1.
Substitute good
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In consumer theory, substitute goods or substitutes are products that a consumer perceives as similar or comparable, so that having more of one product makes them desire less of the other product. Formally, X and Y are substitutes if, when the price of X rises, there are different degrees of substitutability. For example, a car and a bicycle may substitute to some extent, if the price of fuel increases considerably. In economics, one way that two or more goods can be classified is by examining the relationship of the demand schedules when the price of one good changes and this relationship between demand schedules leads to classification of goods as either substitutes or complements. Substitute goods are goods which, as a result of changed conditions, a substitute good, in contrast to a complementary good, is a good with a positive cross elasticity of demand. This means a goods demand is increased when the price of good is increased. Conversely, the demand for a good is decreased when the price of good is decreased. If goods A and B are substitutes, an increase in the price of A will result in a movement along the demand curve of A. A decrease in the price of A will result in a movement along the demand curve of A. Examples of substitute goods include margarine and butter, tea and coffee, substitute goods not only occur on the consumer side of the market but also the producer side. Substitutable producer goods would include, petroleum and natural gas, the degree to which a good has a perfect substitute depends on how specifically the good is defined. Take for example, the demand for Rice Krispies cereal, which is a narrowly defined good as compared to the demand for cereal generally. An increase in price will result in an increase in demand for its substitute goods, if two goods have a high substitutability, the change in demand will be much greater. It is important to note that when speaking about substitute goods one is referring to two different kinds of goods, so the substitutability of one good for another is always a matter of degree. One good is a substitute for another only if it can be used in exactly the same way. In microeconomics, two types of substitutes are being distinguished, gross substitutes and net substitutes, substitutes differ with respect to their category membership. Within-category substitutes are goods that are members of the taxonomic category. Cross-category substitutes are goods that are members of different taxonomic categories, a person who cannot have the chocolate that she desires, for example, might instead buy ice cream to satisfy her goal to have a dessert
2.
Inferior good
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In economics, an inferior good is a good whose quantity demanded decreases when consumer income rises, unlike normal goods, for which the opposite is observed. Normal goods are those for which demand increases when their income increases. This would be the opposite of a good, one that is often associated with wealth. Inferiority, in sense, is an observable fact relating to affordability rather than a statement about the quality of the good. As a rule, these goods are affordable and adequately fulfill their purpose, but as more costly substitutes that offer more pleasure become available, the use of the inferior goods diminishes. Depending on consumer or market indifference curves, the amount of a good bought can either increase, decrease, there are many examples of inferior goods. Several economists have suggested that shopping at large discount chains such as Walmart, cheaper cars are examples of the inferior goods. Consumers will generally prefer cheaper cars when their income is constricted, as a consumers income increases the demand of the cheap cars will decrease, while demand of costly cars will increase, so cheap cars are inferior goods. Inter-city bus service is also an example of an inferior good and this form of transportation is cheaper than air or rail travel, but is more time-consuming. When money is constricted, traveling by bus becomes more acceptable, in some countries with less developed or poorly maintained railways, for example Serbia, this is reversed, trains are slower and cheaper than buses, so rail travel is an inferior good. Certain financial services, including lending, are inferior goods. Such financial services are marketed to persons with low incomes. People with middle or higher incomes can typically use credit cards that have better terms of payment or bank loans for higher volumes, inexpensive foods like instant noodles, bologna, hamburger, mass-market beer, frozen dinners, and canned goods are additional examples of inferior goods. As incomes rise, one tends to more expensive, appealing. Likewise, goods and services used by people for which richer people have alternatives exemplify inferior goods. As a rule, used and obsolete goods marketed to persons of low income as closeouts are inferior goods at the even if they had earlier been normal goods or even luxury goods. Others are very inconsistent across geographic regions or cultures, the potato, for example, generally conforms to the demand function of an inferior good in the Andean region where the crop originated. People of higher incomes and/or those who have migrated to coastal areas are likely to prefer other staples such as rice or wheat products as they can afford them
3.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
4.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
5.
Noun
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A noun is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas. Linguistically, a noun is a member of a large, open part of whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause. Lexical categories are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other kinds of expressions, the syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language. In English, nouns are words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives. Word classes were described by Sanskrit grammarians from at least the 5th century BC, in Yāskas Nirukta, the noun is one of the four main categories of words defined. The Ancient Greek equivalent was ónoma, referred to by Plato in the Cratylus dialog, the term used in Latin grammar was nōmen. All of these terms for noun were also words meaning name, the English word noun is derived from the Latin term, through the Anglo-Norman noun. The word classes were defined partly by the forms that they take. In Sanskrit, Greek and Latin, for example, nouns are categorized by gender and inflected for case, because adjectives share these three grammatical categories, adjectives are placed in the same class as nouns. Similarly, the Latin nōmen includes both nouns and adjectives, as originally did the English word noun, the two types being distinguished as nouns substantive and nouns adjective, many European languages use a cognate of the word substantive as the basic term for noun. Nouns in the dictionaries of languages are demarked by the abbreviation s. or sb. instead of n. which may be used for proper nouns or neuter nouns instead. In English, some authors use the word substantive to refer to a class that includes both nouns and noun phrases. It can also be used as a counterpart to attributive when distinguishing between a noun being used as the head of a phrase and a noun being used as a noun adjunct. For example, the knee can be said to be used substantively in my knee hurts. Nouns have sometimes been defined in terms of the categories to which they are subject. Such definitions tend to be language-specific, since nouns do not have the categories in all languages. Nouns are frequently defined, particularly in contexts, in terms of their semantic properties. Nouns are described as words that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, however this type of definition has been criticized by contemporary linguists as being uninformative
6.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
7.
Ersatz Corps
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The Ersatz Corps was a corps level command of the German Army that existed briefly at the beginning of World War I. The Ersatz Corps was formed on 18 August 1914 under the command of 6th Army to control the Ersatz divisions of that army, General der Infanterie Ludwig von Falkenhausen was brought out of retirement to take command during its brief existence. Ersatz divisions were formed on mobilisation from replacement units of active regiments, each brigade replacement battalion was numbered after its parent infantry brigade, and was formed with two companies taken from each of the brigades replacement battalions. Cavalry Ersatz Abteilungen and Field Artillery Ersatz Abteilungen were likewise formed from active cavalry, the Staff of the Ersatz Corps and its commander took command of the Armee-Abteilung and the Ersatz Corps ceased to exist. German Army order of battle Cron, Hermann, imperial German Army 1914-18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle. Formationsgeschichte der Deutschen Infanterie im Ersten Weltkrieg, the London Stamp Exchange Ltd.1920. The German Forces in the Field, 7th Revision, 11th November 1918, Compiled by the General Staff, imperial War Museum, London and The Battery Press, Inc.1918
8.
Chemical compound
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A chemical compound is an entity consisting of two or more atoms, at least two from different elements, which associate via chemical bonds. Many chemical compounds have a numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service. For example, water is composed of two atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, the chemical formula is H2O. A compound can be converted to a different chemical composition by interaction with a chemical compound via a chemical reaction. In this process, bonds between atoms are broken in both of the compounds, and then bonds are reformed so that new associations are made between atoms. Schematically, this reaction could be described as AB + CD → AC + BD, where A, B, C, and D are each unique atoms, and AB, CD, AC, and BD are each unique compounds. A chemical element bonded to a chemical element is not a chemical compound since only one element. Examples are the diatomic hydrogen and the polyatomic molecule sulfur. Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure held together in a spatial arrangement by chemical bonds. Pure chemical elements are not considered chemical compounds, failing the two or more atom requirement, though they often consist of molecules composed of multiple atoms. There is varying and sometimes inconsistent nomenclature differentiating substances, which include truly non-stoichiometric examples, from chemical compounds, other compounds regarded as chemically identical may have varying amounts of heavy or light isotopes of the constituent elements, which changes the ratio of elements by mass slightly. Characteristic properties of compounds include that elements in a compound are present in a definite proportion, for example, the molecule of the compound water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 2,1. In addition, compounds have a set of properties. The physical and chemical properties of compounds differ from those of their constituent elements, however, mixtures can be created by mechanical means alone, but a compound can be created only by a chemical reaction. Some mixtures are so combined that they have some properties similar to compounds. Other examples of compound-like mixtures include intermetallic compounds and solutions of metals in a liquid form of ammonia. Compounds may be described using formulas in various formats, for compounds that exist as molecules, the formula for the molecular unit is shown. For polymeric materials, such as minerals and many metal oxides, the elements in a chemical formula are normally listed in a specific order, called the Hill system
9.
Synthetic rubber
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A synthetic rubber is any artificial elastomer. These are mainly polymers synthesised from petroleum byproducts, about 15 billion kilograms of rubbers are produced annually, and of that amount two thirds are synthetic. Global revenues generated with synthetic rubbers are likely to rise to approximately US$56 billion in 2020, synthetic rubber, like natural rubber, has uses in the automotive industry for tires, door and window profiles, hoses, belts, matting, and flooring. The expanded use of vehicles, and particularly motor vehicle tires, starting in the 1890s. In 1909, a team headed by Fritz Hofmann, working at the Bayer laboratory in Elberfeld, Germany, succeeded in polymerizing Isoprene, the first rubber polymer synthesized from butadiene was created in 1910 by the Russian scientist Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev. This form of synthetic rubber provided the basis for the first large-scale commercial production by the tsarist empire and this early form of synthetic rubber was again replaced with natural rubber after the war ended, but investigations of synthetic rubber continued. Russian American Ivan Ostromislensky who moved to New York in 1922 did significant early research on synthetic rubber, political problems that resulted from great fluctuations in the cost of natural rubber led to the enactment of the Stevenson Act in 1921. By 1925 the price of rubber had increased to the point that many companies were exploring methods of producing synthetic rubber to compete with natural rubber. K. Neoprene is highly resistant to heat and chemicals such as oil and gasoline, the company Thiokol applied their name to a competing type of rubber based on ethylene dichloride which was commercially available in 1930. The first rubber plant in Europe SK-1 was established by Sergei Lebedev in Yaroslavl under Joseph Stalins First Five-Year Plan on July 7,1932, in 1935, German chemists synthesized the first of a series of synthetic rubbers known as Buna rubbers. These were copolymers, meaning the polymers were made up from two monomers in alternating sequence, other brands included Koroseal, which Waldo Semon developed in 1935, and Sovprene, which Russian researchers created in 1940. B. F. Goodrich Company scientist Waldo Semon developed a new, Ameripol made synthetic rubber production much more cost effective, helping to meet the United States needs during World War II. The production of rubber in the United States expanded greatly during World War II. Military trucks needed rubber for tires, and rubber was used in almost every other war machine, the U. S. government launched a major effort to improve synthetic rubber production. A large team of chemists from many institutions were involved, including Calvin Souther Fuller of Bell Labs, the rubber designated GRS, a copolymer of butadiene and styrene, was the basis for U. S. synthetic rubber production during World War II. By 1944, a total of 50 factories were manufacturing it and it still represents about half of total world production. The Ferrara, Italy, synthetic rubber factory was bombed August 23,1944, three other synthetic rubber facilities were at Ludwigshafen/Oppau, Hanover/Limmer, and Leverkusen. A synthetic rubber plant at Oświęcim in Nazi-occupied Poland, was construction on March 5,1944
10.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
11.
Benzene
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Benzene is an important organic chemical compound with the chemical formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms joined in a ring with 1 hydrogen atom attached to each, because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon. Benzene is a constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals. Because of the cyclic continuous pi bond between the atoms, benzene is classed as an aromatic hydrocarbon, the second -annulene. Benzene is a colorless and highly flammable liquid with a sweet smell and it is used primarily as a precursor to the manufacture of chemicals with more complex structure, such as ethylbenzene and cumene, of which billions of kilograms are produced. Because benzene has a high number, it is an important component of gasoline. Because benzene is a carcinogen, most non-industrial applications have been limited. The word benzene derives historically from gum benzoin, a resin known to European pharmacists. An acidic material was derived from benzoin by sublimation, and named flowers of benzoin, the hydrocarbon derived from benzoic acid thus acquired the name benzin, benzol, or benzene. Michael Faraday first isolated and identified benzene in 1825 from the oily residue derived from the production of illuminating gas, in 1833, Eilhard Mitscherlich produced it by distilling benzoic acid and lime. He gave the compound the name benzin, in 1845, Charles Mansfield, working under August Wilhelm von Hofmann, isolated benzene from coal tar. Four years later, Mansfield began the first industrial-scale production of benzene, gradually, the sense developed among chemists that a number of substances were chemically related to benzene, comprising a diverse chemical family. In 1855, Hofmann used the word aromatic to designate this family relationship, in 1997, benzene was detected in deep space. The empirical formula for benzene was known, but its highly polyunsaturated structure. In 1865, the German chemist Friedrich August Kekulé published a paper in French suggesting that the structure contained a ring of six carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds, the next year he published a much longer paper in German on the same subject. Kekulés symmetrical ring could explain these facts, as well as benzenes 1,1 carbon-hydrogen ratio. Here Kekulé spoke of the creation of the theory and he said that he had discovered the ring shape of the benzene molecule after having a reverie or day-dream of a snake seizing its own tail. This vision, he said, came to him years of studying the nature of carbon-carbon bonds
12.
Tea
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Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world, Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th century, during the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass the Chinese monopoly. The term herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile and these are sometimes called tisanes or herbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant. The tea industry often uses the term fruit tea to refer to what are in fact fruit-flavored black teas. The Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with a stroke as 荼. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, there were other ancient words for tea, though ming is the only other one still in common use. Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha and these two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. Starting in the seventeen century, the Dutch played a dominant role in the early European tea trade via the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch borrowed the word for tea from Min Chinese, either through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa where they had established a port, or from Malay traders in Bantam, Java. The Dutch then introduced to other European languages this Min pronunciation for tea, including English tea, French thé, Spanish té and this pronunciation is also the most common form worldwide. The Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation chá, and spread it to India, the Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history. A third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay, both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. English has all three forms, cha or char, attested from the 16th century, tea, from the 17th, however, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English. Tea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the points of the lands of north Burma. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China. The earliest written records of tea come from China, in the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king
13.
Raspberry
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The raspberry is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus Rubus of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus, the name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial woody stems. Raspberry derives its name from raspise, a sweet rose-colored wine, from the Anglo-Latin, vinum raspeys, or from raspoie, meaning thicket, the name may have been influenced by its appearance as having a rough surface related to Old English rasp or rough berry. Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender and these canes are then dug, roots and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain, where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants are typically planted 2-6 per m in fertile, well drained soil, raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges, the flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators. Raspberries are very vigorous and can be locally invasive and they propagate using basal shoots, extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant, for this reason, raspberries spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked. Raspberries are often propagated using cuttings, and will root readily in moist soil conditions, the fruit is harvested when it comes off the receptacle easily and has turned a deep color. This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest, excess fruit can be made into raspberry jam or frozen. High tunnel bramble production offers the opportunity to bridge gaps in availability during late fall, furthermore, high tunnels allow less hardy floricane-fruiting raspberries to overwinter in climates where they wouldnt otherwise survive. In the tunnel plants are established at close spacing usually prior to tunnel construction, raspberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world. Many of the most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus. Some botanists consider the Eurasian and American red raspberries to belong to a single, circumboreal species, Rubus idaeus, idaeus or R. idaeus var. idaeus, and the native North American red raspberries classified as either R. idaeus subsp. Strigosus, or R. idaeus var. strigosus, recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking. The black raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, is cultivated, providing both fresh and frozen fruit, as well as jams, preserves, and other products. Commercial production of purple-fruited raspberries is rare, blue raspberry is a local name used in Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada for the cultivar Columbian, a hybrid of R. strigosus and R. occidentalis. Both the red and the black raspberry species have albino-like pale-yellow natural or horticultural variants, fruits from such plants are called golden raspberries or yellow raspberries, despite their similar appearance, they retain the distinctive flavor of their respective species. Most pale-fruited raspberries commercially sold in the eastern United States are derivatives of red raspberries, yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry are sometimes grown in home gardens
14.
Catnip
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It is also widely naturalized in northern Europe, New Zealand, and North America. The common name catmint can also refer to the genus as a whole, the names catnip and catmint are derived from the intense attraction most cats have towards them. Nepeta cataria is a herbaceous perennial, growing 50–100 cm tall. It resembles a typical mint family member in appearance by having the characteristic square stem that members of the Lamiaceae plant family have, the coarse-toothed leaves are triangular to ovate. The small bilabiate flowers can be white and finely spotted with purple or pink. The plant blooms from spring through autumn. Nepeta cataria was one of the species described by Linnaeus in 1753 in his landmark work Species Plantarum. He had previously described it in 1738 as Nepeta floribus interrupte spicatis pedunculatis, the plant terpenoid nepetalactone is the main chemical constituent of the essential oil of Nepeta cataria. Nepetalactone can be extracted from catnip by steam distillation, Nepeta cataria is cultivated as an ornamental plant for use in gardens. It is also grown for its attractant qualities to house cats, the plant is drought-tolerant and deer-resistant. It can be a repellent for insects, including aphids. Catnip is best grown in sunlight and grows as a loosely branching. Varieties include Nepeta cataria var. citriodora, or lemon catnip, the compound iridodial, extracted from catnip oil, has been found to attract lacewings which eat aphids and mites. Nepetalactone is a mosquito and fly repellent, oil isolated from catnip by steam distillation is a repellent against insects, in particular mosquitoes, cockroaches and termites. Research suggests that, while ten times more effective than DEET, Nepeta cataria can be brewed to produce an herbal tea. It is also used as a herb for many dishes. Catnip can also be ingested through smoking the herb and it has only a negligible effect on relaxation, like other herbal cigarettes. Catnip has a history of use for a variety of ailments
15.
Bean
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Bean is a common name for large seeds of several genera of the flowering plant family Fabaceae which are used for human or animal food. The word bean and its Germanic cognates have existed in common use in West Germanic languages since before the 12th century, referring to broad beans and this was long before the New World genus Phaseolus was known in Europe. After Columbian-era contact between Europe and the Americas, use of the word was extended to pod-borne seeds of Phaseolus, such as the bean and the runner bean. Thus the term bean in general usage can mean a host of different species, seeds called beans are often included among the crops called pulses, although a narrower prescribed sense of pulses reserves the word for leguminous crops harvested for their dry grain. The term bean usually excludes legumes with tiny seeds and which are used exclusively for forage, hay, one is that in the past, several species, including Vigna angularis, mungo, radiata, and aconitifolia, were classified as Phaseolus and later reclassified. Unlike the closely related pea, beans are a crop that need warm temperatures to grow. Maturity is typically 55–60 days from planting to harvest, as the bean pods mature, they turn yellow and dry up, and the beans inside change from green to their mature colour. As a vine, bean plants need external support, which may be provided in the form of special bean cages or poles, native Americans customarily grew them along with corn and squash, with the tall cornstalks acting as support for the beans. In more recent times, the bush bean has been developed which does not require support and has all its pods develop simultaneously. This makes the bean more practical for commercial production. Beans are one of the longest-cultivated plants, broad beans, also called fava beans, in their wild state the size of a small fingernail, were gathered in Afghanistan and the Himalayan foothills. In a form improved from naturally occurring types, they were grown in Thailand since the seventh millennium BCE. They were deposited with the dead in ancient Egypt, not until the second millennium BCE did cultivated, large-seeded broad beans appear in the Aegean, Iberia and transalpine Europe. In the Iliad is a mention of beans and chickpeas cast on the threshing floor. Beans were an important source of protein throughout Old and New World history, the oldest-known domesticated beans in the Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave, an archaeological site in Peru, and dated to around the second millennium BCE. The corn would not be planted in rows as is done by European agriculture, Beans would be planted around the base of the developing stalks, and would vine their way up as the stalks grew. All American beans at that time were vine plants, bush beans having been bred only more recently, the cornstalks would work as a trellis for the beans, and the beans would provide much-needed nitrogen for the corn. Squash would be planted in the spaces between the patches of corn in the field, dry beans come from both Old World varieties of broad beans and New World varieties
16.
Imperial German Navy
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The Imperial German Navy was the navy created at the time of the formation of the German Empire. It existed between 1871 and 1919, growing out of the small Prussian Navy, which primarily had the mission of coastal defence, Kaiser Wilhelm II greatly expanded the navy, and enlarged its mission. The key leader was Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, who expanded the size and quality of the navy. The result was an arms race with Britain as the German navy grew to become one of the greatest maritime forces in the world. The German surface navy proved ineffective during World War I, its only major engagement, however, the submarine fleet was greatly expanded and posed a major threat to the British supply system. The Imperial Navys main ships were turned over to the Allies, all ships of the Imperial Navy were designated SMS, for Seiner Majestät Schiff. The Imperial Navy achieved some important operational feats, the Navy also emerged from the fleet action of the Battle of Jutland having destroyed more ships than it lost, although the strategic value of both of these encounters was minimal. The Imperial Navy was the first to operate successfully on a large scale in wartime, with 375 submarines commissioned by the end of the First World War. The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership was the point for the creation of the Imperial Navy in 1871. The newly created emperor, Wilhelm I, as King of Prussia, had previously been head of state of the strongest state forming part of the new empire, supreme command was vested in the emperor, but its first appointed chief was General der Infanterie Albrecht von Stosch. Kiel on the Baltic Sea and Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea served as the Navys principal naval bases, the former Navy Ministry became the Imperial Admiralty on 1 February 1872, while Stosch became formally an admiral in 1875. Initially the main task of the new Imperial Navy was coastal protection, with France, the Imperial Navys tasks were then to prevent any invasion force from landing and to protect coastal towns from possible bombardment. In March 1872 a German Imperial Naval Academy was created at Kiel for training officers, followed in May by the creation of a Machine Engineer Corps, in July 1879 a separate Torpedo Engineer Corps was created dealing with torpedoes and mines. In May 1872 a ten-year building programme was instituted to modernise the fleet, the building plan had to be approved by the Reichstag, which controlled the allocation of funds, although one-quarter of the money came from French war reparations. In 1883 Stosch was replaced by general, Count Leo von Caprivi. At this point the navy had seven armoured frigates and four armoured corvettes,400 officers and 5,000 ratings, in October 1887 the first torpedo division was created at Wilhelmshaven and the second torpedo division based at Kiel. In 1887 Caprivi requested the construction of ten armoured frigates, greater importance was placed at this time on development of the army, which was expected to be more important in any war. This shortened the journey for commercial ships, but specifically united the two areas principally of concern to the German navy, at a cost of 150 million marks, later, the protection of German maritime trade routes became important
17.
Mackensen-class battlecruiser
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The Mackensen class was the last class of battlecruisers to be built by Germany in World War I. The design initially called for seven ships, but three of them were redesigned as the Ersatz Yorck class, the lead ship of the class was named for August von Mackensen, a prominent military commander during the war. The design of the Mackensens was an improved version of the previous Derfflinger class. The most significant improvement was a new, more powerful 35 cm gun, the Mackensen-class ships also featured more powerful engines that gave the ships a higher top speed and a significantly greater cruising range. The Mackensen design provided the basis for the subsequent Ersatz Yorck class, armed with 38 cm main-battery guns, the fourth and final Naval Law, passed in 1912, governed the building program of the German navy during World War I. The Imperial Naval Office decided the Navy should construct one battleship, design work on the new class began in 1912, with construction intended to begin in the 1914 budget year. The 35 cm guns were of course heavier than the 30.5 cm guns, but there were problems with enlarging the new ships to accommodate the heavier armament. The Imperial dry docks were deep enough only for ships with a draft of 9 m and this meant that an increase in displacement would necessitate a longer and wider hull to keep any increases in draft minimal and avoid reducing the speed. The constraints on enlarging the hull were compounded by restrictions on width imposed by the locks of the canal in Wilhelmshaven, as a result, Großadmiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the head of the RMA, prohibited a design displacement greater than 30,000 metric tons. The design staff suggested using triple or even quadruple gun turrets to keep the displacement under the 30, as a compromise, the new battlecruisers were to be armed with eight 35 cm guns. The question of whether the new ships should be powered entirely by oil-fired boilers was less controversial, the design staff was generally in agreement with the standard practice of using coal-fired boilers for two-thirds of the power plant, with the remainder being oil-fired boilers. The finalized design was approved on 23 May 1914, the Mackensen-class ships were 223 m long and had a beam of 30.4 m and a draft of 9.3 m forward and 8.4 m aft. The ships were designed to displace 31,000 t on a standard load, the Mackensens hulls were composed of longitudinal steel frames, over which the outer hull plates were riveted. The ships hulls contained 18 watertight compartments and a bottom that ran for 92 percent of the length of the hull. This was significantly greater than the older Derfflinger-class ships, which had a double bottom for only 65 percent of the length of the hull, experience with previous battlecruiser designs led to the adoption of a continuous upper deck, which raised the level of the deck aft. This was necessary because the aft decks of earlier designs were usually awash when steaming at high speed, the ships were also equipped with a bulbous bow to reduce drag on the hull, the first time the feature was used in the German Navy. The ships as designed required a crew of 46 officers and 1,140 enlisted sailors, service as a squadron flagship would increase that number by an additional 14 officers and 62 sailors. The vessels carried a number of boats, including two picket boats, one barge, two launches, two cutters, and three yawls
18.
Ersatz Yorck-class battlecruiser
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The Ersatz Yorck class was a group of three battlecruisers ordered for the Imperial German Navy in April 1915. The name derived from the fact that the ship was intended as a replacement for the armored cruiser Yorck. They were an enlarged version of the Mackensen-class battlecruiser, armed with 38 cm guns as opposed to the 35 cm weapons on the preceding design. The boilers would have been trunked into a single massive funnel, the three ships were originally ordered as part of the Mackensen class but the design was changed when details of the British Admiral-class battlecruisers became known to German intelligence. The vessels were ordered under the provisional names Ersatz Yorck, Ersatz Gneisenau, as with the Mackensens, the three ships of the Ersatz Yorck class were never completed. This was primarily due to shifting wartime construction priorities, U-boats were deemed important to Germanys war effort. The lead ship, Ersatz Yorck, was the vessel of the three to have construction begin, though she was over two years from completion by the time work was abandoned. With the hull incomplete, the ship could not be launched and towed to ship-breakers, as a result, the Ersatz Yorck-class ships were an enlargement of the previous Mackensen-class ships. They were 227.80 m long, compared to 223 m on the earlier vessels, Ersatz Yorck had the same beam as the earlier vessels, at 30.40 m, and the same draft of 9.30 m. The ships were planned to displace 33,500 tonnes at standard weight and this was approximately 2,500 t heavier than the Mackensens. The Ersatz Yorck-class ships hulls were to have been constructed with steel frames with the outer plating riveted on.20 m in diameter. The turbines were supplied with steam by 24 coal-fired Schulz-Thornycroft single ended boilers and 8 oil-fired Schulz-Thornycroft double ended boilers, Ersatz Yorck and Ersatz Gneisenau were intended to use Föttinger fluid transmission for their turbines, while Ersatz Scharnhorsts turbines retained direct coupled geared transmissions. The ships were to have power provided by diesel generators. The Ersatz Yorcks were intended to mount a pair of twin rudders alongside each other for steering, the power plant was rated 90,000 shaft horsepower and 295 revolutions per minute, the same as the preceding Mackensen-class ships. Their slightly greater size reduced their speed somewhat, from 28 knots in the Mackensen-class ships to 27.3 knots for the new vessels, the ships were designed to store 850 t of coal and 250 t of oil in purpose-designed fuel bunkers. However, the areas of the hull between the bulkhead and the outer wall of the ship were also used for fuel storage. This additional space provided a total of 4,000 t of coal and 2,000 t of oil. With fuel stores topped off, the ships were estimated to have been able to steam for 5,500 nautical miles at a speed of 14 kn
19.
Armored cruiser
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The armored cruiser was a type of warship of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Varying in size, it was distinguished from other types of cruiser by its belt armor—thick iron plating on much of the hull to protect the ship from shellfire much like that on battleships. The first armored cruiser, the Imperial Russian Navys General-Admiral, was launched in 1873 and combined sail, by the 1890s cruisers had abandoned sail and took on a modern appearance. The invention of face-hardened armor in the mid-1890s offered effective protection with less weight than previously, at around the same time, the term light cruiser came into use for small cruisers with armored belts. Despite the fact they were now considered second-class ships, armored cruisers were used in World War I. A handful survived in one form or another until World War II, the armored cruiser was developed in the 1870s as an attempt to combine the virtues of the armored ironclad warship and the fast and long-ranged, but unarmored, cruisers of the time. Such a ship was desirable to protect trade and, especially for the French and British. Concern over obsolescence in official circles was fueled by the race between the increasing size of naval guns and of armor strong enough to withstand such fire. In 1860, one of the largest naval cannons in use had a bore of 8 inches. By 1884, guns with as wide a bore as 16.25 inches, firing an 1 and this gun could penetrate up to 34 inches of wrought iron, the earliest form of naval armor. These were muzzle-loading guns, as had been used on ships from the 1500s, breech-loading cannon, which were readopted into naval use in the 1870s, were more destructive than muzzle loaders due to their higher rate of fire. The development of rifled cannon, which improved accuracy, and advancements in shells were other factors, the adoption of rolled iron armor in 1865 and sandwich armor in 1870 gave ships a chance to withstand fire from larger guns. Both these protective schemes used wood as an important component, which made them heavy and limited speed. Powered by both sail and steam but without the weight of armor, these ships could reach speeds of up to 16 or 17 knots. The most powerful among them were the British Inconstant, the U. S. Navys Wampanoag, the British especially had hoped to rely on these vessels to serve the more distant reaches of its empire. Ship propulsion was improving but was taking time to develop. Naval engines in the 1860s were single-expansion types, in which steam was expanded into a cylinder, with greater efficiency came increasingly complex machinery and the larger potential for breakdown. By the 1870s, compound engines had become standard for warships, compounding by itself did not increase power or speed significantly, although it allowed for a much greater operating range
20.
SMS Yorck
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SMS Yorck was the second and final ship of the Roon class of armored cruisers built for the German Imperial Navy. Yorck was named for Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg, a Prussian field marshal and she was laid down in 1903 at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg, and finished in November 1905, at the cost of 16,241,000 marks. She displaced up to 9,875 metric tons and was armed with a battery of four 21 cm guns. Her top speed was 20.4 knots, the ship had a short career, she served with the fleet for the first seven years, after which she was decommissioned and placed in reserve. After the outbreak of World War I, she was reactivated and returned to front-line service, after returning from the raid on Yarmouth on 3–4 November 1914, the ship made a navigational error in heavy fog and accidentally sailed into a German defensive minefield. The ship sank quickly with heavy loss of life, though sources disagree on the number of fatalities. Her commander was court-martialled and imprisoned for disobedience and negligent homicide, Yorck was broken up incrementally, with work occurring in 1929–30,1965, and finally completed in 1982. Yorck was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Deutschland and built at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg under construction number 167 and her keel was laid in 1902 and she was launched on 14 May 1904. Fitting-out work was completed by 21 November 1905, being commissioned into the Imperial German Navy the same day and she had cost the Imperial German Government 16,241,000 Goldmarks. Yorck displaced 9,087 t as built and 9,875 t fully loaded, with a length of 126.50 m, a beam of 19.60 m and a draft of 7.43 m forward. She was powered by three vertical triple expansion engines, which developed a total of 17,272 indicated horsepower and yielded a maximum speed of 20.4 knots on trials. She carried up to 1,630 t of coal, which enabled a range of up to 5,080 nautical miles at a cruising speed of 12 knots. She was armed with four 21 cm guns arranged in two gun turrets, one on either end of the superstructure. Yorck was launched on 14 May 1904, and commissioned into the German navy on 21 November 1905, at the commissioning Field Marshal Wilhelm von Hahnke spoke, saying, old wisdom, si vis pacem, para bellum—he who wants peace shall be prepared for war. After her commissioning, Yorck served with the fleet in the cruiser squadron, in 1908–1909, Erich Raeder served aboard the ship as Yorcks navigation officer. From 1 October 1911 to 26 January 1912, Franz von Hipper, later commander-in-chief of the German navy, in early March 1913, the fleet conducted maneuvers off the island of Helgoland in the North Sea. Early on 4 March, the destroyer S178 fell out of formation in heavy seas, the destroyer was caught by a large wave and thrown into Yorck, which cut S178 in half. Out of a crew of 83 men, only 13 were pulled from the stormy sea, Yorck was decommissioned and laid up in the reserve fleet in May 1913 with most of her crew transferring to the newly completed battlecruiser Seydlitz
21.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
Potato starch
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Potato starch is starch extracted from potatoes. The cells of the tubers of the potato plant contain starch grains. To extract the starch, the potatoes are crushed, the grains are released from the destroyed cells. The starch is then washed out and dried to powder, Potato starch contains typical large oval spherical granules, their size ranges between 5 and 100 μm. Potato starch is a very refined starch, containing minimal protein or fat and these typical properties are used in food and technical applications. In pastry, e. g. sponge cake, it is used to keep the cake moist and it is also occasionally used in the preparation of pre-packed grated cheese, to reduce sweating and binding. Other examples are helmipuuro, a made from monodisperse grains of potato starch and milk. It is also used in applications as wallpaper adhesive, for textile finishing and textile sizing, in paper coating and sizing. Potato starch was used in one of the earlier color photography processes. Many types of potatoes are grown, for the production of potato starch, potato varieties with high starch content, recently, a new type of potato plant was developed that only contains one type of starch molecule, amylopectin, the waxy potato starch. Waxy starches, after starch gelatinisation, retrograde less during storage, some potato starch is also produced as a byproduct from the potato processing industry, recovered from the potato cutting circuit during the production of French fries and potato chips. Starch granules exhibit characteristic dark crosses in polarized light, if potato starch is wetted, it will turn sticky. Corn starch Katakuri Potato starch production Potato flour Memorandum on potato starch, International Starch Institute Potato starch gelatinization film, Youtube
23.
Prisoners of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
24.
Eastern Front (World War II)
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The battles on the Eastern Front constituted the largest military confrontation in history. They were characterized by unprecedented ferocity, wholesale destruction, mass deportations, and immense loss of life due to combat, starvation, exposure, disease, and massacres. The Eastern Front, as the site of nearly all extermination camps, death marches, ghettos, of the estimated 70 million deaths attributed to World War II, over 30 million, many of them civilian, occurred on the Eastern Front. The Eastern Front was decisive in determining the outcome of the European portion of World War II and it resulted in the destruction of the Third Reich, the partition of Germany for nearly half a century and the rise of the Soviet Union as a military and industrial superpower. The two principal belligerent powers were Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, along with their respective allies. Though never engaged in action in the Eastern Front, the United Kingdom. The joint German–Finnish operations across the northernmost Finnish–Soviet border and in the Murmansk region are considered part of the Eastern Front, in addition, the Soviet–Finnish Continuation War may also be considered the northern flank of the Eastern Front. Despite their ideological antipathy, both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union shared a dislike for the outcome of World War I. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact signed in August 1939 was an agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. It contained a secret protocol aiming to return Central Europe to the pre–World War I status quo by dividing it between Germany and the Soviet Union, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania would return to Soviet control, while Poland and Romania would be divided. I need the Ukraine so that they cant starve us out, the two powers invaded and partitioned Poland in 1939. The annexations were never recognized by most Western states, the annexed Romanian territory was divided between the Ukrainian and Moldavian Soviet republics. Adolf Hitler had argued in his autobiography Mein Kampf for the necessity of Lebensraum, acquiring new territory for Germans in Eastern Europe, Wehrmacht officers told their troops to target people who were described as Jewish Bolshevik subhumans, the Mongol hordes, the Asiatic flood and the red beast. The vast majority of German soldiers viewed the war in Nazi terms, Hitler referred to the war in unique terms, calling it a war of annihilation which was both an ideological and racial war. In addition, the Nazis also sought to wipe out the large Jewish population of Central, after Germanys initial success at the Battle of Kiev in 1941, Hitler saw the Soviet Union as militarily weak and ripe for immediate conquest. On 3 October 1941, he announced, We have only to kick in the door, thus, Germany expected another short Blitzkrieg and made no serious preparations for prolonged warfare. Throughout the 1930s the Soviet Union underwent massive industrialization and economic growth under the leadership of Joseph Stalin, Stalins central tenet, Socialism in one country, manifested itself as a series of nationwide centralized Five-Year Plans from 1929 onwards. It served as a testing ground for both the Wehrmacht and the Red Army to experiment with equipment and tactics that they would later employ on a wider scale in the Second World War
25.
Nazi
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National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
26.
Slavic languages
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The Slavic languages are the Indo-European languages native to the Slavic peoples, originally from Eastern Europe. The Slavic languages are divided intro three subgroups, East, West, and South, which constitute more than twenty languages. Furthermore, the diasporas of many Slavic peoples have established isolated minorities of speakers of their languages all over the world, the number of speakers of all Slavic languages together is estimated to be 315 million. The Old Novgorod dialect may have reflected some idiosyncrasies of this group, mutual intelligibility also plays a role in determining the West, East, and South branches. Speakers of languages within the branch will in most cases be able to understand each other at least partially. The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take account the spoken dialects of each language. For example, Slovak and Ukrainian are bridged by the Rusyn of Eastern Slovakia, similarly, Polish shares transitional features with both western Ukrainian and Belarusian dialects. The Croatian Kajkavian dialect is similar to Slovene than to the standard Croatian language. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a degree, as those of Russian, or to a much greater degree. The secession of the Balto-Slavic dialect ancestral to Proto-Slavic is estimated on archaeological and glottochronological criteria to have occurred sometime in the period 1500–1000 BCE, the imposition of Church Slavonic on Orthodox Slavs was often at the expense of the vernacular. The use of such media hampered the development of the languages for literary purposes. Lockwood also notes that these languages have enriched themselves by drawing on Church Slavonic for the vocabulary of abstract concepts, the situation in the Catholic countries, where Latin was more important, was different. The Polish Renaissance poet Jan Kochanowski and the Croatian Baroque writers of the 16th century all wrote in their respective vernaculars, although Church Slavonic hampered vernacular literatures, it fostered Slavonic literary activity and abetted linguistic independence from external influences. Only the Croatian vernacular literary tradition nearly matches Church Slavonic in age, the most important early monument of Croatian literacy is the Baška tablet from the late 11th century. It is a stone tablet found in the small Church of St. Lucy, Jurandvor on the Croatian island of Krk. The independence of Dubrovnik facilitated the continuity of the tradition, more recent foreign influences follow the same general pattern in Slavic languages as elsewhere and are governed by the political relationships of the Slavs. In the 17th century, bourgeois Russian absorbed German words through direct contacts between Russians and communities of German settlers in Russia, in the 19th century, Russian influenced most literary Slavic languages by one means or another. The Proto-Slavic language existed until around AD500, by the 7th century, it had broken apart into large dialectal zones
27.
Adjective
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In linguistics, an adjective is a describing word, the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified. Adjectives are one of the English parts of speech, although historically they were classed together with the nouns, certain words that were traditionally considered to be adjectives, including the, this, my, etc. are today usually classed separately, as determiners. Adjective comes from Latin adjectīvum additional, a calque of Ancient Greek, in the grammatical tradition of Latin and Greek, because adjectives were inflected for gender, number, and case like nouns, they were considered a subtype of noun. The words that are typically called nouns were then called substantive nouns. The terms noun substantive and noun adjective were formerly used in English, in English, attributive adjectives usually precede their nouns in simple phrases, but often follow their nouns when the adjective is modified or qualified by a phrase acting as an adverb. For example, I saw three kids, and I saw three kids happy enough to jump up and down with glee. Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify, for example, happy is an adjective in they are happy. Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns, One way this can happen is if a noun is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind. In the sentence, I read two books to them, he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy, happy is a nominal adjective, short for happy one or happy book. Another way this can happen is in phrases like out with the old, in with the new, where the old means, that which is old or all that is old, and similarly with the new. In such cases, the adjective functions either as a noun or as a plural count noun, as in The meek shall inherit the Earth. Adjectives feature as a part of speech in most languages, in some languages, the words that serve the semantic function of adjectives may be categorized together with some other class, such as nouns or verbs. Such an analysis is possible for the grammar of Standard Chinese, different languages do not always use adjectives in exactly the same situations. For example, where English uses to be hungry, Dutch and French use honger hebben, similarly, where Hebrew uses the adjective זקוק zaqūq, English uses the verb to need. In languages which have adjectives as a class, they are usually an open class. However, Bantu languages are known for having only a small closed class of adjectives. Many languages, including English, distinguish between adjectives, which qualify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs, which mainly modify verbs, adjectives, not all languages have exactly this distinction and many languages, including English, have words that can function as both. For example, in English fast is an adjective in a fast car, in Dutch and German, adjectives and adverbs are usually identical in form and many grammarians do not make the distinction, but patterns of inflection can suggest a difference, Eine kluge neue Idee
28.
European Theater of Operations
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The European Theater of Operations, United States Army was a United States Army formation which directed US Army operations in parts of Europe from 1942 to 1945. It referred to Army Ground Forces, United States Army Air Forces, and Army Service Forces operations north of Italy and it was bordered to the south by the North African Theater of Operations, US Army, which later became the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. As the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas into which they were divided would shift forward to new areas of control. Major General James E. Chaney, an Army Air Corps officer, arrived in the United Kingdom on 18 May 1941, SBOPS also had the role of studying British use of Lend Lease supplies. His formal title was the Special Army Observer in the United Kingdom, after the United States entered the war, SPOBS was succeeded by United States Army Forces in the British Isles, actually SPOBS under a new name. At the time of the ARCADIA Conference, December 1941 – January 1942, daley, and make him in turn responsible to General Chaney, designated as CG, USAFBI. Lt. Gen. John C. H. Lee became Chief, Services of Supply, U. S. Army Forces British Isles, on June 8,1942, the United States Department of War officially established ETOUSA in its place. Its mission was to conduct planning for the retaking of Europe and to exercise administrative. The 133rd Infantry Regiment of the 34th Infantry Division was the first United States Army unit sent to Europe in World War II, the first battalion arrived in Belfast in late January 1942, followed by the rest of the regiment in February. These units were designated as U. S. Army Northern Ireland Forces, the 133rd and 168th Infantry Regiments trained in the peat bogs, and performed border guard patrols between British Northern Ireland and the neutral Irish Free State. The remaining unit of the division, the 135th Infantry Regiment, until SHAEF was operational ETOUSA liaised closely with the British in the planning and organising of Operation Overlord. General Dwight D. Eisenhower had multiple command appointments, he replaced Chaney in late June 1942 and he then relinquished command of ETOUSA to Lt. Gen. Frank M. Andrews in February 1943, who was killed in an air crash in May. He was replaced by Lt. Gen. Jacob L. Devers, in December 1943 it was announced that Eisenhower would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. In January 1944 he resumed command of ETOUSA and the month was officially designated as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces. He served in a role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. From February 1944, SHAEF was the command and ETOUSA administrative command. Some units were transferred between operational commands and administrative commands at different times, by the end of 1944, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded three powerful Allied army groups. The British 21st Army Group and French elements of the 6th Army Group were not part of ETOUSA, the ETOUSA planning staff in London was usually referred to by its Army Post Office number, APO887
29.
Roasted grain beverage
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A roasted grain beverage is a hot beverage made from one or more cereal grains roasted and commercially processed into crystal or powder form to be reconstituted later in hot water. The product is marketed as a caffeine-free alternative to coffee and tea. Several well-known roasted grain beverages are Nestlé Caro, Postum, other brands can be found at health food stores and at some grocery stores. Some common ingredients include toasted barley, malted barley, rye, chicory, molasses, roasted grain beverages are popular in East Asian cuisines—Korea, Japan, and China each having one or more versions. Genmaicha is green tea blended with roasted brown rice, hyeonmi cha is brewed, roasted brown rice. Boricha is a made from roasted barley and usually drunk as a cool summer beverage. Sobacha is a made from roasted buckwheat kernels and drunk as a tea. Oksusu cha is brewed roasted corn infusion, due to its sweetness it is served alongside or mixed with boricha to soften the latters bitterness. Sungnyung is made from rice scorched while boiling, some Polish brands are Inka, Krakus, Anatol and Kujawianka. Often, during the communist period in Russia and Eastern Europe hot grain beverages served as a substitute for coffee during perpetual shortages, acrylamide is found at high levels in dark-colored baked, roasted and fried high-carbohydrate foods, as well as in roasted coffee and barbecued meat. The dark-roasted grains used in roasted grain beverages would also, presumably, have high levels of acrylamide, the substance has raised health concerns but it is not clear, whether acrylamide consumption affects peoples risk of getting cancer. Coffee substitute Grain milk List of barley-based beverages Mash ingredients
30.
Coffee substitute
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Coffee substitutes are non-coffee products, usually without caffeine, that are used to imitate coffee. Coffee substitutes can be used for medical, economic and religious reasons, roasted grain beverages are common substitutes for coffee. In World War II, acorns were used to make coffee, as were roasted chicory, Coffee substitutes are sometimes used in preparing foods served to children or to people who avoid caffeine, or in the belief that they are healthier than coffee. For religious reasons, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, also known as Mormons, refrain from drinking coffee, some culinary traditions, like that of Korea, include beverages made from roasted grain instead of coffee or tea. These do not substitute for coffee but fill its niche as a hot drink, grain coffee and other substitutes can be made by roasting or decocting various organic substances. The Native American tribes of what is now the Southeastern United States brewed a ceremonial drink containing caffeine, asi, or the black drink, from the roasted leaves, european colonists adopted this beverage as a coffee-substitute, which they called cassina. Ground roasted chicory root has been sold commercially on a scale since around 1970. It was widely used during the American Civil War on both sides, and has enjoyed popularity especially in New Orleans, where Luzianne has long been a popular brand in this respect. Chicory mixed with coffee is popular in South India, and is known as Indian filter coffee. Postum is an instant type of coffee made from roasted wheat bran, wheat. It reached its height of popularity in the United States during World War II when coffee was sharply rationed, barleycup is a similar product sold in the UK. Camp Coffee is a mix of chicory and coffee from the UK, Nestlé Caro is made of roasted barley, malted barley, chicory, and rye and is used as a coffee substitute. There are many dandelion based powdered coffee substitutes known as dandelion coffee, inka is a Polish drink made of rye, barley, chicory, and sugar beet, produced since 1971. Ersatz is made of roasted rice, roasted peas, and roasted chicory, muckefuck, a generic term in Germany for coffee substitutes, possibly from the French mocca faux. New Life Coffee produces a coffee substitute from roasted soybeans. Ricoré is a mix of chicory and coffee from France created in 1953, teeccino Caffé produces blends of coffee substitute from a variety of ingredients such as carob, chicory, and dandelion roots. Postum, once popular among Mormons, is made from roasted wheat bran, wheat, choffy is a recent substitute made from cacao and brewed like coffee. Roasted chickpeas were noted as a substitute as early as the 18th century
31.
Austerity
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In most macroeconomic models austerity measures generally increase unemployment as government spending falls, reducing jobs in the public and/or private sector. Meanwhile, tax increases reduce household disposable income, thus reducing spending, countries which have benefited from austerity such as Ireland have in subsequent research shown to have suffered. Since government spending contributes to the Gross Domestic Product, reducing the spending may result in a higher debt-to-GDP ratio, in the case of excess capacity, however, the stimulus may result in an increase in employment and output. Austerity measures are typically pursued if there is a threat that a government cannot honour its debt obligations and this may occur when a government has borrowed in foreign currencies, or if it has been legally forbidden from issuing its own currency. International financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund may demand austerity measures as part of Structural Adjustment Programmes when acting as lender of last resort. Austerity policies may also appeal to the class of creditors, who prefer low inflation. More recently austerity has been pursued after governments became highly indebted by assuming private debts following banking crises, Austerity is grounded in liberal economists views that state and sovereign debt are deeply problematic. On the basis of classic liberal ideas austerity emerged as a doctrine of neoliberalism in the 20th Century, economist David M Kotz suggests that the implementation of austerity measures following the financial crisis of 2007–08 was an attempt to preserve the neoliberal capitalist model. In the 1930s during the Great Depression, anti-austerity arguments gained more prominence, john Maynard Keynes became a well known anti-austerity economist, arguing that The boom, not the slump, is the right time for austerity at the Treasury. Contemporary Keynesian and New Keynesian economists argue that budget deficits are appropriate when an economy is in recession, to reduce unemployment, according to Paul Krugman, since a government is not like a household, reductions in government spending during economic downturns worsen the crisis. Across an economy, one persons spending is another persons income, in other words, if everyone is trying to reduce their spending, the economy can be trapped in what economists call the paradox of thrift, worsening the recession as GDP falls. An important component of economic output is business investment, but there is no reason to expect it to stabilize at full utilization of the economys resources, high business profits do not necessarily lead to increased economic growth. Economists Kenneth S. Rogoff and Carmen M and our consistent advice has been to avoid withdrawing fiscal stimulus too quickly, a position identical to that of most mainstream economists. To help improve the U. S.9 and 1.7. In other words, a 1% GDP fiscal consolidation would reduce GDP between 0. 9% and 1. 7%, in so doing inflicting far more economic damage than the 0.5 previously estimated in IMF forecasts. In many countries, little is known about the size of multipliers, for these countries, Nicoletta Batini, Luc Eyraud and Anke Weber propose a simple method — dubbed the bucket approach — to come up with reasonable multiplier estimates. Different tax and spending choices of equal magnitude have different economic effects, For example, congressional Budget Office estimated that the payroll tax has a higher multiplier than does the income tax. In other words, raising the tax by $1 as part of an austerity strategy would slow the economy more than would raising the income tax by $1
32.
Claytons
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Claytons is the brand name of a non-alcoholic, non-carbonated beverage coloured and packaged to resemble bottled whisky. The jingle was written by Australian social satirist, John McKellar, the product has not been advertised on television for thirty years, yet it remains widely known. The name has entered into Australian and New Zealand vernacular where it stands for an ersatz or dummy thing, for example, a common-law couple might be described as having a Claytons marriage. A knowledgeable but unqualified handyman could be referred to as a Claytons carpenter, the term can also be used as an insult, e. g. Swinburne University is a Claytons university. According to the label, Claytons was originally blended and bottled by the Clayton Brothers for the Pure Water Company, Battersea, London. According to 1980s labelling it was made from African kola nuts, the product, bottled by Beecham, was taken off the market in New Zealand but continued to be distributed in Australia through Orlando Wines and later Cadbury-Schweppes. As of 2007 the Claytons brand is still being used by Armstrong Agencies Ltd in Barbados and this particular brand is also available in Australia from vendors such as Woolworths. For example, a hasty or temporary repair may be only a Claytons solution to a problem, different word, same thing – Claytons may also refer to something essentially the same but going by a different name. So for instance before an election is called there is the Claytons election campaign. The term is used by people old enough to remember the original advertising campaign. The commercial also generated another catch-phrase which became common in New Zealand, before turning to camera at the start of the ad, our Claytons-drinking hero tells the punch-line of a joke to the barman. And then this guy says Now we can all get some sleep, in the original advertisement, set in a bar, this punchline was greeted with uproarious laughter, followed by the barman saying Whatll you have. Bloke in Bar, On the wagon, Jack, when I dont feel like alcohol, I have Claytons. The drink you have when youre not having a drink, followed by laughter is used during the Wiggles Meet The Orchestra DVD when introducing the next song
33.
Counterfeit
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To counterfeit means to imitate something. Counterfeit products are fakes or unauthorised replicas of the real product, counterfeit products are often produced with the intent to take advantage of the superior value of the imitated product. Counterfeit products tend to have company logos and brands, have a reputation for being lower quality. This has resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people, due to automobile and aviation accidents, poisoning, the counterfeiting of money is usually attacked aggressively by governments worldwide. Paper money is the most popular product counterfeited, counterfeit money is currency that is produced without the legal sanction of the state or government and in deliberate violation of that countrys laws. The United States Secret Service, mostly known for its guarding-of-officials task, was organized primarily to combat the counterfeiting of American money. Forgery is the process of making or adapting documents with the intention to deceive and it is a form of fraud, and is often a key technique in the execution of identity theft. Uttering and publishing is a term in United States law for the forgery of documents, such as a trucking companys time. Questioned document examination is a process for investigating many aspects of various documents. Security printing is a printing industry specialty, focused on creating legal documents which are difficult to forge, the spread of counterfeit goods has become global in recent years and the range of goods subject to infringement has increased significantly. Apparel and accessories accounted for over 50 percent of the goods seized by U. S Customs. A report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development indicates that up to US$200 Billion of international trade could have been in counterfeit and illegally copied goods in 2005. In November 2009, the OECD updated these estimates, concluding that the share of counterfeit and that represents an increase to US$250 billion worldwide. In a detailed breakdown of the counterfeit goods industry, the total loss faced by countries around the world is $600 billion, when calculating counterfeit products, current estimates place the global losses at $400 billion. Some see the rise in counterfeiting of goods as being related to globalisation and these new managers of production have little or no loyalty to the original corporation. They see that profits are being made by the brand for doing little and see the possibilities of removing the middle men. Certain consumer goods, especially expensive or desirable brands or those that are easy to reproduce cheaply, have become frequent. The counterfeiters either attempt to deceive the consumer into thinking they are purchasing a legitimate item, or convince the consumer that they could deceive others with the imitation
34.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
35.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
