. By 1846, Proudhon was speaking of mutualité in his writings, Greene, in 1850, used the term mutualism to describe a mutual credit system similar to that of Proudhon. During the Second French Republic, Proudhon had his biggest public effect through his involvement with four newspapers, Le Représentant du Peuple, Le Peuple, La Voix du Peuple, Le Peuple de 1850. His polemical writing style, combined with his perception of himself as an outsider, produced a cynical, combative journalism that appealed to many French workers. He repeatedly criticised the policies and promoted reformation of credit. He tried to establish a popular early in 1849, but despite over 13,000 people signing up, receipts were limited falling short of 18, 000FF. Proudhon ran for the constituent assembly in April 1848, but was not elected, although his name appeared on the ballots in Paris, Lyon, Besançon, the workshops were to give work to the unemployed. Proudhon was never enthusiastic about such workshops, perceiving them to be essentially charitable institutions that did not resolve the problems of the economic system and he was against their elimination unless an alternative could be found for the workers who relied on the workshops for subsistence
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Anarcho-naturism
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Anarcho-naturism appeared in the late 19th century as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies. In many of the communities established in Britain in the early 1900s nudism, anarchism, vegetarianism. In the 1920s the inhabitants of the anarchist community at Whiteway, near Stroud in Gloucestershire, mainly it had importance within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France, Portugal, and Cuba. Anarcho-naturism advocates vegetarianism, free love, nudism, hiking and a world view within anarchist groups. Anarcho-naturism also promotes an ecological worldview, small ecovillages, and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the mass society of modernity. Naturist individualist anarchists see the individual in their biological, physical and psychological aspects, an important early influence on anarchist naturism was the thought of Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy and Elisee Reclus. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and his thought is an early influence on green anarchism, but with an emphasis on the individual experience of the natural world, influencing later naturist currents. Simple living as a rejection of a materialist lifestyle and self-sufficiency were Thoreaus goals, many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today in John Zerzan. John Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his compilation of anti-civilization writings called Against civilization, Readings. Their ideas were important in individualist anarchist circles in France as well as Spain, Zisly vividly criticized progress and civilization, which he regarded as absurd, ignoble, and filthy. She described the tragic bandits of the Bonnot gang as refusing to eat meat or drink wine and her humorous comments reflected the practices of the naturist wing of individualist anarchists who favored a simpler, more natural lifestyle centered on a vegetarian diet. In the 1920s, this wing was expressed by the journal Le Néo-Naturien, contributors condemned the fashion of smoking cigarettes, especially by young women, a long article of 1927 actually connected cigarette smoking with cancer. Others distinguished between vegetarians, who foreswore the eating of meat, from the stricter vegetalians, who ate nothing, an anarchist named G. Butaud, who made this distinction, opened a restaurant called the Foyer Végétalien in the nineteenth arrondissement in 1923. Other issues of the journal included vegetarian recipes, nutritional concerns coincided with other means of encouraging health bodies, such as nudism and gymnastics. This back-to-nature, primitivist current was not a monopoly of the left, in France, however, these proclivities were mostly associated with anarchists, insofar as they suggested an ideal of self-control and the rejection of social taboos and prejudices. Henri Zisly was a French individualist anarchist and naturist and he participated alongside Henri Beylie and Émile Gravelle in many journals such as La Nouvelle Humanité and La Vie Naturelle, which promoted anarchist-naturism. In 1902, he was one of the initiators, alongside Georges Butaud and Sophie Zaïkowska, of the cooperative Colonie de Vaux established in Essômes-sur-Marne. Zisly vividly criticized progress and civilization, which he regarded as absurd, ignoble, puente was a doctor who approached his medical practice from a naturist point of view
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Anarcho-pacifism
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Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency within anarchism that rejects the use of violence in the struggle for social change and the abolition of the state. The main early influences were the thought of Henry David Thoreau, Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreaus essay Civil Disobedience was named as an influence by Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Buber, according to the Peace Pledge Union of Britain, it was also the main precedent for anarcho-pacifism. Thoreau himself did not subscribe to pacifism, and did not reject the use of armed revolt. He demonstrated this with his support for John Brown and other violent abolitionists, writing of Brown that The question is not about the weapon. At some point anarcho-pacifism had as its main proponent Christian anarchism, the Tolstoyan movement in Russia was the first large-scale anarcho-pacifist movement. The movements adherents were active throughout Russia and followed a vegetarian diet, because of their refusal to recognize the authority of the Tsarist state they were targeted for severe repression and many were killed outright or relocated to Siberia. Most of them were killed in the purges under Lenin and Stalin, Violence has always been controversial in anarchism. While many anarchists embraced violent propaganda of the deed during the nineteenth century, ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis was also instrumental in establishing the pacifist trend within the anarchist movement. The Ligue antimilitariste was to become the French section of the Association internationale antimilitariste founded in Amsterdam in 1904, tolstoys philosophy was cited as a major inspiration by Mohandas Gandhi, an Indian independence leader and pacifist who self-identified as an anarchist. Gandhis ideas were popularised in the West in books such as Richard Greggs The Power of Nonviolence, the latter is particularly important for anarchists since, as one himself, de Ligt specifically addressed those who lust for revolution. The more violence, the revolution, he declared. He also linked Gandhian principled nonviolence with the nonviolent direct action of the syndicalists. The Conquest of Violence alludes to Kropotkins The Conquest of Bread, the American writer Dwight Macdonald endorsed anarcho-pacifist views in the 1940s and used his journal politics to promote these ideas. A leading British anarcho-pacifist was Alex Comfort who considered himself an aggressive anti-militarist and he was an active member of CND. Among the works on anarchism by Comfort is Peace and Disobedience, one of many pamphlets he wrote for Peace News and the Peace Pledge Union and he exchanged public correspondence with George Orwell defending pacifism in the open letter/poem Letter to an American Visitor under the pseudonym Obadiah Hornbrooke. In the 1950s and 1960s anarcho-pacifism began to gel, tough-minded anarchists adding to the mixture their critique of the state, other notable anarcho-pacifist historical figures include Ammon Hennacy, Dorothy Day and, for a brief period between 1939 and 1940, Jean-Paul Sartre. Dorothy Day, was an American journalist, social activist and devout Catholic convert and she was also considered to be an anarchist, and did not hesitate to use the term
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Post-left anarchy
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Post-left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchisms relationship to traditional leftism. Some post-leftists seek to escape the confines of ideology in general also presenting a critique of organizations, influenced by the work of Max Stirner and by the Situationist International, post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of leftist social organisation. Post-leftists argue that the left, even the left, is anachronistic. The book Anarchy in the Age of Dinosaurs, for example, criticizes traditional leftist ideas, essay Your Politics Are Boring as Fuck is another critique of leftist movements, Why has the oppressed proletariat not come to its senses and joined you in your fight for world liberation. Individual writers associated with the tendency are Hakim Bey, Bob Black, John Zerzan, Jason McQuinn, Paul Z. Simons, Fredy Perlman, Lawrence Jarach, in such organizations, he says, more than a few people wise up to the con game and reject it. For him there are four results of such structures, Reductionism, other aspects are ignored, invalidated or repressed, leading to further and further compartmentalization of the struggle. Which in turn facilitates manipulation by elites and their transformation into purely reformist lobbying societies with all generalized. Substitutionism where The formal organization increasingly becomes the focus of strategy, ideology where The organization becomes the primary subject of theory with individuals assigned roles to play, rather than people constructing their own self-theories. Wherever sovereignty lies, there lies political authority, if sovereignty is not dissolved into each, post-left anarchy adheres to a critique of ideology that dates from the work of Max Stirner. For Jason McQuinn All ideology in essence involves the substitution of alien concepts or images for human subjectivity, ideologies are systems of false consciousness in which people no longer see themselves directly as subjects in their relation to their world. Instead they conceive of themselves in some manner as subordinate to one type or another of abstract entity or entities which are mistaken as the subjects or actors in their world. Morality is also a target of post-left anarchy just as it was in Stirner, living up to morality means sacrificing certain desires and temptations in favor of the rewards of virtue. So Rejecting Morality involves constructing a theory of ones self. Post-left anarchy tends to criticize what it sees as the partial victimizing views of identity politics, Feral Faun thus writes in The ideology of victimization that theres a feminist version of the ideology of victimization—an ideology which promotes fear, individual weakness. But in the end Like all ideologies, the varieties of the ideology of victimization are forms of fake consciousness. Accepting the social role of victim—in whatever one of its many forms—is choosing to not even create ones life for oneself or to explore ones real relationships to the social structures. All of the partial liberation movements—feminism, gay liberation, racial liberation, workers movements, the liberation of a social role to which the individual remains subject. The issues of work, the division of labor and the refusal of work has been an important issue in post-left anarchy
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Anarcho-primitivism
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Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. According to anarcho-primitivism, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion, alienation, many traditional anarchists reject the critique of civilization while some, such as Wolfi Landstreicher, endorse the critique but do not consider themselves anarcho-primitivists. Anarcho-primitivists are often distinguished by their focus on the praxis of achieving a state of being through rewilding. Anarchism started to have an ecological view mainly in the writings of Henry David Thoreau, in his book Walden, he advocates simple living and self-sufficiency among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization. Many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today by John Zerzan, Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his edited compilation of anti-civilization writings called Against Civilization, Readings and Reflections from 1999. In the late 19th century, anarchist naturism appeared as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies and it mainly was important within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France and Portugal. Important influences in it were Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, anarcho-naturism advocated vegetarianism, free love, nudism and an ecological world view within anarchist groups and outside them. Anarcho-naturism promoted an ecological worldview, small ecovillages, and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the mass society of modernity. Naturist individualist anarchists saw the individual in his biological, physical and psychological aspects and this tendency was strong enough as to call the attention of the CNT–FAI in Spain. Daniel Guérin, in Anarchism, From Theory to Practice, reports how Spanish anarcho-syndicalism had long been concerned to safeguard the autonomy of what it called affinity groups, there were many adepts of naturism and vegetarianism among its members, especially among the poor peasants of the south. Both these ways of living were considered suitable for the transformation of the human being in preparation for a stateless society, at the Zaragoza congress, the members did not forget to consider the fate of groups of naturists and nudists, unsuited to industrialization. On the eve of a vast, bloody, social transformation, primitivists, however, extend ideas of non-domination to all life, not just human life, going beyond the traditional anarchists analysis. From by anthropologists, primitivists look at the origins of civilization so as to understand what they are up against, inspired by the Luddites, primitivists rekindle an anti-technological orientation. Insurrectionalists do not believe in waiting for critiques to be fine-tuned, primitivists may owe much to the Situationists and their critique of the ideas in The Society of the Spectacle and alienation from a commodity-based society. Bioregionalists bring the perspective of living within ones bioregion, and being connected to the land, water, climate, plants, animals. Some primitivists have been influenced by the indigenous cultures. Primitivists attempt to learn and incorporate sustainable techniques for survival and healthier ways of interacting with life, some are also inspired by the feral subculture, where people abandon domestication and have re-integrate themselves with the wild. Some anarcho-primitivists state that prior to the advent of agriculture, humans lived in small, nomadic bands which were socially, politically, being without hierarchy, these bands are sometimes viewed as embodying a form of anarchism
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Social anarchism
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Social anarchism is a non-state form of socialism and is considered to be the branch of anarchism which sees individual freedom as being dependent upon mutual aid. Social anarchist thought emphasizes community and social equality as complementary to autonomy, social anarchists advocate the conversion of present-day private property into social property or the commons, while retaining respect for personal property. The term social anarchism is used interchangeably with libertarian socialism, left-libertarianism. It emerged in the late 19th century as a distinction from individualist anarchism, mutualists typically accept property rights, but with brief abandonment time periods. A mutualist property regime is described as one rooted in possession, occupancy-and-use. Collectivist anarchism is a form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. It is a tendency, not to be confused with the broad category sometimes called collectivist or communitarian anarchism. Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production and this position was criticised by later anarcho-communists as effectively uphold the wages system. Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, markets, money, capitalism and private property. Economically, anarchist communists believe in converting private property into the commons or public goods, Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society. Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution, the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections. To date, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society, are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution, in the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct strategic school of thought within anarchism. Like anarchist-communists, anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the system and private ownership of the means of production. Important principles include workers solidarity, direct action, and workers self-management of enterprises, in terms of post-capitalist vision, anarcho-syndicalists most often subscribe to communist or collectivist anarchist economic systems on the issue of distributing goods. However, anarcho-syndicalists differ from anarcho-communists on wanting federations of workers syndicates as the locus of organising the economy and its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a trade union centered anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was Rudolf Rocker, whose 1938 pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism outlined a view of the origin, aims. Platformism is a tendency within the anarchist movement and it stresses the need for tightly organized anarchist organizations, that are able to influence working class and peasant movements. It is in many ways identical to especifismo, and has an antecedent in the work of Mikhail Bakunin, Platformist groups reject the model of Leninist vanguardism
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Anarcho-syndicalism
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The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are solidarity, direct action and direct democracy, or workers self-management. The end goal of anarcho-syndicalism is to abolish the wage system, Anarcho-syndicalist theory therefore generally focuses on the labour movement. Reflecting the anarchist philosophy from which it draws its primary inspiration, hubert Lagardelle wrote that Pierre-Joseph Proudhon laid out fundamental ideas of anarcho-syndicalism, and repudiated both capitalism and the state in the process. He viewed free economic groups and struggle, not pacifism as dominant in humans, the CNT started small, counting 26,571 members represented through several trade unions and other confederations. In 1911, coinciding with its first congress, the CNT initiated a strike that provoked a Barcelona judge to declare the union illegal until 1914. That same year of 1911, the union officially received its name. From 1918 on the CNT grew stronger, the CNT had an outstanding role in the events of the La Canadiense general strike, which paralyzed 70% of industry in Catalonia in 1919, the year the CNT reached a membership of 700,000. Around that time, panic spread among employers, giving rise to the practice of pistolerismo and these pistoleros are credited with killing 21 union leaders in 48 hours. In 1922 the International Workers Association was founded in Berlin, the CNT joined immediately, however, the following year, with the rise of Miguel Primo de Riveras dictatorship, the labor union was outlawed, once again. The first secretaries of the International included the writer and activist Rudolph Rocker, along with Augustin Souchy. Following the first congress, other groups affiliated from France, Austria, Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Poland and Romania. Later, a bloc of unions in the USA, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Cuba, Costa Rica and El Salvador also shared the IWAs statutes. The biggest syndicalist union in the USA, the IWW, considered joining but eventually ruled out affiliation in 1936, citing the IWAs policies on religious and political affiliation. The Industrial Workers of the World, although not anarcho-syndicalist, were informed by developments in the revolutionary syndicalist milieu at the turn of the 20th century. Although the terms anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary syndicalism are often used interchangeably, the Biennio Rosso was a two-year period, between 1919 and 1920, of intense social conflict in Italy, following the first world war. The Biennio Rosso took place in a context of crisis at the end of the war, with high unemployment. It was characterized by strikes, worker manifestations as well as self-management experiments through land. In Turin and Milan, workers councils were formed and many factory occupations took place under the leadership of anarcho-syndicalists, the agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of the Padan plain and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrests and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias
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Synthesis anarchism
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It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations. Regardless, to these anarchists the economic preferences are considered to be of importance to abolishing all coercive authority. This conflict soon spread outside of Spain and the discussion found its way into the pages of La Revolte in Paris. This provoked many anarchists to agree with Errico Malatestas argument that t is not right for us, to say the least, Volin was a prolific writer and anarchist intellectual who played an important part in the organization and leadership of Nabat. The Nabat Confederation of Anarchist Organizations, better known simply as Nabat, was an anarchist organization that came to prominence in Ukraine during the years 1918 to 1920. The area where it held the most influence is sometimes referred to as the Free Territory, the uniform platform for Nabat was never truly decided upon, but Volin used what he had written and the inspiration from Nabat to create his Anarchist Synthesis. Voline along with Molly Steimer, Fleshin, and others wrote a reply stating that to To maintain that anarchism is only a theory of classes is to limit it to a single viewpoint, Anarchism is more complex and pluralistic, like life itself. Its class element is above all its means of fighting for liberation, its character is its ethical aspect. Two texts made as responses to the Platform, each proposing a different organizational model, became the basis for what is known as the organisation of synthesis, or simply synthesism. Voline published in 1924 a paper calling for the anarchist synthesis and was also the author of the article in Sébastian Faures Encyclopedie Anarchiste on the same topic, the platformists wanted to push their ideas forward through organizing an international anarchist congress on February 12,1927. In Italy, the synthesis anarchism federation Unione Anarchica Italiana emerged from the Unione Comunista Anarchica Italiana in 1920, the Unione Anarchica Italiana emerged just after the biennio rosso events and lasted until 1929 when it was banned by the Fascist regime. The Programma Anarchico of the Unione Anarchica Italiana was written by Errico Malatesta, the Dielo Truda platform in Spain also met with strong criticism. The main goal there was conciling anarcho-communism with anarcho-syndicalism, J. Elizalde was a founding member and first secretary of the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as a prominent local individualist anarchist. In 1945, the synthesist Italian Anarchist Federation was founded in Carrara, in it the individualist anarchist Cesare Zaccaria played an important role in conciling conflicting factions. The Italian FAI adopted an Associative Pact and the Anarchist Program of Errico Malatesta, the Fédération Anarchiste was founded in Paris, France on December 2,1945. These organizations were inspired on synthesist principles. Anarchist Synthesis by Volin Sébastien Faure, the Anarchist Synthesis Synthesis Anarchism / Anarchism Without Adjectives (an archive with texts related to synthesis anarchism as well as anarchism without adjectives
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Anarchism and animal rights
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The anarchist philosophical and political movement has some connections to elements of the animal liberation movement. Many anarchists are vegetarian or vegan and have played a role in combating perceived injustices against animals and they usually describe the struggle for the liberation of non-human animals as a natural outgrowth of the struggle for human freedom. Leo Tolstoy was a vegetarian, pacifist and Christian anarchist, and to act so is immoral. Veganarchism is the philosophy of veganism and anarchism, creating a combined praxis as a means for social revolution. This encompasses viewing the state as unnecessary and harmful to animals, veganarchists either see the ideology as a combined theory, or perceive both philosophies to be essentially the same. It is further described as an anti-speciesist perspective on green anarchism, the term was popularised in 1995 with Brian A. Dominicks pamphlet Animal Liberation and Social Revolution, described as a vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism. The 18-page pamphlet explains how many young anarchists in the 1990s had been adopting deep ecological mindsets as part of a green anarchist political philosophy. Similarly animal liberationists were becoming increasingly influenced by anarchist thought and traditions, thus becoming veganarchists, direct action, an important philosophical component of anarchism, is also common within the animal rights movement. Activists using names such as Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty and Animal Liberation Front use direct action techniques, including animal liberation, violence, industries targeted include, meat, dairy, animal testing, fur, other animal based industries, private citizens and government institutions. Frequently, in the case of Animal Rights Militia, Animal Liberation Brigade, the allegedly decentralized and leaderless structure of the Animal Liberation Front could be seen as an example of anarchistic organizing, acting in autonomous, covert cells. Rod Coronado is an eco-anarchist and is a spokesperson for the Animal Liberation Front. Green anarchist Tre Arrow was sought by the FBI in connection with an ELF arson on April 15,2001 at Ross Island Sand and Gravel in Portland, torching three trucks amounting of $200,000 in damage. Another arson occurred a month later at Ray Schoppert Logging Company in Estacada, Oregon, on June 1,2001 against logging trucks, Arrow was indicted by a federal grand jury in Oregon and charged with four felonies for this crime on October 18,2002. On March 13,2004, after fleeing to British Columbia and he was then sentenced on August 12,2008 to 78 months in federal prison for his part in the arson and conspiracy ELF attacks in 2001. In January 2006, Eric McDavid, a green anarchist, was convicted of conspiring to use fire or explosives to damage corporate, on March 8, he formally declared a hunger strike due to the jail refusing to provide him with vegan food. He has been given vegan food off and on since, in September 2007, he was convicted on all counts after the two activists he conspired with pleaded guilty testified against him. An FBI confidential source named Anna was revealed as a fourth participant, in May 2008, he was sentenced to nearly 20 years in prison. In September 2006, the SHAC7 received jail sentences of 3 to 6 years, in January 2009, veganarchist Daniel Wadham was sentenced to 5 years, along with others six campaigners from SHAC UK who were sentenced to between 4 and 11 years
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Anarchism without adjectives
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Was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools. In the 1920s synthesis anarchism emerged as a form of anarchist organizations based on anarchism-without-adjectives principles, the theoretical perspective known as anarquismo sin adjetivos was one of the by-products of an intense debate within the movement of anarchism itself. The roots of the argument can be found in the development of anarcho-communism after Bakunins death in 1876, while not entirely dissimilar to collectivist anarchism, Communist Anarchists developed, deepened and enriched Bakunins work just as Bakunin had developed, deepened and enriched Proudhons. Communist Anarchism was associated with anarchists as Élisée Reclus, Carlo Cafiero, Errico Malatesta. Anarcho-communist ideas replaced Collectivist Anarchism as the main anarchist tendency in Europe, here the major issue was not the question of communism but a question of the modification of strategy and tactics implied by Communist Anarchism. At this time, the anarcho-communists stressed local cells of anarchist militants, unsurprisingly, such a change in strategy and tactics came in for a lot of discussion from the Spanish Collectivists who strongly supported working class organisation and struggle. This debate soon spread outside of Spain and the discussion found its way into the pages of La Revolte in Paris and this provoked many anarchists to agree with Malatestas argument that t is not right for us, to say the least, to fall into strife over mere hypotheses. Similarly, in the United States, there was a debate at the same time between individualist and communist anarchists. Historically, anarchists who embraced anarchist without adjectives objected to capitalism, fernando Tarrida del Mármols original use of the term was a call for tolerance amongst collectivist and communist anarchists, all of whom rejected capitalism. Voltairine de Cleyre, when commenting on the McKinley assassination wrote, the hells of capitalism create the desperate, synthesis anarchism is a form of anarchist organization which tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives. Voline along with Molly Steimer, Fleshin, and others wrote a reply stating that to To maintain that anarchism is only a theory of classes is to limit it to a single viewpoint, Anarchism is more complex and pluralistic, like life itself. Its class element is above all its means of fighting for liberation, its character is its ethical aspect. Two texts made as responses to the Platform, each proposing a different organizational model, became the basis for what is known as the organisation of synthesis, or simply synthesism. Voline published in 1924 a paper calling for the anarchist synthesis and was also the author of the article in Sébastien Faures Encyclopedie Anarchiste on the same topic and these organizations were also inspired on synthesist principles. Anarchism without adjectives tends to imply as far as economics a coexistence of economic models from mutualism/individualist anarchism, french anarchist without adjectives Max Nettlau addressed the issue of the coexistence of different economic systems as follows, Let me imagine myself for a moment living in a free society. I should certainly have different occupations, manual and mental, requiring strength or skill, but might I not become tired of this, and wish for a spell of relative isolation, of Individualism. So I might turn to one of the possible forms of equal exchange Individualism. Perhaps people will do one thing when they are young and another thing when they grow older, I also think that at the beginning I should adopt Communism with friends and Individualism with strangers, and shape my future life according to experience. Anarchism, Communist or Individualist
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Anarchy
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Anarchy is the condition of a society, entity, group of people, or a single person that rejects hierarchy. The term originally meant leaderlessness, but in 1840, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon adopted the term in his treatise What Is Property, to refer to a new political philosophy, anarchism, which advocates stateless societies based on voluntary associations. In practical terms, anarchy can refer to the curtailment or abolition of traditional forms of government and it could also mean a nation or anywhere on earth that is inhabited, that has no system of government or central rule. The word anarchy comes from the ancient Greek ἀναρχία, which combines ἀ, not, without and ἀρχή, ruler, leader, thus, the term refers to a person or society without rulers or without leaders. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant treated anarchy in his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View as consisting of Law and Freedom without Force. Thus, for Kant, anarchy falls short of being a civil state because the law is only an empty recommendation if force is not included to make this law efficacious. For there to be such a state, force must be included while law and freedom are maintained, Kant identified four kinds of government, Law and freedom without force. Anarchism is a philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have been divided into the categories of social, some individualist anarchists are also socialists or communists while some anarcho-communists are also individualists or egoists. Anarchism as a movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Since the 1890s, the term libertarianism has been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States, right-libertarians are divided into minarchists and anarcho-capitalists or voluntarists. Outside the English-speaking world, libertarianism generally retains its association with left-wing anarchism, many of these societies can be considered to be anarchic in the sense that they explicitly reject the idea of centralized political authority. The egalitarianism typical of human hunter-gatherers is interesting when viewed in an evolutionary context, one of humanitys two closest primate relatives, the chimpanzee, is anything but egalitarian, forming hierarchies that are dominated by alpha males. In Society Against the State Pierre Clastres examines stateless societies where cultural practices and attitudes avert the development of hierarchy. He dismisses the notion that the state is the outcome of the evolution of human societies
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Anarchist Black Cross
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Black Flag was founded by Albert Meltzer and Stuart Christie in 1970, with the name of the periodical being drawn from the traditional anarchist symbol dating back to the 1880s. It has gone through several changes between magazine and newspaper, including a period in which it concentrated on investigative journalism. In more recent times, it has evolved into a periodical for the anarchist movement in the UK. The magazine was suspended as a going operation in 2006 while its future. A new edition came out in time for the London Anarchist Bookfair for 2007, featuring a new look, since 2008, Black Flag has remained a bi-annual 40 page magazine, publishing a May Day edition and one timed for the London Anarchist Bookfair. Alongside regular features from An Anarchist FAQ author Iain McKay, Freedom international editor Rob Ray, the magazine collective has good relations with the majority of Britains largest anarchist groups, having featured articles from members of the Solidarity Federation, No Border network and others. Historically, there have been other Black Flag periodicals published by anarchists, a French anarchist paper was published under the name Le Drapeau Noir from August 1883 for 17 issues before being suppressed by the French state. The Japanese anarchist group Black Youth League started publishing a journal named Kurohata in 1945, anarchism in the United Kingdom Black Cross Black Flag text archive online in the libcom. org library Official Website
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Antimilitarism
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Antimilitarism is a doctrine that opposes war, relying heavily on a critical theory of imperialism and was an explicit goal of the First and Second International. Cynthia Cockburn defines an anti-militarist movement as one opposed to military rule, pacifism is the belief that disputes between nations can and should be settled peacefully. It is the opposition to war and the use of violence as a means of settling disputes and it can include the refusal to participate in military action. Antimilitarism does not reject war in all circumstances, but rejects the belief or desire to maintain a large, similarities are seen between Sorel and the International Workingmens Association theorization of propaganda of the deed. The violence that conserves the law is equivalent to the states monopoly of legitimate violence. The violence that founds the law is the original violence necessary to the creation of a state, revolutionary violence is totally separated from the juridical sphere. Giorgio Agamben showed the theoretical link between the law and violence permitted Nazi-thinker Carl Schmitt to justify the state of exception as the characteristic of sovereignty, thus indefinite suspension of the law may only be blocked by breaking this link between violence and right. Henry David Thoreaus 1849 essay Civil Disobedience, originally titled Resistance to Civil Government and his refusal to pay taxes is justified as an act of protest against slavery and against the Mexican–American War, in accordance to the practice of civil disobedience. He writes in his essay that the individual is not with obligations to the majority of the State, instead the individual should break the law if the law is is of such a nature that it requires you to be the agent of injustice to another. Capitalism has often thought by antimilitarist literature to be a major cause of wars. The military-industrial complex has been accused of pushing for war in pursuit of economic or financial interests. The assassination of French socialist leader Jean Jaurès days before the proclamation of World War I resulted in massive participation in the coming war, after World War II, US President Eisenhowers 1961 issued a warning on the influence of the military-industrial complex. American right-wing antimilitarists draw heavily upon the statements of Thomas Jefferson and other Founding Fathers condemning standing armies, such an instrument is a standing army. To this end, there is overlap between the Militia movement and right-wing antimilitarists, although the two groups are not mutually inclusive. Such antimilitarist constitution was based on the belief that Japans military organizations were to blame for thrusting the country into World War II. These evidences include the Yoshida Doctrine, adopted after the World War II, however, the postwar constitution on which Japan’s antimilitarism is based has seen some proposed amendments, and article 9 has been renounced by the Liberal Democratic Party. Some new legislation allows Japan’s Self Defense Forces to act more like a conventional army and this legislation has been strongly opposed by Japanese opposition parties, especially the Japanese Communist Party, which is strongly pacifist. Until its dissolution, the Second International was antimilitarist, Jaurès assassination on July 31,1914, marks antimilitarisms failure in the socialist movement
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Black bloc
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A black bloc is a name given to groups of protesters who wear black clothing, scarves, sunglasses, ski masks, motorcycle helmets with padding, or other face-concealing and face-protecting items. The clothing is used to conceal marchers identities, and hinder criminal prosecution and it is also used to protect their faces and eyes from items such as pepper-spray which law enforcement often uses. The tactic allows the group to appear as one large unified mass, Black bloc participants are often associated with anarchism. The tactic was developed in the 1980s in the European autonomist movements protests against squatter evictions, nuclear power and restrictions on abortion, as well as other influences. This tactic was developed following increased use of force following the 1977 Brokdorf demonstration by the German police in 1980, particularly aimed at anti-nuclear activists. Key areas for development were Hafenstraße, Hamburg, and Kreuzberg. These were social spaces occupied by dissidents who preferred to create their own social institutions based on communal living, in June 1980, the German Police forcefully evicted the Free Republic of Wendland, an anti-nuclear protest camp in Gorleben, Wendland. This attack on 5,000 peaceful protesters led many former pacifists to become willing to use violent methods, by December 1980 the Berlin City Government organised an escalating cycle of mass arrests, followed by other local authorities across West Germany. The squatters resisted by opening new squats, as the old ones were evicted, following the mass arrest of squatters in Freiburg, demonstrations were held in their support in many German cities. The day was dubbed Black Friday following a demonstration in Berlin at which between 15,000 and 20,000 people took to the streets and destroyed an expensive shopping area. The tactic of wearing black clothes and masks meant that the autonomen were better able to resist the police. The German media labeled them der schwarze Block, in 1986 Hamburg squatters mobilised following attacks on the Hafenstraße. A demonstration of 10,000 took to the streets surrounding at least 1,500 people in a black bloc and they carried a large banner saying Build Revolutionary Dual Power. At the end of the march, the black bloc then engaged in fighting that forced the police to retreat. The next day 13 department stores in Hamburg were set alight, later that year, following the Chernobyl disaster, militant anti-nuclear activists used the tactic. On 1 May 1987, demonstrators in Berlin-Kreuzberg were confronted by West German police, after this, thousands of people attacked the police with rocks, bottles and Molotov cocktails. When Ronald Reagan came to Berlin in June 1987, he was met by around 50,000 demonstrators protesting against his Cold War policies and this included a black bloc of 3,000 people. In November 1987, the residents were joined by thousands of protesters and fortified their squat, built barricades in the streets
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Class conflict
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The view that the class struggle provides the lever for radical social change for the majority is central to the work of Karl Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. In the past the term Class conflict was a term used mostly by socialists, from this point of view, the social control of production and labor is a contest between classes, and the division of these resources necessarily involves conflict and inflicts harm. It can involve ongoing low-level clashes, escalate into massive confrontations, however, in more contemporary times this term is striking chords and finding new definition amongst capitalistic societies in the United States and other Westernized countries. This was only a potential, and class struggle was, he argued, not always the only or decisive factor in society, by contrast, Marxists argue that class conflict always plays the decisive and pivotal role in the history of class-based hierarchical systems such as capitalism and feudalism. Marxists refer to its overt manifestations as class war, a struggle whose resolution in favor of the class is viewed by them as inevitable under plutocratic capitalism. Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of production and distribution. It is well documented since at least European Classical Antiquity and the popular uprisings in late medieval Europe. One of the earliest analysis of these conflicts is Friedrich Engels The Peasant War in Germany, one of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkins Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter-gatherer societies, chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called Lets Get This Class War Started, which was a play on Pinks song Lets Get This Party Started. And I think that can go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle. The particular implementation of government programs which may seem purely humanitarian, such as disaster relief, in the USA class conflict is often noted in labor/management disputes. Although Thomas Jefferson led the United States as president from 1801–1809 and is considered one of the founding fathers, among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep and this is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention, do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN, Its class warfare, my class is winning, but they shouldnt be. In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that here’s class warfare all right, but it’s my class, the class, that’s making war. Later Warren gave away more than half of his fortune to charitable causes through a developed by himself
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Conscientious objector
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A conscientious objector is an individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, or religion. In general, conscientious objector status is considered only in the context of military conscription and is not applicable to military forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors are assigned to a civilian service as a substitute for conscription or military service. Some conscientious objectors consider themselves pacifist, non-interventionist, non-resistant, non-aggressionist and this was re-affirmed in 1998, when resolution 1998/77 recognized that persons performing military service may develop conscientious objections. A number of organizations around the world celebrate the principle on May 15 as International Conscientious Objectors Day, the term has also been extended to objecting to working for the military–industrial complex due to a crisis of conscience. Historically, many conscientious objectors have been executed, imprisoned, or otherwise penalized when their beliefs led to conflicting with their societys legal system or government. The legal definition and status of conscientious objection has varied over the years, Religious beliefs were a starting point in many nations for legally granting conscientious objector status. An early recognition of conscientious objection was granted by William the Silent to the Dutch Mennonites in 1575 and they could refuse military service in exchange for a monetary payment. Formal legislation to exempt objectors from fighting was first granted in mid-18th century Great Britain following problems with attempting to force Quakers into military service. In the United States, conscientious objection was permitted from the countrys founding, in 1948, the issue of the right to conscience was dealt with by the United Nations General Assembly in Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The proclamation was ratified during the General Assembly on 10 December 1948 by a vote of 48 in favour,0 against and it is The Right to Refuse to Kill. In 1976, the United Nations treaty the International Covenant on Civil and it was based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and was originally created in 1966. Nations that have signed this treaty are bound by it and its Article 18 begins, Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. Some states argue that such limitations would permit them to make conscientious objection during time of war a threat to public safety, even that it is a moral duty to serve the state in its military. In 2006, the Committee has found for the first time a right to conscientious objection under article 18, in 1998, the Human Rights Commission reiterated previous statements and added states should. Refrain from subjecting conscientious objectors. to repeated punishment for failure to perform military service, the Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees states,171. Not every conviction, genuine though it may be, will constitute a sufficient reason for claiming refugee status after desertion or draft-evasion and it is not enough for a person to be in disagreement with his government regarding the political justification for a particular military action. Air Commodore Lionel Charlton, of the British Royal Air Force, in 1923 he selectively refused to serve in the RAF Iraq Command
35.
Decentralization
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Decentralization is the process of redistributing or dispersing functions, powers, people or things away from a central location or authority. While centralization, especially in the sphere, is widely studied and practiced. The meaning of decentralization may vary in part because of the different ways it is applied, the word centralization came into use in France in 1794 as the post-French Revolution French Directory leadership created a new government structure. The word decentralization came into usage in the 1820s, centralization entered written English in the first third of the 1800s, mentions of decentralization also first appear during those years. In the mid-1800s Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that the French Revolution began with a push towards decentralization. in the end, pierre-Joseph Proudhon, influential anarchist theorist wrote, All my economic ideas as developed over twenty-five years can be summed up in the words, agricultural-industrial federation. All my political ideas boil down to a formula, political federation or decentralization. In early twentieth century America a response to the centralization of economic wealth and it blamed large-scale industrial production for destroying middle class shop keepers and small manufacturers and promoted increased property ownership and a return to small scale living. The decentralist movement attracted Southern Agrarians like Robert Penn Warren, as well as journalist Herbert Agar, hatfield, Mildred J. Loomis and Bill Kauffman. In the next few years a number of best-selling books promoted decentralization. ”Alvin Toffler published Future Shock, naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is from centralization to decentralization. In 1996 David Osborne and Ted Gaebler had a best selling book Reinventing Government proposing decentralist public administration theories which became labeled the New Public Management, stephen Cummings wrote that decentralization became a revolutionary megatrend in the 1980s. In 1983 Diana Conyers asked if decentralization was the latest fashion in development administration, Cornell Universitys project on Restructuring Local Government states that decentralization refers to the global trend of devolving responsibilities to regional or local governments. In 1983, Decentralization was identified as one of the Ten Key Values of the Green Movement in the United States, according to a 1999 United Nations Development Programme report, A large number of developing and transitional countries have embarked on some form of decentralization programmes. The movement toward local accountability and greater control over ones destiny is, however, not solely the result of the negative attitude towards central government. Rather, these developments, as we have noted, are principally being driven by a strong desire for greater participation of citizens and private sector organizations in governance. ”Those studying the goals and processes of implementing decentralization often use a systems theory approach. ”However. Norman Johnson of Los Alamos National Laboratory wrote in a 1999 paper, an important property of agent systems is the degree of connectivity or connectedness between the agents, a measure global flow of information or influence. If each agent is connected to all agents, then the system is highly connected. Instead each party, also called a peer, makes local autonomous decisions towards its goals which may possibly conflict with those of other peers. Peers directly interact with other and share information or provide service to other peers
36.
Deep ecology
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Deep ecology argues that the natural world is a subtle balance of complex inter-relationships in which the existence of organisms is dependent on the existence of others within ecosystems. Human interference with or destruction of the natural world poses a threat not only to humans. The movement does not subscribe to anthropocentric environmentalism since deep ecology is grounded in a different set of philosophical assumptions. Deep ecology takes a holistic view of the world human beings live in. Three of the most influential ecological spokespersons of the 1960s were Rachel Carson, David Brower, some consider the publication of Rachel Carsons book Silent Spring as the beginning of the contemporary, long-range deep ecology movement. Carsons writings were especially influential because they showed how human well-being depends on the condition of whole biotic communities. She explained in terms how living beings are interrelated within ecosystems. She explained how pesticides used to control mosquitoes and other led to declines in some bird populations. “Silent Spring” helped show how complex food webs and networks of biotic relationships function, since humans are at the top of many food chains, exposure to chemicals becomes more concentrated as these move up the chains. The chemicals also can be stored in tissues and gradually accumulate over time. Carson showed the need for changes in human practices and ways of living. The 1960s was a decade of social activism in the United States, Canada, Western Europe. Some activism focused on war and peace and the issue of nuclear weapons, a well-known early environmental organization started with a focus on nuclear tests and their environmental hazards. Some people in British Columbia, Canada, were opposed to the test of a weapon by the US government on Amchitka Island. They hired a vessel and sailed towards the nuclear test site in protest. This action led to the founding of Greenpeace, which became identified with environmental issues as time went by. These great movements were catalyzed by the now iconic images of the whole Earth floating in space taken during the return of the Apollo space missions from their journey to the moon. Proponents of deep ecology believe that the world does not exist as a resource to be exploited by humans
