1.
Sean Penn
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Sean Justin Penn is an American actor, filmmaker, and political activist. He has won two Academy Awards, for his roles in the mystery drama Mystic River and the biopic Milk, Penn began his acting career in television with a brief appearance in episode 112 of Little House on the Prairie, directed by his father Leo Penn. He became known as a prominent leading actor with the drama Dead Man Walking, for which he earned his first Academy Award nomination, Penn made his feature film directorial debut with The Indian Runner, followed by the drama film The Crossing Guard and the mystery film The Pledge. Penn directed one of the 11 segments of 110901 September 11 and his fourth feature film, the biographical drama survival movie Into the Wild, garnered critical acclaim and two Academy Award nominations. In January 2016, Penn published an interview with Mexican drug lord Joaquín El Chapo Guzmán in Rolling Stone, Penn was born in Los Angeles County, California, to actor and director Leo Penn, and actress Eileen Ryan. His older brother is musician Michael Penn and his younger brother, actor Chris Penn, died in 2006. His paternal grandparents were Ashkenazi Jewish emigrants from Lithuania and Russia, while his mother is a Catholic of Irish, Penn was raised in a secular home and attended Santa Monica High School. He began making films with some of his childhood friends, including actors Emilio Estevez and Charlie Sheen. Penn appeared in a 1974 episode of the Little House on the Prairie television series as an extra when his father, Leo, Penn launched his film career with the action-drama Taps, where he played a military high school cadet. A year later, he appeared in the hit comedy Fast Times at Ridgemont High, in the role of surfer-stoner Jeff Spicoli, next, Penn appeared as Mick OBrien, a troubled youth, in the drama Bad Boys. The role earned Penn favorable reviews and jump-started his career as a serious actor, Penn played Andrew Daulton Lee in the film The Falcon and the Snowman, which closely followed an actual criminal case. Lee was a drug dealer by trade, convicted of espionage for the Soviet Union and originally sentenced to life in prison. Penn starred in the drama At Close Range which received critical acclaim and he stopped acting for a few years in the early 1990s, having been dissatisfied with the industry, and focused on making his directing debut. The Academy Awards first recognized his work in nominating him for playing a racist murderer on death row in the drama film Dead Man Walking and he was nominated again for his comedic performance as an egotistical jazz guitarist in the film Sweet and Lowdown. He received his nomination after portraying a mentally handicapped father in I am Sam. Penn finally won for his role in the Boston crime-drama Mystic River, in 2004, Penn played Samuel Bicke, a character based on Samuel Byck, who in 1974 attempted and failed to assassinate President Richard Nixon, in The Assassination of Richard Nixon. The same year, he was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts, next, Penn portrayed governor Willie Stark in an adaptation of Robert Penn Warrens classic 1946 American novel All the Kings Men. The film was a critical and commercial failure, named by a 2010 Forbes article as the biggest flop in the last five years, the film also earned Penn his fifth nomination and second win for the Academy Award for Best Actor
2.
Hearst Communications
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Hearst Communications, often referred to as simply Hearst, is an American mass media and business information conglomerate. The Hearst company is based in the Hearst Tower in Midtown Manhattan and it was founded by William Randolph Hearst as an owner of newspapers, and the Hearst family remains involved in its ownership and management. Under William Randolph Hearsts will, a board of thirteen trustees administers the Hearst Foundation, the William Randolph Hearst Foundation. The foundations shared ownership until tax law changed to prevent this, Frank A. Bennack Jr. former chief executive officer and executive vice chairman of the corporation John G. Conomikes, former executive of the corporation Gilbert C. In 1880, George Hearst, mining entrepreneur, American publisher, on March 4,1887, he turned the Examiner over to his son, 23-year-old William Randolph Hearst. He pushed his staff to write exciting stories, and wrote editorials worded with force. Within a few years, the new Examiner was a success, in 1895, Hearst purchased the New York Journal, laying the foundation for one of the major newspaper dynasties in American history. He established Hearsts Chicago American in 1900, renamed the morning edition of the New York Journal as the New York American in 1901, the Los Angeles Examiner was launched in 1903 followed by the Boston American one year later. Hearst experimented with every aspect of publishing, from page layouts to editorial crusades. His newspapers introduced innovations such as presses, halftone photographs on newsprint, comic sections printed in color. Stories by Hearst correspondents from around the world were sold to newspapers, giving rise to the Hearst International News Service. In 1903, Hearst Magazines was begun with the publication of Motor magazine, within the next 10 years Hearst acquired several popular titles, starting in 1905 with Cosmopolitan and Good Housekeeping in 1911. Also in 1911, Hearst bought a middling monthly magazine called World To-Day, in June 1914, its title was shortened to Hearsts, and it was ultimately retitled Hearsts International in May 1922. In 1953 Hearst Magazines bought Sports Afield magazine which it kept until 1999 when it was sold to Robert E. Petersen, Hearst began producing film feature in the mid-1910s, creating one of the earliest animation studios, the International Film Service. Hearst established Cosmopolitan Pictures in the 1920s, distributing his films under the newly created Metro Goldwyn Mayer, in 1929, Hearst and MGM created the Hearst Metrotone newsreels. In order to spare serious cutbacks at San Simeon, Hearst merged Hearsts International magazine with Cosmopolitan effective March 1925, Hearst died in 1951, and the Hearsts International disappeared from the magazine cover altogether in April 1952. In the 1920s and 1930s, Hearst owned the biggest media conglomerate in the world, in 1924 he also merged his Milwaukee operations with the Pfister family, owners of The Milwaukee Sentinel. Hearst owned the evening Wisconsin News while the Pfisters kept the Sentinel adding Hearsts features from the now-folded Telegram, in 1925, Hearst sold the Syracuse Telegram to the owners of the Syracuse Journal, while selling the New York Mirror in 1928
3.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
4.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
7.
Men's magazine
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This is a list of magazines primarily marketed to men. The list has been split into subcategories according to the audience of the magazines. This list includes both adult pornographic magazines as well as more mainstream ones, not included here are automobile and gadget magazines, many of which are primarily aimed towards men. These publications appeal to a male audience. Some skew toward mens fashion, others to health, most are marketed to a particular age and income demographic. In the US, some are marketed mainly to an ethnic group. Oxford, UK Malden, Massachusetts, USA, Blackwell Pub. /Sociological Review, Mens magazines and ethnographies of reading, A textual culture approach. Readers responses to the use of irony in mens magazines, journalism Studies, special issue, Mapping the Magazine. Male gossip and language play in the pages of mens lifestyle magazines. Ironic discourse, evasive masculinity in mens lifestyle magazines, Health and the social construction of masculinity in Mens Health magazine. The golden age of mens magazines, 1950-1967, jackson, Peter, Stevenson, Nick, Brooks, Kate. Cambridge, UK Malden, Massachusetts, Polity Press Blackwell Publishers, Health and the social construction of masculinity in Mens Health magazine. Changing the Subject, from the Gentleman’s Magazine to GQ and Barack Obama at maglab. org. uk
8.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
9.
Arnold Gingrich
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Arnold W. Gingrich was the editor of, and, along with publisher David A. Smart and Henry L. Jackson, co-founder of Esquire magazine, among his other projects was the political/newsmagazine Ken. Gingrich created Esquire in 1933 and remained its editor until 1945 and he returned as publisher in 1952, serving in this role until his death in 1976. For several years he left the post of editor vacant while several young editors competed for it, the two most serious contenders were Harold Hayes and Clay Felker. Hayes won, and Felker went on to found New York magazine, during the Hayes-Gingrich era, Esquire played a leading role in launching the New Journalism, publishing writers like Tom Wolfe and fellow fraternity brother, Gay Talese. Gingrich was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, of Mennonite parents in 1903 and he attended the University of Michigan where he was a member of Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity, and was noted as a member of the class of 1925. Gingrich brought numerous skills and interests to bear in the formation of Esquire magazine, notably his skill in editing, identification of talent and in publishing. His partner, David Smart led the side of the magazine with Henry Jackson responsible for the fashion section. Over his four decade career, Gingrich published such authors as Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, John Steinbeck, John Dos Passos, Garry Wills, Truman Capote, and Norman Mailer. He was also one of the few editors to publish F. Scott Fitzgerald regularly in the late 1930s. Gingrich also published stories by Jack Woodford, whom he befriended when they worked together at an agency in the late 1920s. He wrote the introduction to Woodfords famous book on writing and publishing, Trial, the magazine’s name Esquire was inspired by a letter from Gingrichs friend Robert Klark Graham, facetiously addressing him as Arnold Gingrich, Esquire. The magazine he created set the template for future mens magazines of the period, for example, Playboy. Similar periodicals include GQ, Field & Stream, Popular Mechanics, further afield, even The Atlantic and other regional and national publications exhibit styling and content first evidenced in the pages of Esquire. More recently Maxim has continued this tradition with an edgy appeal to the millennial generation. His autobiography, Toys Of A Lifetime, with illustrations by Leslie Saalburg, was published by Alfred A. Knopf in 1966 and it has long been out of print. In it, Gingrich recounts his experience with cars, including a classic R-series and S-series Countryman, other interests include transatlantic liners, French hotels, Dunhill pipes and Balkan Sobranie tobacco, clothes and all manner of other possessions and accommodations. Gingrich was a fly fisherman, writing several books on the subject
10.
United Airlines Flight 624
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The four-engine propeller-driven airplane crashed at 1,41 p. m. Eastern Daylight Time on June 17,1948 outside of Aristes, Pennsylvania, killing all 4 crew members and 39 passengers on board. The Douglas DC-6 fleet had been grounded by Civil Aviation authorities for four months during the winter as a result of the fatal crash of United Airlines Flight 608 on October 24,1947. It was determined that the crash had caused by a design flaw that allowed vented fuel to be drawn into the heater air intake scoop that caused a fire in the cargo compartment. As a result, changes were made and a fire extinguisher system was installed on all DC-6 aircraft, although this later turned out to be a false alarm, the crew decided to discharge CO2 bottles into the forward cargo hold, to try to extinguish the possible fire. Consequently, the released CO2 gas seeped back into the cockpit from the front cargo hold and apparently partially incapacitated the flight crew. The crew then put the aircraft into a descent, and as it descended lower it hit a high voltage power line, bursting into flames. Ed Darlington of radio station WCNR at nearby Bloomsburg said there was no sign of life and apparently everyone was killed. The scene of the wreck was in a wooded area about five miles from Mt. Carmel. News of the crash brought excited whispering from the delegates, No one knew for certain whether any high Republican officials were on the plane. Ira F. Roadarmel of Mt. Carmel, one of the first persons on the scene, the largest piece of the plane left was an engine. The rest of the plane was in small parts — so small they could be carried, George Minnich, an employee of Midvalley Colliery No. 2, which the plane missed by only 100 yards in its descent, suddenly there was a horrible crash, he said. All you could see was a mass of flames and it sounded as though the end of the world was coming. The planes logbook, found near the scene of the crash in a wooded area. After a 52-minute turnaround, the DC-6 departed for New York, the airplane climbed en route to its planned altitude of 17,000 feet. At 12,23, and at 12,27 the crew made a routine acknowledgment of a clearance to descend en route to an altitude between 13,000 and 11,000 feet. A little later a fire warning led the crew to believe that a fire had erupted in the cargo hold. They then discharged at least one bank of the CO2 fire extinguisher bottles in the cargo hold
11.
Coronet (magazine)
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Coronet was a general interest digest magazine published from October 23,1936, to March 1971 and ran for 299 issues. The magazine was owned by Esquire and published by David A, each issue had a wide variety of articles and features, as well as a condensed book section. Poetry was featured, along with advice and star stories. The sister company Coronet Films was promoted in most issues as well, articles on culture and the arts were mixed with adventure stories and social advice. Coronet Films were also produced by David Smart and the Esquire company, primarily thought of as school films, its titles included Fun of Being Thoughtful, Dating, Dos and Donts, and Where Does Our Meat Come From. Arnold Gingrich Fritz Bamberger Pageant Readers Digest Sunshine Coronet magazine records at Syracuse University] WorldCat The Genius of Passion, Esquire, Coronet and Ken Magazines
12.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
13.
Liberalism in the United States
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Liberalism in the United States is a broad political philosophy centered on the unalienable rights of the individual. Modern liberalism in the United States includes issues such as marriage, voting rights for all adult citizens, civil rights, environmentalism. The origins of American liberalism lie in the ideals of the Enlightenment. The Constitution of the United States of 1787 set up the first modern republic, with sovereignty in the people, however, the Constitution limited liberty, in particular by accepting slavery. The Founding Fathers recognized the contradiction, and most expected slavery to wither away, indeed, it was abolished in all the Northern states by 1804, but due to the demand for raw cotton by the Industrial Revolution, plantation slavery continued to flourish in the Deep South. From the time of the American Revolution to the present day, the states abolished many restrictions on voting for white males in the early 19th century. The Constitution was amended in 1865 to abolish slavery, in 1870 to extend the vote to Black men, in 1920 to extend the vote to women, and in 1971 to lower the voting age to 18. The Jim Crow system of the South between the 1890s and 1960s relegated blacks to second class citizenship, until it was overthrown by the Civil Rights Movement, thomas Jefferson believed that America should remain a nation of small farmers. As the American economy began to shift to manufacturing and services, liberals began to fear threats to liberty from corruption and monopolies. The dominance of the Republican Party for most of the era 1860–1932, the Third Party System, during the Progressive Era of the early 20th century, laws were passed restricting monopolies and regulating railroad rates. According to James Reichley, it was during this era that the term took on its current meaning. Prior to the early 1900s, the term had usually described classical liberalism, which emphasizes limited government, and Theodore Roosevelt who came out of retirement to run again for president under a third party called Progressive Party. Later, political figures such as Franklin Roosevelt adopted the term liberal to describe an individual in favor of some government activism, after 1933, modern liberals used the New Deal to provide jobs during the Great Depression. The Social Security Act of 1935 provided retirement and disability income for Americans unable to work or unable to find jobs, in the Social Security Act of 1965, this was extended to provide benefits for Americans unable to work due to illness. A reaction against modern American liberalism began with Barry Goldwater, which led to the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. Deregulation began in the mid-1970s and had support from both liberals and conservatives. Clinton pushed to extend modern liberal ideals especially in the areas of health care, according to Louis Hartz, liberalism was the only significant political tradition in the United States. However, in the 1970s, Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, in the 1980s, J. David Green returned to Hartzs thesis, but saw two different types of liberalism in the tradition, which he called humanist and reform
14.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
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United States Postmaster General
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The Postmaster General of the United States is the chief executive officer of the United States Postal Service. The office, in one form or another, is older than both the United States Constitution and the United States Declaration of Independence, benjamin Franklin was appointed by the Continental Congress as the first Postmaster General in 1775, serving just over 15 months. Until 1971, the general was the head of the Post Office Department. From 1829 to 1971, he was a member of the Presidents Cabinet, the Cabinet post of Postmaster General was often given to a new Presidents campaign manager or other key political supporter, and was considered something of a sinecure. The Postmaster General was in charge of the partys patronage. In 1971, the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, therefore, the Postmaster General is no longer a member of the Cabinet and is no longer in Presidential succession. The Postmaster General is the second-highest paid U. S. government official, based on publicly available salary information, as of July 2016, there are seven living former Postmasters General, the oldest being W. Marvin Watson. The most recent Postmaster General to die was Preston Robert Tisch, on November 15,2005
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Frank Comerford Walker
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Frank Comerford Walker was an American lawyer and politician. He served as the United States Postmaster General between 1940 and 1945 and he also served as the chairman of the Democratic National Committee from 1943 until 1944. He was born in Plymouth, Pennsylvania and he attended Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington for three years and earned a law degree from Notre Dame in 1909. He then joined his older brother Thomas in a law practice in Butte, in 1913, he was elected to a term as a Montana state representative. During World War I, Walker volunteered for the U. S. Army and he became a first lieutenant and saw action on the Western Front. After the war, he returned to his law practice, in 1925, he moved to New York City, where he became manager and general counsel of Comerford Theatres, a chain of movie theaters owned by his relative Michael Comerford. In New York, Walker expanded his activities, and became an early supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1931, he co-founded the Roosevelt for President Society, in 1932, he became Treasurer of the Democratic National Committee. Until Roosevelts death, Walker was one of his closest advisers, when Roosevelt became President in 1933, he appointed Walker executive secretary of the National Emergency Council, a New Deal agency related to the NRA. In 1940, Walker became Postmaster General, as Postmaster General, Walker continued his role as political adviser, often taking part in matters far removed from the Post Office. For instance, during the negotiations which preceded the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, in 1943, Walker also became Chairman of the DNC, serving until 1944. In 1944, he stepped down from the DNC, and was succeeded by Robert Hannegan, in May 1945, Walker announced his retirement as Postmaster General, to allow President Harry Truman to appoint his own candidate to the office. Truman selected Hannegan to succeed Walker in this too, effective 1 July. Later in 1945, Truman appointed Walker as a member of the first U. S. delegation to the United Nations and he died in New York City, New York on September 13,1959, at the age of 73
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Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
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United States Postal Service
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The United States Postal Service, is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution, Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, where Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The USPS as of February 2015 has 617,254 active employees, the USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price, the USPS has exclusive access to letter boxes marked U. S. The USPS lost $5.5 billion in fiscal year 2014 and $5.1 billion in 2015, in the early years of the North American colonies, many attempts were made to initiate a postal service. These early attempts were of small scale and usually involved a colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony for example, for example, informal independently-run postal routes operated in Boston as early as 1639, with a Boston to New York City service starting in 1672. A central postal organization came to the colonies in 1691, when Thomas Neale received a 21-year grant from the British Crown for a North American Postal Service, the patent included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. The tax was repealed a year later, Neale appointed Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey, as his deputy postmaster. The first postal service in America commenced in February 1692, rates of postage were fixed and authorized, and measures were taken to establish a post office in each town in Virginia. Massachusetts and the other colonies soon passed laws, and a very imperfect post office system was established. Neales patent expired in 1710, when Parliament extended the English postal system to the colonies, the chief office was established in New York City, where letters were conveyed by regular packets across the Atlantic. Before the Revolution, there was only a trickle of business or governmental correspondence between the colonies, most of the mail went back and forth to counting houses and government offices in London. The Revolution made Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, News, new laws, political intelligence, and military orders circulated with a new urgency, and a postal system was necessary. Journalists took the lead, securing post office legislation that allowed them to reach their subscribers at very low cost, overthrowing the London-oriented imperial postal service in 1774-1775, printers enlisted merchants and the new political leadership, and created a new postal system. The United States Post Office was created on July 26,1775, the official post office was created in 1792 as the Post Office Department. It was based on the Constitutional authority empowering Congress To establish post offices, the 1792 law provided for a greatly expanded postal network, and served editors by charging newspapers an extremely low rate. The law guaranteed the sanctity of personal correspondence, and provided the country with low-cost access to information on public affairs. Rufus Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson first postmaster of St. Louis under the recommendation of Postmaster General Gideon Granger, Rufus Easton was the first postmaster and built the first post office west of the Mississippi
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Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
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First Amendment to the United States Constitution
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It was adopted on December 15,1791, as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification, initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. Beginning with Gitlow v. New York, the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states—a process known as incorporation—through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, commercial speech, however, is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation. The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, in Near v. Minnesota and New York Times v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint—pre-publication censorship—in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, eight of the other thirteen states made similar pledges. However, these declarations were generally considered mere admonitions to state legislatures, after a brief debate, Masons proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations. For the constitution to be ratified, however, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions, opposition to ratification was partly based on the Constitutions lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states and this language was greatly condensed by Congress, and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate, complicating future discussion of the Amendments intent. The First Amendment, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights, was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25,1789, and adopted on December 15,1791. In Reynolds v. United States the Supreme Court used these words to declare that it may be accepted almost as a declaration of the scope. Congress was deprived of all power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. In these two sentences is found the distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State. Originally, the First Amendment applied only to the federal government, Massachusetts, for example, was officially Congregationalist until the 1830s. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, in the words of Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect a wall of separation between church and State. That wall must be high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach, in Torcaso v. Watkins, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution prohibits states and the federal government from requiring any kind of religious test for public office
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Periodical literature
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Periodical literature is a published work that appears in a new edition on a regular schedule. The most familiar example is the magazine, typically published weekly, monthly, newspapers, often published daily or weekly, are, strictly speaking, serials, not periodicals. Other examples of periodicals are newsletters, literary magazines, academic journals, science magazines and these examples are typically published and referenced by volume and issue. Volume typically refers to the number of years the publication has been circulated, for example, the April 2011 publication of a monthly magazine first published in 2002 would be listed as, Volume 10, Issue 4. Roman numerals are used in reference to the Volume number. When citing a work in a periodical, there are standardized formats such as The Chicago Manual of Style. In the latest edition of this style, a work with volume number 17 and issue number 3 may be written as follows, James M. Heilman, wikipedia and Medicine, Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language. Journal of Medical Internet Research 17, no.3, periodicals can be classified into two types, popular and scholarly. Scholarly journals are most commonly found in libraries and databases, examples are The Journal of Psychology and the Journal of Social Work. Trade/professional magazine are also examples of periodicals and they are written for an audience of professionals in the world. As of the early 1990s, there were over 6,000 business, technical, academic, scientific and trade publications in the United States alone. These examples are related to the idea of a continuing cycle of production and publication, magazines plan to continue publishing. A novel, in contrast, might be published in monthly parts and this approach is called part-publication, particularly when each part is from a whole work, or a serial, for example in comic books. It flourished during the century, for example with Abraham John Valpys Delphin Classics. The International Standard Serial Number is to serial publications what the International Standard Book Number is to books, postal services often carry periodicals at a preferential rate, for example, Second Class Mail in the United States only applies to publications issued at least quarterly
22.
Ernest Hemingway
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Ernest Miller Hemingway was an American novelist, short story writer, and journalist. His economical and understated style had a influence on 20th-century fiction, while his life of adventure. Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s, and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 and he published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction works. Additional works, including three novels, four short story collections, and three works, were published posthumously. Many of his works are considered classics of American literature, Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After high school, he reported for a few months for The Kansas City Star, in 1918, he was seriously wounded and returned home. His wartime experiences formed the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms, in 1921, he married Hadley Richardson, the first of his four wives. The couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a correspondent and fell under the influence of the modernist writers. He published his novel, The Sun Also Rises, in 1926. Martha Gellhorn became his wife in 1940, they separated when he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II. He was present at the Normandy landings and the liberation of Paris, Hemingway maintained permanent residences in Key West, Florida, and Cuba, and in 1959, he bought a house in Ketchum, Idaho, where he killed himself in mid-1961. Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21,1899, in Oak Park, Illinois and his father, Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, was a physician, and his mother, Grace Hall Hemingway, was a musician. Both were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park, a community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said. For a short period after their marriage, Clarence and Grace Hemingway lived at first with Graces father, Ernest Hall, their first sons namesake. Later, Ernest Hemingway would say that he disliked his name, the family eventually moved into a seven-bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood with a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence. Hemingways mother frequently performed in concerts around the village, as an adult, Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm. The family spent summers at Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, from 1913 until 1917, Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School. He took part in a number of sports—boxing, track and field, water polo and he excelled in English classes, and with his sister Marcelline, performed in the school orchestra for two years
23.
F. Scott Fitzgerald
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Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald, known professionally as F. Scott Fitzgerald, was an American novelist and short story writer, whose works illustrate the Jazz Age. While he achieved limited success in his lifetime, he is now regarded as one of the greatest American writers of the 20th century. Fitzgerald is considered a member of the Lost Generation of the 1920s and he finished four novels, This Side of Paradise, The Beautiful and Damned, The Great Gatsby, and Tender Is the Night. A fifth, unfinished novel, The Last Tycoon, was published posthumously, Fitzgerald also wrote numerous short stories, many of which treat themes of youth and promise, and age and despair. He was also named after his sister, Louise Scott Fitzgerald. Well, three months before I was born, he wrote as an adult, my mother lost her two children. I think I started then to be a writer and his mother was Mary Molly McQuillan Fitzgerald, the daughter of an Irish immigrant who had made his fortune in the wholesale grocery business. Fitzgerald was the first cousin once removed of Mary Surratt, hanged in 1865 for conspiring to assassinate Abraham Lincoln, Edward Fitzgerald had earlier worked as a wicker furniture salesman, he joined Procter & Gamble when the business failed. His parents, both Catholic, sent Fitzgerald to two Catholic schools on the West Side of Buffalo, first Holy Angels Convent and then Nardin Academy and his formative years in Buffalo revealed him to be a boy of unusual intelligence with a keen early interest in literature. His doting mother ensured that her son had all the advantages of an upper-middle-class upbringing and her inheritance and donations from an aunt allowed the family to live a comfortable lifestyle. In a rather unconventional style of parenting, Fitzgerald attended Holy Angels with the arrangement that he go for only half a day—and was allowed to choose which half. In 1908, his father was fired from Procter & Gamble, and the returned to Minnesota. When he was 13, he saw his first piece of writing appear in print—a detective story published in the school newspaper. In 1911, when Fitzgerald was 15 years old, his parents sent him to the Newman School, Fitzgerald played on the 1912 Newman football team. At Newman, he met Father Sigourney Fay, who noticed his incipient talent with the written word, after graduating from the Newman School in 1913, Fitzgerald decided to stay in New Jersey to continue his artistic development at Princeton University. He tried out for the football team, but was cut the first day of practice. He firmly dedicated himself at Princeton to honing his craft as a writer and he wrote for the Princeton Triangle Club, the Nassau Lit, and the Princeton Tiger. He also was involved in the American Whig-Cliosophic Society, which ran the Nassau Lit and his absorption in the Triangle—a kind of musical-comedy society—led to his submission of a novel to Charles Scribners Sons where the editor praised the writing but ultimately rejected the book
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Alberto Moravia
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Alberto Moravia, born Alberto Pincherle, was an Italian novelist and journalist. His novels explored matters of sexuality, social alienation and existentialism. Moravia is best known for his debut novel Gli indifferenti and for the anti-fascist novel Il Conformista, Cedric Kahns LEnnui is another version of La Noia. It is what we are forced to do that forms our character and his writing was marked by its factual, cold, precise style, often depicting the malaise of the bourgeoisie. It was rooted in the tradition of narrative, underpinned by high social and cultural awareness. In his world, where inherited social, religious and moral beliefs were no longer acceptable, he considered sex and money the only criteria for judging social, between 1959 and 1962 Moravia was president of PEN International, the worldwide association of writers. Alberto Pincherle was born in Via Sgambati in Rome, Italy and his Jewish Venetian father, Carlo, was an architect and a painter. His Catholic Anconitan mother, Teresa Iginia de Marsanich, was of Dalmatian origin and his family had interesting twists and developed a complex cultural and political character. Moravia did not finish conventional schooling because, at the age of nine, he contracted tuberculosis of the bone and he spent three years at home and two in a sanatorium near Cortina dAmpezzo, in north-eastern Italy. He learned French and German and wrote poems in French and Italian, in 1925 at the age of 18, he left the sanatorium and moved to Bressanone. During the next three years, partly in Bressanone and partly in Rome, he began to write his first novel, Gli indifferenti, the novel is a realistic analysis of the moral decadence of a middle-class mother and two of her children. In 1927, Moravia met Corrado Alvaro and Massimo Bontempelli and started his career as a journalist with the magazine 900, the journal published his first short stories, including Cortigiana stanca, Delitto al circolo del tennis, Il ladro curioso and Apparizione. Gli indifferenti was published at his own expense, costing 5,000 Italian lira, literary critics described the novel as a noteworthy example of contemporary Italian narrative fiction. The next year, Moravia started collaborating with the newspaper La Stampa, in 1933, together with Mario Pannunzio, he founded the literary review magazines Caratteri and Oggi and started writing for the newspaper Gazzetta del Popolo. The years leading to World War II were difficult for Moravia as an author, in 1935 he traveled to the United States to give a lecture series on Italian literature. Limbroglio was published by Bompiani in 1937, to avoid Fascist censorship, Moravia wrote mainly in the surrealist and allegoric styles, among the works is Il sogno del pigro. The Fascist seizure of the edition of La mascherata in 1941. That same year, he married the novelist Elsa Morante, whom he had met in 1936 and they lived in Capri, where he wrote Agostino
25.
Julian Huxley
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Sir Julian Sorell Huxley FRS was a British evolutionary biologist, eugenicist, and internationalist. He was a proponent of natural selection, and a figure in the mid-twentieth century modern evolutionary synthesis. He was secretary of the Zoological Society of London, the first Director of UNESCO, a member of the World Wildlife Fund. Huxley was well known for his presentation of science in books and articles and he directed an Oscar-winning wildlife film. He was awarded UNESCOs Kalinga Prize for the popularisation of science in 1953, the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society in 1956, and the Darwin–Wallace Medal of the Linnaean Society in 1958. He was also knighted in that year,1958, a hundred years after Charles Darwin. In 1959 he received a Special Award of the Lasker Foundation in the category Planned Parenthood – World Population, Huxley was a prominent member of the British Eugenics Society and its president from 1959–1962. There is a house named after Sir Julian in Selsdon, Surrey. Huxley came from the distinguished Huxley family and his maternal grandfather was the academic Tom Arnold, his great-uncle was poet Matthew Arnold and his great-grandfather was Thomas Arnold of Rugby School. Huxley was born on 22 June 1887, at the London house of his aunt, Huxley grew up at the family home in Surrey, England, where he showed an early interest in nature, as he was given lessons by his grandfather, Thomas Henry Huxley. When he heard his grandfather talking at dinner about the lack of care in fish, Julian piped up with What about the stickleback. Also, according to Julian himself, his grandfather took him to visit J. D. Hooker at Kew, at Eton he developed an interest in ornithology, guided by science master W. D. Piggy Hill. Piggy was a genius as a teacher… I have always been grateful to him, in 1905 Huxley won a scholarship in Zoology to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1906, after a summer in Germany, Huxley took his place in Oxford, in the autumn term of his final year,1908, his mother died from cancer at only 46, a terrible blow for her husband, three sons, and eight-year-old daughter Margaret. That same year he won the Newdigate Prize for his poem Holyrood, in 1909 he graduated with first class honours, and spent that July at the international gathering for the centenary of Darwins birth, held at the University of Cambridge. Also, it was the anniversary of the publication of the Origin of species. Huxley was awarded a scholarship to spend a year at the Naples Marine Biological Station where he developed his interest in biology by investigating sea squirts. Bird watching in childhood had given Huxley his interest in ornithology and his particular interest was bird behaviour, especially the courtship of water birds
26.
George Petty
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George Brown Petty IV was an American pin-up artist. His pin-up art appeared primarily in Esquire and Fawcett Publicationss True but was also in calendars marketed by Esquire, True, Pettys Esquire gatefolds originated and popularized the magazine device of centerfold spreads. Reproductions of his work were widely rendered by military artists as nose art decorating warplanes during the Second World War, including the Memphis Belle, George Petty was born in Abbeville, the seat of Vermilion Parish in south Louisiana to George Brown Petty III and his wife, Sarah. George, IV, was the second child, his sister Elizabeth had been born in 1891. Petty was not a good student in high school, spending a great deal of time on extracurricular activities instead of schoolwork. His artistic bent first became obvious in high school, where he was the staff artist for the school newspaper and he also worked in his fathers photo shop where he learned how to use an airbrush. Petty studied art at the Académie Julian with Jean-Paul Laurens and others until 1916, Petty returned to Chicago, and worked as an airbrush retoucher for a local printing company. He was able to establish himself as a freelance artist, painting calendar girls, by 1926, he was able to open his own studio. George Petty never discussed in detail those artists who influenced him, leyendecker for his interpretation of men, Coles Phillips for his technique, and Maxfield Parrish for his use of light. Petty is especially known for the Petty Girl, a series of paintings of women done for Esquire from the autumn of 1933 until 1956. Petty frequently depicted these women with the lengths of their legs being longer—and the relative sizes of their heads being smaller—than those of his actual models. Petty appeared as a guest on the popular TV program Whats My Line, Petty died in San Pedro, California, on July 21,1975. An image of a Petty Girl talking on a phone was used as the art on the famous World War II B-17 Flying Fortress. An image of a Petty Girl was used in The Beatles Sgt, peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band album. Robert Cummings portrayed George Petty in the musical comedy The Petty Girl, directed by Henry Levin. Nat Perrins screenplay was based on a story by Mary McCarthy, the film is also notable for several lilting, lighthearted songs composed by Harold Arlen and Johnny Mercer, including Fancy Free and I Loves Ya. The large production number at the finale is The Petty Girl by Arlen and Mercer, performed by Joan Caulfield, the Petty Girls, reid Stewart Austin examined the life and art of George Petty in the 192-page Petty, The Classic Pin-Up Art of George Petty. Published by Gramercy in 1997, the lavish volume features a foreword by Hugh Hefner and an essay by Pettys daughter, Marjorie Petty
27.
Alberto Vargas
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Joaquin Alberto Vargas y Chávez was a noted Peruvian painter of pin-up girls. He is often considered one of the most famous of the pin-up artists, numerous Vargas paintings have sold and continue to sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars. Born in Arequipa, Peru, he was the son of noted Peruvian photographer Max T. Vargas, Alberto Vargas moved to the United States in 1916 after studying art in Europe, Zurich, and Geneva prior to World War I. While he was in Europe he came upon the French magazine La Vie Parisienne, with a cover by Raphael Kirchner and his early career in New York included work as an artist for the Ziegfeld Follies and for many Hollywood studios. Ziegfeld hung his painting of Olive Thomas at the theater, Vargas most famous piece of film work was for the poster of the 1933 film The Sin of Nora Moran, which shows a near-naked Zita Johann in a pose of desperation. The poster is frequently named one of the greatest movie ever made. He became widely noted in the 1940s as the creator of iconic World War-II era pin-ups for Esquire magazine known as Varga Girls, between 1940 and 1946 Vargas produced 180 paintings for the magazine. The nose art of many American and Allied World War II aircraft was inspired and adapted from these Esquire pin-ups, as well as those of George Petty, the Feds objected, most especially, to the cartoons and the pin-up art of Alberto Vargas. Esquire prevailed in the case went to the Supreme Court. A legal dispute with Esquire over the use of the name Varga resulted in a judgement against Vargas and he struggled financially until 1959 when Playboy magazine began to use his work. Over the next 16 years he produced 152 paintings for the magazine and his career flourished and he had major exhibitions of his work all over the world. Vargas artistic work, paintings and color drawings, were featured in some issues of Playboy magazine in the 1960s and 1970s. The death of his wife Anna Mae in 1974 left him devastated, Anna Mae had been his model and business manager, his muse in every way. He died of a stroke on 30 December 1982, at the age of 86, many of Vargas works from his period with Esquire are now held by the Spencer Museum of Art at the University of Kansas. It was given those works in 1980 along with a body of other art from the magazine. At the December 2003 Christies auction of Playboy archives, the 1967 Vargas painting Trick or Treat sold for $71,600 and his work was typically a combination of watercolor and airbrush. His mastery of the airbrush is acknowledged by the founding of the Vargas Award, awarded annually by Airbrush Action Magazine, despite always using figure models, he often portrayed elegantly dressed, semi-nude to nude women of idealized proportions. Vargas artistic trait would be slender fingers and toes, with nails often painted red, Vargas is widely regarded as one of the finest artists in his genre
28.
New Journalism
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New Journalism is a style of news writing and journalism, developed in the 1960s and 70s, which used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. This was in contrast to traditional journalism where the journalist was typically invisible, the phenomenon of New Journalism is generally considered to have ended by the early 1980s. Contemporary journalists and writers questioned the newness of New Journalism, as well as whether it qualified as a distinct genre, the subjective nature of the New Journalism received extensive exploration, one critic suggested the genres practitioners were functioning more as sociologists or psychoanalysts, than as journalists. Criticism has been leveled at numerous individual writers in the genre, various people and tendencies throughout the history of American journalism have been labeled new journalism. Robert E. Park, for instance, in his Natural History of the Newspaper, likewise, the appearance of the yellow press—papers such as Joseph Pulitzers New York World in the 1880s—led journalists and historians to proclaim that a New Journalism had been created. During the 1960s and 1970s, the term enjoyed widespread popularity, although James E. Murphy noted that. most uses of the term seem to refer to something more specific than vague new directions in journalism, Curtis D. Michael Johnsons The New Journalism addresses itself to three phenomena, the press, the artists of nonfiction, and changes in the established media. However, at the time, the target of Arnolds irritation was not Northcliffe and he strongly disapproved of the muck-raking Stead, and declared that, under Stead, the P. M. G. Whatever may be its merits, is fast ceasing to be literature, Stead called his brand of journalism Government by Journalism How and when the term New Journalism began to refer to a genre is not clear. Tom Wolfe, a practitioner and principal advocate of the form, trying to shed light on the matter, literary critic Seymour Krim offered his explanation in 1973. Im certain that Hamill first used the expression, in about April of 1965 he called me at Nugget Magazine, where I was editorial director, and told me he wanted to write an article about new New Journalism. It was to be about the things being done in the old reporting genre by Talese, Wolfe. He never wrote the piece, so far as I know and it was picked up and stuck. A report of John F. Kennedys nomination that year, the established a precedent which Mailer would later build on in his 1968 convention coverage. Wolfe wrote that his first acquaintance with a new style of reporting came in a 1962 Esquire article about Joe Louis by Gay Talese, Joe Louis at Fiftya wasnt like a magazine article at all. It was like a short story and it began with a scene, an intimate confrontation between Louis and his third wife. Wolfe said Talese was the first to apply techniques to reporting. Esquire claimed credit as the seedbed for these new techniques, soon others, notably New York, followed Esquires lead, and the style eventually infected other magazines and then books
29.
Norman Mailer
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Norman Kingsley Mailer was an American novelist, journalist, essayist, playwright, film-maker, actor, and political activist. His novel The Naked and the Dead was published in 1948 and his best-known work was widely considered to be The Executioners Song, which was published in 1979, and for which he won one of his two Pulitzer Prizes. In addition to the Pulitzer Prize, his book Armies of the Night was awarded the National Book Award, along with Truman Capote, Joan Didion, Hunter S. Mailer was also known for his essays, the most renowned of which was The White Negro. He was a commentator and critic, expressing his views through his novels, journalism, essays. In 1955, Mailer and three others founded The Village Voice, an arts- and politics-oriented weekly newspaper distributed in Greenwich Village, Mailer was born to a Jewish family in Long Branch, New Jersey. His father, Isaac Barnett Mailer, was an accountant born in South Africa, Mailers sister, Barbara, was born in 1927. Raised in Brooklyn, New York, Mailer graduated from Boys High School and entered Harvard University in 1939, as an undergraduate, he was a member of the Signet Society. At Harvard, he studied engineering, and became interested in writing. He published his first story at the age of 18, winning Story magazines college contest in 1941, after graduating in 1943, he was drafted into the U. S. Army. Hoping to gain a deferment from service, Mailer argued that he was writing an important literary work which pertained to the war and this deferral was denied, and Mailer was forced to enter the Army. After training at Fort Bragg, Mailer was stationed in the Philippines with the 112th Cavalry, during his time in the Philippines, Mailer worked as a cook and saw little combat. He participated in a patrol on the island of Leyte and this lesson inspired Mailer to write his first novel, The Naked and the Dead. Mailer wrote 12 novels over a 59-year span, in 1948, while continuing his studies at the University of Paris, Mailer published his first, The Naked and the Dead, based on his military service in World War II. A New York Times best seller for 62 weeks, it was hailed by many as one of the best American wartime novels and this book that made his reputation is rarely read today. The same newspaper described the book as, a hard read today, barbary Shore was mauled by the critics. It was a parable of Cold War leftist politics set in a Brooklyn rooming-house. His 1955 novel The Deer Park drew on his experiences working as a screenwriter in Hollywood in 1949–50 and it was initially rejected by seven publishers due to its purportedly sexual content before being published by Putnams. It was not a success, at one point Mailer took out an advertisement that defiantly quoted his many bad reviews
30.
Tim O'Brien (author)
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In addition, he is known for his war novel, Going After Cacciato, also written about wartime Vietnam. OBrien has held the chair at the MFA program of Texas State University–San Marcos every other year since the 2003-2004 year. OBrien was born in Austin, Minnesota, when he was seven, his family, including a younger sister and brother, moved to Worthington, also in southern Minnesota. Worthington had a influence on O’Brien’s imagination and early development as an author. The town is located on Lake Okabena in the portion of the state and serves as the setting for some of his stories. OBrien earned his BA in Political Science from Macalester College, where he was student body president, in 1968. That same year he was drafted into the United States Army and was sent to Vietnam and he served in the division that contained a unit involved in the infamous My Lai Massacre the year before his arrival. OBrien has said that when his unit got to the area around My Lai and we did not know there had been a massacre there a year earlier. The news about that came out later, while we were there. Upon completing his tour of duty, OBrien went on to school at Harvard University. His writing career was launched in 1973 with the release of If I Die in a Combat Zone, Box Me Up and Ship Me Home, in this memoir, OBrien writes, Can the foot soldier teach anything important about war, merely for having been there. While OBrien insists it is not his job or his place to discuss the politics of the Vietnam War, he does occasionally pass some basic commentary. Speaking years later about his upbringing and the war, OBrien called his hometown a town that congratulates itself, day after day, on its own ignorance of the world, a town that got us into Vietnam. Uh, the people in that town sent me to that war, you know, contrasting the continuing American search for U. S. MIA/POWs in Vietnam with the reality of the Vietnamese war dead, he calls the American perspective A perverse and outrageous double standard. What if the Vietnamese were to ask us, or to us, to locate. Numbers alone make it impossible,100,000 is a conservative estimate, from my own sliver of experience — one year at war, one set of eyes — I can testify to the lasting anonymity of a great many Vietnamese dead. One attribute of OBriens work is the blur between fiction and reality, labeled verisimilitude, his work contains actual details of the situations he experienced. Although this is a literary technique, his conscious, explicit
31.
Gay Talese
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Gay Talese is an American writer. As a journalist for The New York Times and Esquire magazine in the 1960s, Taleses most famous articles are about Joe DiMaggio and Frank Sinatra. Talese is a writer at the Master of Professional Writing Program at the University of Southern California each spring. Gay Talese was born into a Catholic Italian-American family in Ocean City, New Jersey and his father, Joseph Talese, was a tailor who had emigrated to the United States in 1922 from Maida, a town in the region of Calabria in southern Italy. His mother, the former Catherine DePaolo, was a buyer for a Brooklyn department store, Talese recounted his early years in his book Unto the Sons. Talese graduated from Ocean City High School in 1949, Talese has been married to another writer, Nan Talese, for over 50 years. Talese remains active in the Italian American community, including the National Italian American Foundation, Talese has been an outspoken advocate for more Italian Americans to pursue careers in writing and editing. Taleses entry into writing was entirely happenstance, and the consequence of the then high school sophomores attempt to gain more playing time on the baseball team. After only seven sports articles, Talese was given his own column for the weekly Ocean City Sentinel-Ledger, by the time Talese left for college in September 1949, he had written some 311 stories and columns for the Sentinel-Ledger. He relates in A Writers Life, I learned, to listen with patience and care, and never to interrupt even when people were having great difficulty in explaining themselves, for during such halting and imprecise moments. People are very revealing—what they hesitate to talk about can tell much about them, Talese was accepted to the University of Alabama, where his selection of a major was, as he described it, a moot choice. I chose journalism as my college major because that is what I knew, he recalls, at the University, Gay Talese became a brother of Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity. It was here that Talese would begin to employ literary devices more well known in fiction, such as establishing the scene with minute details, t-shirted Bobby Marlow was just leaving the Sunday morning bull session and dapper Bill Kilroy had just purchased the morning newspapers. This was before Lillian Ross did the same in Picture or Truman Capote used the technique in The Muses are Heard, more importantly, Talese included among his subjects both the losers and the unnoticed. He was more interested in those who did not attain the glory of winning, after graduating in June 1953, Talese moved to New York City, yet could only find work as a copyboy. The job was, however, at the esteemed New York Times, Talese was eventually able to get an article published in the Times, albeit unsigned. In Times Square Anniversary, Talese interviewed the man, Herbert Kesner, Broadcast Editor, Talese followed this with an article in the February 21,1954 edition, concerning the chairs used on the boardwalk of Atlantic City. Yet, his journalism career would have to be put on hold – Talese was drafted into the United States Army in 1954
32.
Tom Wolfe
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His first novel, The Bonfire of the Vanities, published in 1987, was met with critical acclaim, became a commercial success, and was adapted as a major motion picture. Wolfe was born in Richmond, Virginia, the son of Louise, a landscape designer, Wolfe grew up on Gloucester Road in the historic Richmond North Side neighborhood of Sherwood Park. He recounts some of his memories of growing up there in a foreword to a book about the nearby historic Ginter Park neighborhood. Wolfe was student council president, editor of the newspaper and a star baseball player at St. Christophers School. Wolfe majored in English and practiced his writing outside the classroom as well and he was the sports editor of the college newspaper and helped found a literary magazine, Shenandoah. Of particular influence was his professor Marshall Fishwick, a teacher of American studies educated at Yale, more in the tradition of anthropology than literary scholarship, Fishwick taught his classes to look at the whole of a culture, including those elements considered profane. The very title of Wolfes undergraduate thesis, A Zoo Full of Zebras, Anti-Intellectualism in America, evinced his fondness for words, Wolfe graduated cum laude in 1951. Wolfe had continued playing baseball as a pitcher and had begun to play semi-professionally while still in college, in 1952 he earned a tryout with the New York Giants but was cut after three days, which Wolfe blamed on his inability to throw good fastballs. Wolfe abandoned baseball and instead followed his professor Fishwicks example, enrolling in Yale Universitys American studies doctoral program and his PhD thesis was titled The League of American Writers, Communist Organizational Activity Among American Writers, 1929–1942. In the course of his research, Wolfe interviewed many writers, including Malcolm Cowley, Archibald MacLeish, and James T. Farrell. A biographer remarked on the thesis, Reading it, one sees what has been the most baleful influence of education on many who have suffered through it, it deadens all sense of style. His thesis was rejected but it was finally accepted after he rewrote it in an objective rather than a subjective style. Upon leaving Yale he wrote a friend explaining through expletives his personal opinions about his thesis, though Wolfe was offered teaching jobs in academia, he opted to work as a reporter. In 1956, while preparing his thesis, Wolfe became a reporter for the Springfield Union in Springfield. Wolfe finished his thesis in 1957 and in 1959 was hired by The Washington Post, Wolfe has said that part of the reason he was hired by the Post was his lack of interest in politics. The Posts city editor was amazed that Wolfe preferred cityside to Capitol Hill and he won an award from The Newspaper Guild for foreign reporting in Cuba in 1961 and also won the Guilds award for humor. While there, he experimented with fiction-writing techniques in feature stories, in 1962, Wolfe left Washington for New York City, taking a position with the New York Herald Tribune as a general assignment reporter and feature writer. The editors of the Herald Tribune, including Clay Felker of the Sunday section supplement New York magazine, during the 1962 New York City newspaper strike, Wolfe approached Esquire magazine about an article on the hot rod and custom car culture of Southern California
33.
Verve Records
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Verve Records is an American record company operating under the newly-founded Verve Label Group distributed by Interscope Geffen A&M Records. It was founded in 1956 by Norman Granz and it absorbed the catalogues of his earlier labels, Clef Records and Norgran Records, and material previously licensed to Mercury Records. It has been under ownership of Universal Music Group and has expanded to scope newer artists. Norman Granz created Verve to produce new recordings by Ella Fitzgerald, whom he managed, the catalog grew throughout the 1950s and 1960s to include Charlie Parker, Bill Evans, Stan Getz, Billie Holiday, Oscar Peterson, Ben Webster, and Lester Young. Milton Rudin, his attorney, represented Frank Sinatra and knew that Sinatra wanted his own label, Sinatra and Granz made a handshake deal, but negotiations broke down over price and Sinatras desire that Granz remain head of the label. Granz sold Verve to MGM in 1961, Sinatra established Reprise Records and hired Mo Ostin, an executive at Verve, to run it. At Verve, Creed Taylor was made head producer, Taylor adopted a more commercial approach, canceling several contracts. He brought bossa nova to America with the release of Jazz Samba by Stan Getz and Charlie Byrd, Getz/Gilberto, Verves notable arrangers included Claus Ogerman and Oliver Nelson. According to Ogerman in Jazzletter, he arranged 60–70 albums for Verve from 1963–1947, in 1964, Taylor supervised the creation of a folk music subsidiary named Verve Folkways, later renamed Verve Forecast. Taylor left Verve in 1967 to form CTI Records, aside from jazz, Verves catalogue included the Righteous Brothers, the Velvet Underground, Frank Zappa & the Mothers of Invention, and the Blues Project. In the 1970s, Verve became part of the PolyGram, incorporating the Mercury/EmArcy jazz catalog, Verve Records became the Verve Music Group after PolyGram was merged with Seagrams Universal Music Group in 1998. The jazz holdings from the companies were folded into this sub-group. When Universal and Polygram merged in 1998, Verves holdings were merged with Universals GRP Recording Company to become Verve Music Group, after forays into Americana and adult contemporary music, Verve was corporately aligned with Universal Music Enterprises, and was no longer a stand-alone label within UMG. The Verve imprint itself manages much of the catalog that once belonged to PolyGram. Meanwhile, GRP manages the rest of MCA/Universals jazz catalog, including releases once issued on the Decca, the Verve Music Group has expanded its output beyond jazz to include crossover classical music, progressive pop and show tunes. Official site Article about Creed Taylor
34.
Letter (paper size)
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Letter or US Letter is a paper size commonly used as home or office stationery in Canada, the United States, Mexico and the Dominican Republic. It measures 8.5 by 11.0 inches, in the U. S. paper density is usually measured in pounds per ream. Typical Letter paper has a weight of 20 or 24 pounds – the weight of 500 sheets of 17-by-22-inch paper at 70 °F. One ream of 20-pound Letter-sized paper weighs 5 pounds, and a single Letter-sized sheet of 20-pound paper weighs 0.16 ounces, some metric information is typically included on American ream packaging, 20-pound paper is also labeled as 75 g/m2. The most common density of A4 paper is 80 g/m2, the precise origins of the dimensions of US letter size paper are not known. The related paper size known as letter, statement, or organizer L is exactly one half of the US letter size. ANSI/ASME Y14.1 ISO216 Paper size, loose sizes
35.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
36.
GQ
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GQ is an international monthly mens magazine based in New York City. The publication focuses on fashion, style, and culture for men, though articles on food, movies, fitness, sex, music, travel, sports, technology, Gentlemens Quarterly was launched in 1931 in the United States as Apparel Arts. It was a fashion magazine for the clothing trade, aimed primarily at wholesale buyers. Initially it had a limited print run and was aimed solely at industry insiders to enable them to give advice to their customers. The popularity of the magazine among retail customers, who took the magazine from the retailers. Apparel Arts continued until 1957, when it was transformed into a magazine for men. Apparel was dropped from the logo in 1958 with the issue after nine issues. Gentlemans Quarterly was re-branded as GQ in 1967, the rate of publication was increased from quarterly to monthly in 1970. Subsequently, international editions were launched as regional adaptations of the U. S. editorial formula, jim Nelson was named editor-in-chief of GQ in February 2003, during his tenure he worked as both a writer and an editor of several National Magazine Award-nominated pieces. During Nelsons tenure, GQ has become more oriented towards younger readers, nonnie Moore was hired by GQ as fashion editor in 1984, having served in the same position at Mademoiselle and Harpers Bazaar. GQ has been associated with metro-sexuality. They filled their magazines with images of young men sporting fashionable clothes and accessories. And they persuaded other young men to them with a mixture of envy. The magazine has expanded its coverage beyond lifestyle issues, for example, in 2003, Award winning journalist Sabrina Rubin Erdely wrote an 8-page feature story in GQ on famous con man Steve Comisar. GQ first named their Men of the Year in 1996, featuring the recipients in a special issue of the magazine. British GQ launched their annual Men of the Year awards in 2009, spanish GQ launched their Men of the Year awards in 2011 and GQ Australia launched theirs in 2007. Beginning in the 1990s, the magazine pivoted from a pattern of men-only on the cover to introducing including some female actors, models. While the men on the covers remained clothed, the photographs of women were mostly less than fully clothed
