1.
Tehran
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Tehran is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. It is ranked 29th in the world by the population of its metropolitan area, in the Classical era, part of the present-day city of Tehran was occupied by a Median city that in the Avesta occurs as Rhaga. It was destroyed by the Mongols in the early 13th century, the capital has been moved several times throughout the history, and Tehran is the 32nd national capital of Iran. The city was the seat of the Qajars and Pahlavis, the two last imperial dynasties of Iran. It is home to historical collections, such as the royal complexes of Golestan, Sadabad. Large scale demolition and rebuilding began in the 1920s, and Tehran has been a destination for the migrations from all over Iran since the 20th century. Tabiat Bridge, which was completed in 2014, is considered the third symbol of the city. There have been plans to relocate Irans capital from Tehran to another area, due mainly to air pollution, to date, no definitive plans have been approved. A2016 survey of 230 cities by consultant Mercer ranked Tehran 203rd for quality of living, according to the Global Destinations Cities Index in 2016, Tehran is among the top ten fastest growing destinations. The origin of the name Tehran is uncertain, the settlement of Tehran dates back over 7,000 years. The present-day city of Tehran was a suburb of an important Median city that was known as Rhaga in Old Persian, in the Avestas Videvdat, Rhaga is mentioned as the twelfth sacred place created by the Ohrmazd. In Old Persian inscriptions, Rhaga appears as a province and it was a major area for the Iranian tribes of Medes and Achaemenids. From Rhaga, Darius the Great sent reinforcements to his father Hystaspes, in some Middle Persian texts, Rhaga is given as the birthplace of Zoroaster, although modern historians generally place the birth of Zoroaster in Khorasan. Derived into Modern Persian as Rey, it now as a city located towards the southern end of the modern-day city of Tehran. Mount Damavand, the highest peak of Iran, which is located near Tehran, is an important location in Ferdowsis Shahname, the long Iranian epic poem that is based on the ancient epics of Iran. It appears in the epics as the birthplace of Manuchehr, the residence of Keyumars, the place where Freydun binds the dragon fiend Aži Dahāka, during the Sassanid era, in 641, Yazdgerd III issued his last appeal to the nation from Rey, before fleeing to Khorasan. Rey was dominated by the Parthian Mihran family, and Siyavakhsh—the son of Mihran the son of Bahram Chobin—who resisted the Muslim Invasion, because of this resistance, when the Arabs captured Rey, they ordered the town to be destroyed and ordered Farrukhzad to rebuild the town anew. In the 9th century, Tehran was a well known village, but less known than the city of Rey, the medieval writer Najm od Din Razi declared the population of Rey about 500,000 before the Mongol Invasion
2.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
St John's College, Oxford
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St Johns College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford. It was founded in 1555 by the merchant Sir Thomas White, the college occupies a central location on St Giles and has a student body of approximately 390 undergraduates and 250 postgraduates. As well as over 100 academic staff, the college is supported by a number of other staff. On 1 May 1555, Sir Thomas White, lately Lord Mayor of London, initially the new St Johns College was rather small and not well endowed financially. During the reign of Elizabeth I the fellows lectured in rhetoric, Greek, and dialectic, however, St Johns initially had a strong focus on the creation of a proficient and educated priesthood. White was Master of the Merchant Taylors Company, and established a number of educational foundations, although the College was closely linked to such institutions for many centuries, it became a more open society in the later 19th century. Female students were first admitted in 1979, and Elizabeth Fallaize was appointed as the first female fellow in 1990, although primarily a producer of Anglican clergymen in the earlier periods of its history, St Johns also gained a reputation for both law and medicine. The patronage of the parish of St Giles was included in the endowment of the college by Thomas White, vicars of St Giles were formerly either Fellows of the College, or ex-Fellows who were granted the living on marriage. The College retains the right to present candidates for the benefice to the bishop, today St Johns maintains the largest endowment of the Oxford colleges, for example owning the Oxford Playhouse building and the Millwall F. C. training ground. The college is situated on a single 5.5 hectares site, most of the college buildings are organised around seven quadrangles. The Front Quadrangle mainly consists of buildings built for the Cistercian St Bernards College. Construction started in 1437, though when the site passed to the crown in 1540, due to the Dissolution of the Monasteries, much of the exterior was as it is now, christ Church took control of the site in 1546 and Thomas White acquired it in 1554. Front Quad was gravelled until the colleges 400th anniversary when the current circular lawn, the turret clock, made by John Knibb, dates from 1690. The chapel was built and dedicated to St Bernard of Clairvaux in 1530, the chapel was re-dedicated to St John the Baptist in 1557. The Baylie chapel in the north-east corner was added 1662-9 and refitted in 1949, in 1840 the chapels interior underwent major changes which created the gothic revival pews, roof, wall arcading and west screen. Thomas White, William Laud and William Juxon are buried beneath the chapel, all three were presidents of the college, with the latter two also holding the role of Archbishop of Canterbury. Choral services have been sung in the chapel since 1618, orlando Gibbonss famous anthem This is the record of John was written at the Colleges request, and presumably received its first performance here. The college in 1620 commissioned the anthem As they departed from Michael East, the college choir today sings evensong services on Sundays and Wednesdays during term time, as well as singing the grace at Sunday formal hall
5.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
6.
History of Iran
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Iran is home to one of the worlds oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 7000 BC. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel names the Persians as the first Historical People, the Medes unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC. It was the largest empire yet seen and the first world empire and they were succeeded by the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Empires, who successively governed Iran for almost 1000 years and made Iran once again as a leading power in the world. Persias arch-rival was the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, the Persian Empire proper begins in the Iron Age, following the influx of Iranian peoples. Iranian people gave rise to the Medes, the Achaemenid, Parthian, once a major empire of superpower proportions, having conquered far and wide, Iran has endured invasions too, by the Greeks, Arabs, Turks, and the Mongols. Iran has continually reasserted its national identity throughout the centuries and has developed as a political and cultural entity. The Muslim conquest of Persia ended the Sasanian Empire and was a point in Iranian history. Islamization of Iran took place during the eighth to tenth centuries, however, the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity and civilization. Iran, with its history of early cultures and empires, had suffered particularly hard during the late Middle Ages. Many invasions of nomadic tribes, whose leaders became rulers in this country, the earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were found in the Kashafrud and Ganj Par sites that are thought to date back to 100,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. Mousterian stone tools made by Neandertals have also been found, in 1949, a Neanderthal radius was discovered by Carleton S. Coon in Bisitun Cave. Early agricultural communities such as Chogha Golan in 10,000 BC along with such as Chogha Bonut in 8000 BC, began to flourish in. Around about the time, the earliest-known clay vessels and modeled human and animal terracotta figurines were produced at Ganj Dareh. There are also 10, 000-year-old human and animal figurines from Tepe Sarab in Kermanshah Province among many ancient artifacts. The two main Neolithic Iranian settlements were the Zayandeh River Culture and Ganj Dareh, parts of what is modern-day northwestern Iran was part of the Kura–Araxes culture, that stretched up into the neighboring regions of the Caucasus and Anatolia. Susa is one of the settlements of Iran and the world. Based on C14 dating, the time of foundation of the city is as early as 4395 BC, the general perception among archeologists is that Susa was an extension of the Sumerian city state of Uruk. In its later history, Susa became the capital of Elam and it is one of the most artifact-rich archaeological sites in the Middle East
7.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
8.
New York University
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New York University is a private nonprofit research university based in New York City. Founded in 1831, NYU is considered one of the worlds most influential research universities, University rankings compiled by Times Higher Education, U. S. News & World Report, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU amongst the top 32 universities in the world. NYU is a part of the creativity, energy and vibrancy that is Manhattan, located with its core in Greenwich Village. Among its faculty and alumni are 37 Nobel Laureates, over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners, over 30 Academy Award winners, alumni include heads of state, royalty, eminent mathematicians, inventors, media figures, Olympic medalists, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and astronauts. NYU alumni are among the wealthiest in the world, according to The Princeton Review, NYU is consistently considered by students and parents as a Top Dream College. Albert Gallatin, Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, declared his intention to establish in this immense, a system of rational and practical education fitting and graciously opened to all. A three-day-long literary and scientific convention held in City Hall in 1830 and these New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright or social class. On April 18,1831, an institution was established, with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the merchants, bankers. Albert Gallatin was elected as the institutions first president, the university has been popularly known as New York University since its inception and was officially renamed New York University in 1896. In 1832, NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four-story Clinton Hall, in 1835, the School of Law, NYUs first professional school, was established. American Chemical Society was founded in 1876 at NYU and it became one of the nations largest universities, with an enrollment of 9,300 in 1917. NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding, the university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus. NYU also had a desire to follow New York Citys development further uptown, NYUs move to the Bronx occurred in 1894, spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken. The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was, as a result, most of the universitys operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there. NYUs administrative operations were moved to the new campus, but the schools of the university remained at Washington Square. In 1914, Washington Square College was founded as the undergraduate college of NYU. In 1935, NYU opened the Nassau College-Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead and this extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University. In 1950, NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the citys institutions, including NYU
9.
City University of New York
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The City University of New York is the public university system of New York City, and the largest urban university in the United States. CUNY and the State University of New York are separate and independent university systems, CUNY, however, is additionally funded by the City of New York. CUNY is the third-largest university system in the United States, in terms of enrollment, behind the State University of New York, and the California State University system. More than 270, 000-degree-credit students and 273,000 continuing, the university has one of the most diverse student bodies in the United States, with students hailing from 208 countries. The black, white and Hispanic undergraduate populations each comprise more than a quarter of the student body, fifty-eight percent are female, and 28 percent are 25 or older. The following table is sortable, click on a heading to re-sort the table by values of that column. Rosenthal, philosopher Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr, by 1979, the Board of Higher Education had become the Board of Trustees of the CUNY. The Free Academy later became the City College of New York, the Female Normal and High School – Founded in 1870, and later renamed the Normal College. It would be renamed again in 1914 to Hunter College, during the early 20th century, Hunter College expanded into the Bronx, with what became Herbert Lehman College. Brooklyn College – Founded in 1930, Queens College – Founded in 1937. CUNY has served a student body, especially those excluded from or unable to afford private universities. Its four-year colleges offered a high quality, tuition-free education to the poor, the working class, during the post-World War I era, when some Ivy League universities, such as Yale University, discriminated against Jews, many Jewish academics and intellectuals studied and taught at CUNY. The City College of New York developed a reputation of being the Harvard of the proletariat, most of these limited matriculation students enrolled in the Evening Session, and paid tuition. Demand in the United States for higher education rapidly grew after World War II, community colleges would have drawn from the same city coffers that were funding the senior colleges, and city higher education officials were of the view that the state should finance them. It wasnt until 1955, under an arrangement with New York State. Unlike the day college students attending the citys public baccalaureate colleges for free, community college students paid tuition fees for approximately 10 years. Over time, tuition fees for limited-matriculated students became an important source of system revenues. In fall 1957, for example, nearly 36,000 attended Hunter, Brooklyn, Queens and City Colleges for free, but another 24,000 paid tuition fees of up to $300 a year – the equivalent of $2,413 in 2011
10.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
11.
Touraj Atabaki
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Touraj Atabaki is the Senior Research Fellow at the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam. He also holds the chair of the Social History of the Middle East, at the present he is coordinating a research project on Social History of Labour in the Iranian Oil Industry 1908-2008. He is also a participant in the project, based at the International Institute of Social History. As of 2014 he is the president-elect of the International Society of Iranian Studies and his fields of research encompass Social History of the Middle East, the Caucasus and Central Asia, Modernity, Migration, Nationalism, Labour and Subaltern Studies and post-Colonial Historiography
12.
E. P. Thompson
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Edward Palmer Thompson, usually cited as E. P. Thompson, was a British historian, writer, socialist and peace campaigner. He is probably best known today for his work on the British radical movements in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He also published biographies of William Morris and William Blake and was a prolific journalist and essayist. He also published the novel The Sykaos Papers and a collection of poetry, Thompson was one of the principal intellectuals of the Communist Party in Great Britain. Thompson played a key role in the first New Left in Britain in the late 1950s, E. P. Thompson was born in Oxford to Methodist missionary parents, His father, Edward John Thompson was a poet and admirer of the Nobel Prize–winning poet Tagore. His older brother was William Frank Thompson, a British officer in World War II, Thompson attended two independent schools, The Dragon School in Oxford and Kingswood School in Bath. Like many he left school in 1941 to fight in World War II and he served in a tank unit in the Italian campaign, including at the last battle of Cassino. After his military service, he studied at Corpus Christi College at the University of Cambridge, in 1946, E. P. Thompson formed the Communist Party Historians Group with Christopher Hill, Eric Hobsbawm, Rodney Hilton, Dona Torr and others. In 1952 they launched the influential journal Past and Present, Thompsons first major work of scholarship was his biography of William Morris, written while he was a member of the Communist Party. It was also an attempt to take Morris back from the critics who for more than 50 years had emphasised his art, however, the somewhat rewritten second edition was much better received. Six months later, he and most of his comrades left the party in disgust at the Soviet invasion of Hungary, but Thompson remained what he called a socialist humanist. The fashion ever since has been to describe the Thompson et al, New Left as the first New Left and the Anderson et al. group, which by 1968 had embraced Tariq Ali and various Trotskyists, as the second. Thompson subsequently allied himself with the annual Socialist Register publication, with Raymond Williams and Stuart Hall, he was one of the editors of the 1967 May Day Manifesto, one of the key left-wing challenges to the 1964–70 Labour government of Harold Wilson. Thompsons most influential work was and remains The Making of the English Working Class, the massive book, over 800 pages, was a watershed in the foundation of the field of social history. He took what others had regarded as scraps from the archive and interrogated them for what they told us about the beliefs, here, then, was a book that rambled over aspects of human experience that had never before had their historian. From the first of its 900-odd pages, I knew, and my friends at the University of Sussex knew and we talked about it in the bar and on the bus and in the refectory queue. Imagine that, young male students more interested in a book than in gooseberry tart, in his preface to this book, E. P. Their crafts and traditions may have been dying and their hostility to the new industrialism may have been backward-looking
13.
Christopher Hill (historian)
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John Edward Christopher Hill was an English Marxist historian and academic, specialising in 17th-century English history. From 1965 to 1978, he was Master of Balliol College, chris Hill was born on 6 February 1912, Bishopthorpe Road, York, to Edward Harold Hill and Janet Augusta. His father was a solicitor and the family were devout Methodists and he attended St Peters School, York. At the age of 16, he sat his entrance examination at Balliol College, the two history tutors who marked his papers recognised his ability and offered him a place to forestall any chance he might go to the University of Cambridge. In 1931 Hill took a holiday in Freiburg, Germany. He matriculated into Balliol College in 1931, in 1932, he won the Lothian Prize. He graduated with a first-class Bachelor of Arts degree in history in 1934. Whilst at Balliol, Hill became a committed Marxist and joined the Communist Party of Great Britain in the year he graduated, after graduating, he became a fellow of All Souls College. In 1935, he undertook a trip to Moscow, Soviet Union. There he became fluent in Russian and studied Soviet historical scholarship, after returning to England in 1936, Hill accepted a teaching position as an assistant lecturer at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire. During his time at Cardiff, Hill attempted to join the International Brigade, instead, he was active in helping Basque refugees, displaced by the war. After two years at Cardiff, he returned to Balliol College in 1938 as a fellow and tutor of history, following the outbreak of the Second World War, he joined the British Army, initially as a private in the Field Security Police. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry on 2 November 1940 with the service number 156590. That same year, he took part in a debate among many Marxist historians, at around this time, Hill started to publish his articles and reviews about 17th-century English history. On 19 October 1941, he transferred to the Intelligence Corps and he was seconded to the Foreign Office from 1943 until the war ended. Hill returned to Oxford University after the war to continue his academic work, in 1946, Hill and many other Marxist historians formed the Communist Party Historians Group. In 1949, he applied to be the chair of History at the newly created Keele University and he helped create the journal Past and Present in 1952, that focused on social history. Hill was becoming discontented with the lack of democracy in the Communist Party, however, he stayed in the party, unlike many other intellectuals, after the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956
14.
Eric Hobsbawm
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Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm CH FRSL FBA was a British Marxist historian of the rise of industrial capitalism, socialism and nationalism. Hobsbawm was born in Egypt but spent his childhood mostly in Vienna, in 1998 he was appointed to the Order of the Companions of Honour. He was President of Birkbeck, University of London from 2002 until his death and his early childhood was spent in Vienna, Austria and Berlin, Germany. A clerical error at birth altered his surname from Hobsbaum to Hobsbawm, although the family lived in German-speaking countries, his parents spoke to him and his younger sister Nancy in English. In 1929, when Hobsbawm was 12, his father died, upon the death of their mother two years later, he and Nancy were adopted by their maternal aunt, Gretl, and paternal uncle, Sidney, who married and had a son named Peter. Hobsbawm was a student at the Prinz Heinrich-Gymnasium Berlin when Hitler came to power in 1933, that year the family moved to London, Hobsbawm attended Kings College, Cambridge, from 1936, where he took a double-starred first in History and was elected to the Cambridge Apostles. He received a doctorate in History from Cambridge University for his dissertation on the Fabian Society, during the Second World War, he served in the Royal Engineers and the Royal Army Educational Corps. Hobsbawms first marriage was to Muriel Seaman in 1943 and his second marriage was to Marlene Schwarz, with whom he had two children, Julia Hobsbawm and Andy Hobsbawm. Julia is chief executive of Hobsbawm Media and Marketing and a professor of public relations at the College of Communication. He also had a son, Joshua Bennathan, who died in November 2014. In 1947, he became a lecturer in history at Birkbeck and he became reader in 1959, professor between 1970 and 1982 and an emeritus professor of history in 1982. He was a Fellow of Kings College, Cambridge, from 1949 to 1955, Hobsbawm said there was a weaker version of McCarthyism that took hold in Britain and affected Marxist academics, you didnt get promotion for 10 years, but nobody threw you out. Conservative commentator David Pryce-Jones has questioned the existence of such career obstacles, Hobsbawm helped found the academic journal Past & Present in 1952. He was a professor at Stanford in the 1960s. In 1970, he was appointed professor and in 1978 he became a Fellow of the British Academy and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971 and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 2006. He retired in 1982 but stayed as visiting professor at The New School for Social Research in Manhattan between 1984–97 and he was, until his death, president of Birkbeck and professor emeritus in the New School for Social Research in the Political Science Department. A polyglot, he spoke German, English, French, Spanish and Italian fluently, Hobsbawm wrote extensively on many subjects as one of Britains most prominent historians. As a Marxist historiographer he has focused on analysis of the dual revolution and he saw their effect as a driving force behind the predominant trend towards liberal capitalism today
15.
Armenian language
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The Armenian language is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenians. Like Hellenic Greek, it has its own branch in the language tree. It is the language of Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. It has historically been spoken throughout the Armenian Highlands and today is spoken in the Armenian diaspora. Armenian has its own script, the Armenian alphabet, introduced in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots. Armenian is an independent branch of the Indo-European languages and it is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological developments within that family. Armenian exhibits more satemization than centumization, although it is not classified as belonging to either of these subgroups, Armenia was a monolingual country by the 2nd century BC at the latest. Its language has a literary history, with a 5th-century Bible translation as its oldest surviving text. Its vocabulary has been influenced by Western Middle Iranian languages, particularly Parthian, and to an extent by Greek, Persian. There are two standardized modern literary forms, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible and he is also credited by some with the creation of the Caucasian Albanian alphabet. In The Anabasis, Xenophon describes many aspects of Armenian village life and he relates that the Armenian people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians. W. M. However, unlike shared innovations, the retention of archaisms is not considered conclusive evidence of a period of common isolated development. Some of the terms he gives admittedly have an Akkadian or Sumerian provenance, loan words from Iranian languages, along with the other ancient accounts such as that of Xenophon above, initially led linguists to erroneously classify Armenian as an Iranian language. Scholars such as Paul de Lagarde and F. Müller believed that the similarities between the two meant that Iranian and Armenian were the same language. The distinctness of Armenian was recognized when philologist Heinrich Hübschmann used the method to distinguish two layers of Iranian loans from the older Armenian vocabulary. Meillets hypothesis became popular in the wake of his Esquisse, eric P. Hamp supports the Graeco-Armenian thesis, anticipating even a time when we should speak of Helleno-Armenian. Nevertheless, as Fortson comments, by the time we reach our earliest Armenian records in the 5th century AD, graeco--Aryan is a hypothetical clade within the Indo-European family, ancestral to the Greek language, the Armenian language, and the Indo-Iranian languages. Graeco-Aryan unity would have divided into Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian by the mid-third millennium BC
16.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
17.
Iranian Armenians
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Iranian-Armenians, are ethnic Armenian citizens of Iran. They are mostly concentrated in Tabriz, Tehran and Isfahans Jolfa quarter, the Armenians have a many millennia old history within the modern-day borders of Iran. They are amongst the inhabitants of Irans northwestern regions, with the territory having made up part of historical Armenia numerous times in history. Many of the oldest Armenian churches, monasteries, and chapels, are located within modern-day Iran, iranian-Armenians were very influential and active in the modernization of Iran during the 19th and 20th centuries. After the Iranian Revolution, many Armenians emigrated to Armenian diasporic communities in North America, today the Armenians are Irans largest Christian religious minority. Since Antiquity there has always been much interaction between Ancient Armenia and Persia and these historical Armenian regions that nowadays include Iranian Azerbaijan are Nor Shirakan, Vaspurakan, and Paytakaran. Many of the oldest Armenian chapels, monasteries and churches in the world are located within region of Iran. On the Behistun inscription of 515 BC, Darius the Great indirectly confirmed that Urartu, Armenia became a satrap of the Persian Empire for a long period of time. Regardless, relations between Armenians and Persians were cordial, the cultural links between the Armenians and the Persians can be traced back to Zoroastrian times. Prior to the 3rd century AD, no other neighbor had as much influence on Armenian life and they shared many religious and cultural characteristics, and intermarriage among Parthian and Armenian nobility was common. For twelve more centuries, Armenia was under the direct or indirect rule of the Persians, while much influenced by Persian culture and religion, Armenia also retained its unique characteristics as a nation. Although Armenians have a history of interaction and settlement with Persia/Iran and within the modern-day borders of the nation. In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Iran divided Armenia, from the early 16th century, both Western Armenia and Eastern Armenia fell under Iranian Safavid rule. Owing to the century long Turco-Iranian geo-political rivalry that would last in Western Asia, Iran quickly recognized the Armenians dexterity in commerce. The community became active in the cultural and economic development of Iran, Bourvari is a collection of villages in Iran, between the city of Khomein and Aligoodarz. The following villages populated by the Armenians in Bourvari were, Dehno, Khorzend, Farajabad, Bahmanabad and this included the irrevocable loss of Eastern Armenia in 1828 per the Treaty of Turkmenchay. From 1795 to 1804 during the earliest clashes leading up to the 19th century wars between the Russian and Persian Empire Armenians were taken as captive in Iran, there were also 20,000 Armenians who moved for Georgia. The ceding of what is modern-day Armenia in 1828 resulted in a large amount of Armenians falling now under the rule of the Russians
18.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
19.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
20.
Baruch College
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Baruch is one of CUNYs senior colleges. It traces its roots back to the 1847 founding of the Free Academy, the New York State Literature Fund was created to serve students who could not afford to enroll in New York City’s private colleges. The Fund led to the creation of the Committee of the Board of Education of the City of New York, led by Townsend Harris, J. S. Bosworth, and John L. Mason, which brought about the establishment of what would become the Free Academy, the Free Academy became the College of the City of New York, now The City College of New York. In 1919, what would become Baruch College was established as City College School of Business, on December 15,1928, the cornerstone was laid on the new building which would house the newly founded school. At this point, the school did not admit women, at the time it opened it was considered the biggest such school for the teaching of business education in the United States. By the 1930s, women were allowed into the School of Business, the total enrollment at CCNY reached an all-time high of 40,000 students in 1935, and the School of Business had an enrollment of more than 1,700 students in the day session alone. In 1953, it was renamed the Baruch School of Business in honor of Bernard Baruch, in 1961, the New York State Education Law established the City University of New York system. In 1968, the Baruch School of Business was spun off as Baruch College, the first president of the new college was the previous Federal Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Robert C. In 1971, the college appointed Clyde Wingfield, a noted educator and he was succeeded by economist Joel Edwin Segall in 1977. Segall recruited several well-known faculty members to the School of Business, matthew Goldstein was president of the school from 1991 to 1998. He was responsible for raising admissions requirements and creating the School of Public Affairs in 1994, edward Regan, former comptroller of New York state, served as president from 2000 to 2004. During his tenure, test scores rose, student retention rates increased, in 2001, the Vertical Campus opened and Baruch accepted its first students from the CUNY Honors College, now known as the Macaulay Honors College. The college also implemented a common curriculum for all undergraduates. Baruch received donations from alumni, the Vertical Campus, 23rd Street building, Alumni giving has increased under Baruch Means Business, a $150 million capital campaign. In August 2009, Waldron resigned from her position to become a University Professor at the Graduate Center, stan Altman, former dean of the School of Public Affairs from 1999 to 2005, was named interim president. On February 22,2010, Dr. Mitchel Wallerstein, Dean of the Maxwell School of Citizenship and he took office on August 2,2010. Baruch was the scene of student protests in 2011 as a result of tuition hikes, Zicklin is also a Senior Fellow at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania
21.
Graduate Center, CUNY
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The school is situated in a nine-story landmark building at 365 Fifth Avenue at the corner of 34th Street in the Midtown neighborhood of Manhattan, across the corner from the Empire State Building. The Graduate Center has 4,600 students,33 doctoral programs,7 masters programs, across the institutions PhD programs, 18% of applicants were offered admission to The Graduate Center in Fall 2016. The Graduate Center PhD program in Mathematics was ranked 39th, in the 2016 edition of QS World University Rankings, the Graduate Centers doctoral program in Philosophy was ranked 44th globally. CUNY began offering education through its Division of Graduate Studies in 1961. Robinson, currently a professor of philosophy at the University of Oxford, received his Ph. D. in psychology, while Stern, late of Rutgers University, in 1969, the Division of Graduate Studies formally became the Graduate School and University Center. Mathematician Mina S. Rees served as the institutions first president from 1969 until her retirement in 1972, Rees was succeeded as president of the Graduate Center by environmental psychologist Harold M. Proshansky, who served until his death in 1990. Political scientist Frances Degen Horowitz was appointed president in September,1991, in 2005, Horowitz was succeeded by the schools provost, Professor of English Literature William P. Kelly. During Kellys tenure at the Graduate Center the University has seen significant growth in revenue, funding opportunities for students, increased Distinguished Faculty and this is in accordance with three primary goals articulated in the Graduate Center’s strategic plan. The first of these involves enhancing student support, in 2013,83 dissertation-year fellowships were awarded at a total cost of $1.65 million. The Graduate Center is also developing new programs to research prior to the dissertation phase. The fiscal stability of the university has enabled the chancellery to increase, on an incremental basis, the packages extended for 2013-14 year increase stipends and reduce teaching requirements. In 2001, the Graduate Center provided 14 million dollars in student support, GC Provost Chase F. Robinson, a historian, was appointed to serve as interim president of the Graduate Center in 2013, and then became president in July 2014. Joy Connolly became Provost of the Graduate Center in August 2016, Faculty members regularly receive prestigious honors and awards. Many departments are recognized internationally for their level of scholarship, courses in the social sciences, humanities, and mathematics, and courses in the sciences requiring no laboratory work convene at the Graduate Center. The CUNY Graduate Center pioneered the CUNY Academic Commons in 2009 to much praise, the CUNY Academic Commons is an online, academic social network for faculty, staff, and graduate students of the City University of New York system. The project has received awards and grants from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and it continues to be in the forefront of scholarly social media. Murphy Institute for Worker Education and Labor Studies, the CUNY Graduate School of Journalism, which offers a degree in journalism. Multilingualism - Interdisciplinary research on social, cultural, and policy issues raised by multilingualism
22.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
23.
Charlie Rose (TV series)
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Charlie Rose is an American television interview show, with Charlie Rose as executive producer, executive editor, and host. The show is syndicated on PBS and is owned by Charlie Rose, Rose interviews thinkers, writers, politicians, athletes, entertainers, businesspersons, leaders, scientists, and fellow newsmakers. The show premiered on September 30,1991 and it is presented by WNET, where it first aired as a local program. The program is additionally broadcast by Bloomberg Television with a week delay, the set is simple, set up with an all-dark surrounding space around an oak round table used since the program debuted and purchased by Rose himself, along with accompanying chairs. Funding for the show is provided by donations from various corporations. The show has been criticized for not disclosing the list of donors even if the show is considered public broadcasting, in 2010, Rose and co-host Eric Kandel began The Brain Series, episodes featuring neuroscientists and other experts, the series was later released on DVD. In October 2014, a segment called Al Hunt on the Story was launched as a feature interview. The show is filmed at 731 Lexington Avenue in Manhattan, New York City and this is the same building which houses Bloomberg Television, and Bloomberg L. P. which sponsors the show. In February 2017, the show utilized a number of guest hosts while Rose underwent heart surgery, afterwards, Rose stated a planned return in March. Charlie Roses music theme was composed exclusively for the series by David Lowe, Charlie Rose, The Week premiered on PBS on July 19,2013. The show is a long, consisting of interviews from recent episodes of Charlie Rose. The Week replaced the cancelled series Need to Know, and occupies that shows former Friday time slot, list of programs broadcast by Public Broadcasting Service Official website - includes videos of the show available for free
24.
Worldfocus
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Worldfocus was an American newscast focused on international news and reporting. The newscast was anchored by Martin Savidge and later hosted by Daljit Dhaliwal. It was produced by WNET New York and distributed to U. S. public television stations by American Public Television and it ceased broadcasting on April 2,2010. Worldfocus was not part of the national PBS schedule and did not air on all U. S. public TV stations, Worldfocus was a testing ground, and important laboratory for new digital production techniques. The program uses a number of producers and reporters from a variety of media sources. Crisis in Congo also won the 2009 Robert F. Kennedy Journalism Award in the television category. Savidge became a correspondent for the show and served as host occasionally on Worldfocus. On March 8,2010, Daljit Dhaliwal announced at the end of that nights program, the Worldfocus official website cited fundraising difficulties as the reason for the programs demise. In fact Worldfocus was several million dollars off its fundraising goals, overall Worldfocus was very expensive to produce, and did not bring in the crucial viewer donations as BBC World News had reliably done for years before. Cutbacks, dismissal of personnel, and cancellation of other WNET programs were blamed on spending for Worldfocus, Neal Shapiro said, Given the economic environment we now face, it is not prudent to continue the broadcast at this time. Worldfocus failed to garner an audience above 300,000 people, WNET had planned Worldfocus to be the flagship program of an expensive new studio then under construction at Lincoln Center. The completed studio was used for other programs. In April 2010 WNET started again airing BBC World News, the program that Worldfocus had replaced in 2008
25.
Politics of Iran
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The politics of Iran take place in a framework of a theocracy in a format of syncretic politics that is guided by an Islamic ideology. Iran has a president, parliament, Assembly of Experts. According to the constitution all candidates running for these positions must be vetted by the Guardian Council before being elected, in addition, there are representatives elected from appointed organizations to protect the states Islamic character. The early days of the government were characterized by political tumult. In November 1979 the American embassy was seized and its occupants taken hostage, the eight-year Iran–Iraq War killed hundreds of thousands and cost the country billions of dollars. S. Government and some others have accused Iran of sponsoring, emigration has lost Iran millions of entrepreneurs, professionals, technicians, and skilled craftspeople and their capital. For this and other reasons Irans economy has not prospered, the Islamic Republic Party was Irans ruling political party and for years its only political party until its dissolution in 1987. After the war, new reformist/progressive parties had started to form, after the election of Mohammad Khatami in 1997, more parties started to work, mostly of the reformist movement and opposed by hard-liners. This led to incorporation and official activity of other groups. After the war ended in 1988, reformist and progressive candidates won four out of six presidential elections in Iran, the Iranian Government is opposed by several armed terrorist groups, including the Mojahedin-e-Khalq, the Peoples Fedayeen, and the Kurdish Democratic Party. For other political parties see List of political parties in Iran and these are the most recent elections that have taken place. The military and the Corps of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution are charged with defending Irans borders, Irans fiscal year goes from March 21 to March 20 of the following year. Once approved by Majlis, the bill still needs to be ratified by the Guardian Council, the bill will be sent back to the parliament for amendments if it is voted down by the Guardian Council. The Expediency Council acts as arbiter in any dispute. Following annual approval of the budget by Majlis, the central bank presents a detailed monetary and credit policy to the Money. Thereafter, major elements of these policies are incorporated into the economic development plan. The 5-year plan is part of Vision 2025, a strategy for sustainable growth. A unique feature of Irans economy is the size of the religious foundations whose combined budgets make up more than 30% that of the central government
26.
Reza Baraheni
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Reza Baraheni, is an Iranian, an exiled Iranian novelist, poet, critic, and political activist. Former president of PEN Canada, Baraheni lives in Toronto, Canada and he is the author of more than fifty books of poetry, fiction, literary theory and criticism, written in Persian and English. His works have translated into a dozen of languages. Moreover, he has translated into Persian works by Shakespeare, Kundera, Mandelstam, Andrić and he has also been Fellow of St. Antony’s College, Oxford University, Britain, Fellow of the University of Iowa, Iowa City, and Fellow of Winters College, York University. In 1973, he was arrested and imprisoned in Tehran, Baraheni claims he was tortured and kept in a solitary confinement for 104 days. He published his prose and poetry in the Time Magazine, the New York Times, the New York Review of Books, with the help of the American PEN and the assistance of Ramsey Clarke, Baraheni says he was able to expose the Shah’s plot. Baraheni wrote a four page article in the February,1977 edition of the magazine, Penthouse. He alleged with some eroticism how the prisoners and their family members were raped systematically in Iran under the Shah. His claims however have been disputed by many other Iranians who say he either exaggerated or simply made them up to get the attention of his readers in the West. He was very influential in turning the public opinion in the West against the Shah of Iran, see, Report by Robert C. de Camara on the Shahs record. Baraheni returned to Iran in the company of more than thirty other intellectuals in 1979, Baraheni tried very hard to win favours with Ayatollah Khomeini. Khomeini however ignored Barahenis flattery and instead he joined his Leftist friends in the Writers Association, baraheni’s concentration was on three major themes, 1)the unhampered transmission of thought, 2)equal rights for oppressed nationalities in Iran and, 3)equal rights for women with men. In the wave of the crackdown against the intellectuals, the liberals and the left in Iran in 1981, Baraheni found himself more in the solitary confinement. He was not allowed to leave the country for many years, with the death of Khomeini, senior members of the Writers Association of Iran, Baraheni among them, decided that they should revive the association. They formed the Consulting Assembly of the Writers Association of Iran, Baraheni was one of the three members of the Association who wrote the “Text of 134 Iranian Writers. ”He was one of the “Group of Eight” who undertook the job of getting the signatures of other Iranian writers. He was also assigned to send the text to his connections abroad. Baraheni translated the Text into English and sent it to the International PEN, the second text was the re-writing of the charter of the Writers Association of Iran. He knew that he had to leave the country, Baraheni made arrangements with Swedish friends to get out of Iran and travel to Sweden
27.
Larry McDonald
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As of 2016, McDonald is the most recent member of Congress to die violently while in office. A conservative Democrat, McDonald was active in civic organizations. He was the prime mover in dedicating two statues in the US Congress Capitol Rotunda to prominent African-American leaders and he was known for his staunch opposition to communism. He was the president of the John Birch Society and also a cousin of General George S. Patton. Larry McDonald was born and raised in Atlanta, Georgia, more specifically in the part of the city that is in DeKalb County. As a child, he attended private and parochial schools before attending a non-denominational high school. He spent two years at school before graduating in 1951. He studied at Davidson College from 1951 until 1953, spending time studying history and he entered the Emory University School of Medicine at the age of 17, graduating in 1957. He interned at Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta and he trained as a Urologist at the University of Michigan Hospital under Prof. Reed M. Nesbit. Following completion in 1966 he returned to Atlanta and entered practice with his father, from 1959 to 1961, he served as a flight surgeon in the United States Navy stationed at the Keflavík naval base in Iceland. McDonald married an Icelandic national, Anna Tryggvadottir, with whom he would eventually have three children, Tryggvi Paul, Callie Grace, and Mary Elizabeth and it was in Iceland that McDonald first began to take note of communism. He felt the U. S. Embassy in Reykjavik was doing things advantageous to the Communists, therefore he went to his commanding officer, after his tour of service he practiced medicine at the McDonald Urology Clinic in Atlanta. He took an increasing interest in politics, reading books on political history and he joined the John Birch Society—a conservative, anti-communist organization—in 1966 or 1967. McDonalds passionate preoccupation with politics led to a divorce from his first wife, McDonald made one unsuccessful run for Congress in 1972 before being elected in 1974. In 1975, he married Kathryn Jackson, whom he met while giving a speech in California and he fathered two children with Kathryn. McDonald served as a member on the Georgia State Medical Education Board, the National Historical Society, the Cobb County Chamber of Commerce, and received numerous civil honors. In 1974, McDonald ran for Congress against incumbent John W. Davis in the Democratic primary as a conservative who was opposed to mandatory federal school integration programs, McDonald successfully criticized Davis for being one of only two Georgia congressmen to vote in favor of busing. He was also effective in attacking Davis for receiving thousands of dollars in donations from out-of-state groups, principally from New York City
28.
Jacobin (magazine)
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Jacobin is a left-wing quarterly magazine based in New York. It describes itself as a voice of the American left, offering socialist perspectives on politics, economics. The publication began as a magazine released in September 2010. Earlier in 2013, Jacobin Books was announced, a partnership with Verso Books, a collection of essays by Jacobin contributors was published by Henry Holt and Company in 2016. Additionally, since the fall of 2014, Jacobin has sponsored more than 80 socialist reading groups, according to creative director Remeike Forbes, the logo was inspired by a scene in the movie Burn. Referring to Nicaraguan national hero José Dolores Estrada, but represents Toussaint Louverture, the magazines motto, Reason in Revolt, is a reference to a line from The Internationale. Prominent Jacobin contributors include Bob Herbert, Yanis Varoufakis, Hilary Wainwright, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and it has been variously described as democratic socialist, socialist, and Marxist. According to an article published by the Nieman Journalism Lab it is a journal of democratic socialist thought, max Strasser, writing in the New Statesman, suggested that the journal claims to take the mantle of Marxist thought of Ralph Miliband and a similar vein of democratic socialism. In a 2013 article for Tablet Magazine, Michelle Goldberg discussed Jacobin as part of a revival of interest in Marxism among young intellectuals. Jake Blumgart, who contributed to the magazine in its years, stated that it found an audience by mixing data-driven analysis and Marxist commentary with an irreverent. Noam Chomsky called the magazine a bright light in dark times, official website A Young Publisher Takes Marx Into the Mainstream, Jennifer Schuessler, The New York Times,20 January 2013 New Left Review on Jacobin
29.
C-SPAN
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C-SPAN, an acronym for Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, is an American cable and satellite television network that was created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a public service. C-SPAN televises many proceedings of the United States federal government, as well as public affairs programming. Its coverage of political and policy events is unedited, thereby providing viewers with unfiltered information about politics, non-political coverage includes historical programming, programs dedicated to non-fiction books, and interview programs with noteworthy individuals associated with public policy. The network operates independently, and neither the cable industry nor Congress has control of the content of its programming, Congress and other public affairs event and policy discussions. Lamb shared his idea with several executives, who helped him launch the network. Among them were Bob Rosencrans who provided $25,000 of initial funding in 1979 and John D. Evans who provided the wiring and access to the headend needed for the distribution of the C-SPAN signal. C-SPAN was launched on March 19,1979, in time for the first televised session made available by the House of Representatives, upon its debut, only 3.5 million homes were wired for C-SPAN, and the network had just three employees. The second C-SPAN channel, C-SPAN2, followed on June 2,1986 when the U. S. Senate permitted itself to be televised, C-SPAN Radio began operations on October 9,1997, covering similar events as the television networks and often simulcasting their programming. The station broadcasts on WCSP in Washington, D. C. is also available on XM Satellite Radio channel 120 and is streamed live at c-span. org and it was formerly available on Sirius Satellite Radio from 2002 to 2006. Lamb semi-retired in March 2012, coinciding with the channels 33rd anniversary, on January 12,2017, the online feed for C-SPAN1 was interrupted and replaced by a feed from the Russian television network RT for approximately 10 minutes. C-SPAN announced that they were troubleshooting the incident and were operating under the assumption that it was an internal routing issue, C-SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary in 1989 with a three-hour retrospective, featuring Lamb recalling the development of the network. Five years later, the series American Presidents, Life Portraits, in 2004, C-SPAN celebrated its 25th anniversary, by which time the flagship network was viewed in 86 million homes, C-SPAN2 was in 70 million homes and C-SPAN3 was in eight million homes. Also included in the 25th anniversary was an essay contest for viewers to write in about how C-SPAN has influenced their life regarding community service. For example, one essay contest winner wrote about how C-SPANs non-fiction book programming serves as a resource in his mission to record non-fiction audio books for people who are blind. The network also had an essay contest, the winner of which was invited to host an hour of the broadcast from C-SPANs Capitol Hill studios. C-SPAN continues to expand its coverage of government proceedings, with a history of requests to government officials for greater access, in December 2009, Lamb wrote to leaders in the House and Senate, requesting that negotiations for health care reform be televised by C-SPAN. Committee meetings on health care were broadcast subsequently by C-SPAN and may be viewed on the C-SPAN website, in November 2010, Lamb wrote to incoming House Speaker John Boehner requesting changes to restrictions on cameras in the House. In particular, C-SPAN asked to add some of its own robotically operated cameras to the existing government-controlled cameras in the House chamber, in February 2011, Boehner denied the request
30.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
31.
Armenia
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Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a sovereign state in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. The Republic of Armenia constitutes only one-tenth of historical Armenia, Armenia is a unitary, multi-party, democratic nation-state with an ancient cultural heritage. Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia, in the 1st century BC the Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great. Armenia became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion, in between the late 3rd century to early years of the 4th century, the state became the first Christian nation. The official date of adoption of Christianity is 301 AD. The ancient Armenian kingdom was split between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires around the early 5th century, under the Bagratuni dynasty, the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia was restored in the 9th century. Declining due to the wars against the Byzantines, the fell in 1045. An Armenian principality and later a kingdom Cilician Armenia was located on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea between the 11th and 14th centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, during World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian Genocide. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, in 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Republic of Armenia recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church, the worlds oldest national church, as the countrys primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD, Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union, the Council of Europe and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which was proclaimed in 1991, the native Armenian name for the country is Հայք. The name in the Middle Ages was extended to Հայաստան, by addition of the Persian suffix -stan, the further origin of the name is uncertain. It is also postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states—the Ḫayaša-Azzi. The exonym Armenia is attested in the Old Persian Behistun Inscription as Armina, the ancient Greek terms Ἀρμενία and Ἀρμένιοι are first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus. Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and he relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians. According to the histories of both Moses of Chorene and Michael Chamchian, Armenia derives from the name of Aram, a descendant of Hayk
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