1.
Federal Trade Commission
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The Federal Trade Commission is an independent agency of the United States government, established in 1914 by the Federal Trade Commission Act. Its principal mission is the promotion of consumer protection and the elimination and prevention of anticompetitive business practices, the Federal Trade Commission Act was one of President Woodrow Wilsons major acts against trusts. Trusts and trust-busting were significant political concerns during the Progressive Era. Since its inception, the FTC has enforced the provisions of the Clayton Act, over time, the FTC has been delegated with the enforcement of additional business regulation statutes and has promulgated a number of regulations. He would make the first speech on the House floor advocating its creation on February 21,1912, though the initial bill did not pass, the questions of trusts and antitrust dominated the 1912 election. With the 1912 presidential election decided in favor of the Democrats and Woodrow Wilson, the national debate culminated in Wilsons signing of the FTC Act on September 26, with additional tightening of regulations in the Clayton Antitrust Act three weeks later. The new Federal Trade Commission would absorb the staff and duties of Bureau of Corporations, previously established under the Department of Commerce, the following table lists commissioners as of March 2017. Recent former commissioners were, The Bureau of Consumer Protections mandate is to protect consumers against unfair or deceptive acts or practices in commerce, with the written consent of the Commission, Bureau attorneys enforce federal laws related to consumer affairs and rules promulgated by the FTC. Its functions include investigations, enforcement actions, and consumer and business education, areas of principal concern for this bureau are, advertising and marketing, financial products and practices, telemarketing fraud, privacy and identity protection, etc. The bureau also is responsible for the United States National Do Not Call Registry, under the FTC Act, the Commission has the authority, in most cases, to bring its actions in federal court through its own attorneys. In some consumer protection matters, the FTC appears with, or supports, the Bureau of Competition is the division of the FTC charged with elimination and prevention of anticompetitive business practices. It accomplishes this through the enforcement of antitrust laws, review of proposed mergers, the FTC shares enforcement of antitrust laws with the Department of Justice. The FTC investigates issues raised by reports from consumers and businesses, pre-merger notification filings, congressional inquiries and these issues include, for instance, false advertising and other forms of fraud. FTC investigations may pertain to a company or an entire industry. Traditionally an administrative complaint is heard in front of an independent administrative law judge with FTC staff acting as prosecutors. The case is reviewed de novo by the full FTC commission which then may be appealed to the U. S. Court of Appeals, in numerous cases, the FTC employs this authority to combat serious consumer deception or fraud. Additionally, the FTC has rulemaking power to address concerns regarding industry-wide practices, Rules promulgated under this authority are known as Trade Rules. In the mid-1990s, the FTC launched the fraud sweeps concept where the agency and its federal, state, the first sweeps operation was Project Telesweep in July 1995 which cracked down on 100 business opportunity scams
2.
Jimmy Carter
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James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
3.
Virginia Knauer
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Virginia Harrington Knauer was an American Republican politician. She served as the Special Assistant to the President for Consumer Affairs, in 1960 she became the first Republican woman to be elected to the Philadelphia City Council, in which she served for eight years. She was appointed to the newly created post of chief advisor to Pennsylvania Governor Ray Shafer. She was also the mentor and good friend of former North Carolina Senior Senator Elizabeth Dole, Knauer died on October 16,2011 in Washington, D. C. at age 96. Knauer was born Virginia Harrington Wright on March 28,1915 and she grew up in Philadelphia, where her father was a professor of accounting at Temple University. She was educated at the Philadelphia High School for Girls, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, during the 1950s, Knauer was one of the countrys top breeders of Doberman Pinschers. She served as president of the Doberman Pinscher Club of America, a Republican party operative, Knauer was elected to the Philadelphia City Council in 1959. Later, she was the head of the Pennsylvania Bureau of Consumer Protection and she became Richard Nixons special assistant for consumer affairs in 1969. At the time, she was the woman in the administration. She also became the director of the U. S. Office of Consumer Affairs, in 1970, she told The Washington Post, Ive been a feminist for 20 years, and Im all for advancing women in public office. Her top assistant was a lawyer named Elizabeth Hanford, whom she introduced to her future husband, in office, Knauer promoted recycling and nutritional labeling, unit pricing of groceries, and other consumer-friendly features. She also headed the Office of Consumer Affairs during the Gerald Ford, Knauer married Wilhelm F. Knauer, a lawyer, in 1940. Wilhelm Knauer served as Pennsylvania Deputy Attorney General, the Knauers had one son, Judge Wilhelm F. Knauer, Jr. one daughter, Valerie Knauer Burden, and three granddaughters, Virginia Burden, Frances Burden, and Nancy J. Knauer. Virginia Knauer died October 16,2011, of heart failure, in Washington. Brief bio at Penn State Libraries
4.
Lyndon B. Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
5.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
6.
United States Women's Bureau
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The United States Womens Bureau is an agency of the United States government within the United States Department of Labor. The Director is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate and he or she is supported by a staff in the national office as well as ten regional offices. The predecessor of the Womens Bureau was the Woman in Industry Service established on July 1,1918 as a service to employ women. This was the first time the government surveyed women’s employment, Womens Bureau was established by Congress on June 5,1920, just two months before women achieved the right to vote, and continues its responsibility to carry out Public Law 66-259,29 U. S. C. It wasn’t until the WB collaborated with the National Consumers League, in the 1920s and 30s, the WB focused on women’s working conditions in industries including manufacturing, household employment and clothing industry. 21% of American’s employed at this time were women, who worked long hours with little wages, in 1922, the WB began investigating the conditions facing negro women in industry. By focusing on minority groups, Mary Anderson, the Bureau’s first director, was able to get social justice legislation passed for women since the administration largely ignored these groups. The WB successfully advocated for the inclusion of women under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, as American men were mobilized for entering World War II, many women began working in nontraditional roles such as in aircraft plants, shipyards, and manufacturing companies. These jobs also paid more than traditional “women’s work. ”The Bureau shifted its focus in this time to more skills training, wider job opportunities, higher wages. The WB was an agency by 1942 and reports were consistently conservative, often repeating stereotypical ideas of women’s strengths. In the 1940s and 50s, the WB turned its attention how women’s employment outlook, after 1942, the Bureau officials hoped to have an audience in the federal government and to play a large role in labor mobilization. This hope never came to fruition and in April 1942, the War Manpower Commission headed labor mobilization, the Commission, led by Paul McNutt, rejected the idea of having any woman on his labor advisory commission instead creating a Women’s Advisory Committee. However, both the Bureau and the Advisory Committee’s advice regarding women’s employment was often disregarded, in the 1950s and 60s, the WB developed policies and programs to increase women college graduates. The WB played a role in the passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963. It effectively removed the ability to pay employees differently, based on sex, john F. Kennedy signed the law on June 10,1963. However, during time, the Bureau was opposed to the Equal Rights Amendment introduced by the National Woman’s Party in 1923 until Kennedy took office in 1961. This was due to the commitment the WB had in maintaining protective labor legislation for women, during Kennedy’s campaign, he needed to recognize a political constituency. However instead of supporting an ERA during his presidency, he created a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, the Commission was headed by the Women’s Bureau director and ERA opponent, Esther Peterson
7.
Provo, Utah
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Provo /ˈproʊvoʊ/ is the third-largest city in the U. S. state of Utah, located 43 miles south of Salt Lake City along the Wasatch Front. Provo is the largest city and county seat of Utah County and it lies between the cities of Orem to the north and Springville to the south. With a population at the 2010 census of 112,488, Provo is the city in the Provo-Orem metropolitan area. It is the third-largest metropolitan area in Utah after Salt Lake City, the city is the location of Brigham Young University, a private higher education institution, which is operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Provo also has the largest Missionary Training Center for the LDS Church, the city is a focus area for technology development in Utah, with several billion dollar startups operating in Provo. Provo was the city in the United States to work with Google Fiber. The citys Peaks Ice Arena was a venue for the Salt Lake City Winter Olympics in 2002, Sundance Resort is located 13 miles northeast at Provo Canyon. In 2015, Provo was cited among the Best Small And Medium-Size Cities For Jobs, and Utah County, in 2013, Forbes ranked Provo the No.2 city on its list of Best Places for Business and Careers. Provo was ranked first for community optimism, first for volunteerism and its metropolitan area was projected to have the greatest population increase in the 2010 United States Census. The area was originally called Timpanogots and was inhabited by the Timpanogos and it was the largest and most settled area in modern-day Utah. The ample food from the Provo River made the Timpanogos a peaceful people, the area also served as the traditional meeting place for the Ute and Shoshone tribes and as a spot to worship their creator. Father Silvestre Velez de Escalante, a Spanish Franciscan missionary-explorer, is considered the first European explorer to have visited the area and he was guided by two Timpanogos Utes, whom he called Silvestre and Joaquin. Escalante chronicled this first European exploration across the Great Basin desert, the Europeans did not build a permanent settlement, but traded with the Timpanogos whom they called Lagunas or Come Pescado. In 1847, the Mormon Pioneers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley, at first, they were friendly with the Mormons. But, as relations deteriorated with the Shoshoni and Utes because of land claims and stealing of livestock by the Indians, tensions rose. Because of the stolen goods of settlers by the Utes, Brigham Young gave a small militia orders to take such measures as would put a final end to their depredations in future. ”This ended in what is known as the Battle Creek Massacre, in modern-day Pleasant Grove. The Mormons continued pushing into Timpanog lands, in 1849,33 Mormon families from Salt Lake City established Fort Utah. In 1850, Brigham Young sent an army from Salt Lake to drive out the Timpanogos in what is called the Provo War, the ruthlessness of the Mormon invaders angered the Timpanog, which contributed to the Walker War and Black Hawk War
8.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
9.
Brigham Young University
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Brigham Young University is a private research university in Provo, Utah, United States. Approximately 99 percent of the students are members of the LDS Church, many students either delay enrollment or take a hiatus from their studies to serve as Mormon missionaries. An education at BYU is also less expensive than at similar private universities, BYU offers a variety of academic programs, including liberal arts, engineering, agriculture, management, physical and mathematical sciences, nursing, and law. The university is organized into 11 colleges or schools at its main Provo campus, with certain colleges. The universitys primary focus is on education, but it also has 68 masters and 25 doctoral degree programs. BYUs athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the BYU Cougars. Their college football team is an NCAA Division I Independent, while their other teams compete in either the West Coast Conference or Mountain Pacific Sports Federation. BYUs sports teams have won a total of fourteen national championships, on October 16,1875, Brigham Young, then president of the LDS Church, personally purchased the Lewis Building after previously hinting that a school would be built in Draper, Utah, in 1867. Hence, October 16,1875, is held as BYUs founding date. The school broke off from the University of Deseret and became Brigham Young Academy, warren Dusenberry served as interim principal of the school for several months until April 1876 when Brigham Youngs choice for principal arrived—a German immigrant named Karl Maeser. Under Maesers direction the school educated many luminaries including future U. S. Supreme Court Justice George Sutherland, the school, however, did not become a university until the end of Benjamin Cluffs term at the helm of the institution. At that time, the school was still privately supported by members of the community and was not absorbed and sponsored officially by the LDS Church until July 18,1896. A series of odd managerial decisions by Cluff led to his demotion, however, in his last official act, he proposed to the Board that the Academy be named Brigham Young University. The suggestion received an amount of opposition, with many members of the Board saying that the school wasnt large enough to be a university. One opponent to the decision, Anthon H. Lund, later said, in 1903 Brigham Young Academy was dissolved, and was replaced by two institutions, Brigham Young High School, and Brigham Young University. The Board elected George H. Brimhall as the new President of BYU and he had not received a high school education until he was forty. Nevertheless, he was an excellent orator and organizer, under his tenure in 1904 the new Brigham Young University bought 17 acres of land from Provo called Temple Hill. After some controversy among locals over BYUs purchase of property, construction began in 1909 on the first building on the current campus
10.
Teachers College, Columbia University
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Teachers College, Columbia University is the graduate school of education, health and psychology in New York City at Columbia University. Founded in 1887, it has been a Faculty of Columbia University since its affiliation in 1898, Teachers College is also an academic department of the university and its Ph. D degrees are conferred by the Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. Consistently achieving top rankings, Teachers College alumni and faculty have held prominent positions in academia, government, music, non-profit, healthcare, in general, Teachers College has over 90,000 alumni in more than 30 countries. Forkner, E. Gordon Gee, and Chester Earl Merrow, Teachers College is the oldest and largest graduate school of education in the United States. Less than one-third of students are preparing to become teachers, although admnistratively independent, Teachers College is represented in Columbias governance structure and appoints two senators to the Columbia University Senate. In 2018, Teachers College was ranked #7 among all schools of education by U. S. News & World Report. However, Teachers College has achieved the #1 ranking in the past, Teachers College was founded in 1880 by the philanthropist Grace Hoadley Dodge and philosopher Nicholas Murray Butler to provide schooling for the teachers of the poor children of New York City. The curriculum combined a humanitarian concern to others with a scientific approach to human development. Unlike normal schools, after 1893 Teachers College required all students to have a school diploma. Its professional teacher education was considered the equivalent of the junior and senior years of college, many early students who lacked preparation for the advanced coursework first took introductory liberal arts classes, often at Barnard College. The founders early recognized that professional teachers need reliable knowledge about the conditions under which children learn most effectively, as a result, the Colleges program from the start included such fundamental subjects as educational psychology and educational sociology. As the number of children increased during the twentieth century. The college took on the challenge and instituted programs of study in areas of administration, economics, the area of developmental psychology has specially received numerous accolades. Teachers College was also associated with philosopher John Dewey who taught at the facility, from 1932 to 1939, Teachers College was home to the experimental New College for the Education of Teachers, a progressive undergraduate college. The college was closed due to a combination of growing financial deficits, Teachers College has played a role in curriculum reform efforts, such as during the New Math movement of the 1960s with its Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum Improvement Study program. Teachers College also houses a range of applied psychology degrees. It also houses the programs in Anthropology and it was foundational in the development of the field of Anthropology and Education. By the 1930s, Teachers College had begun to offer courses in anthropology as part of the foundations of education, by 1948 Margaret Mead started what would be a long association with Teachers College where she taught until the early 1970s
11.
Consumer protection
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The laws are designed to prevent the businesses that engage in fraud or specified unfair practices from gaining an advantage over competitors. They may also provide protection for those most vulnerable in society. Consumer protection laws are a form of government regulation that aim to protect the rights of consumers, for example, a government may require businesses to disclose detailed information about products—particularly in areas where safety or public health is an issue, such as food. A consumer is defined as someone who acquires goods or services for use or ownership rather than for resale or use in production. Consumer protection can also be asserted via non-government organizations and individuals as consumer activism, Consumer protection law or consumer law is considered an area of law that regulates private law relationships between individual consumers and the businesses that sell those goods and services. Its a way of preventing fraud and scams from service and sales contracts, bill collector regulation, pricing, utility turnoffs, consolidation, the following lists consumer legislation at the nation-state level. In the EU member states Germany and the United Kingdom there is also the applicability of law at the EU level to be considered, in Australia, the corresponding agency is the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission or the individual State Consumer Affairs agencies. The Australian Securities and Investments Commission has responsibility for consumer protection regulation of financial services, however, in practice it does so through privately run EDR schemes such as the Financial Ombudsman Service. Germany as a state of the European Union is bound by the consumer protection directives of the European Union. A minister of the cabinet is responsible for consumer rights. In the current cabinet of Angela Merkel, this is Heiko Maas.84,71 BVerwGE 183), in India The Consumer protection act,1986 is governing consumer protection. Appeal could be filed to the State Consumer Disputes Redress Commissions, in recent years, many effective judgment have been passed by some state and National Consumer Forums. The Sale of Goods Act of 1930 act provides some safeguards to buyers of goods if goods purchased do not fulfill the express or implied conditions, the Civil Code in Taiwan contains five books, General Principles, Obligations, Rights over Things, Family, and Succession. The second book of the Code, the Book of Obligations, the Consumer Protection Commission of Executive Yuan serves as an ombudsman supervising, coordinating, reporting any unsafe products/services and periodically reviewing the legislation. Specifics of the division of labour between the EU and the UK are detailed here, domestic laws originated within the ambit of contract and tort but, with the influence of EU law, it is emerging as an independent area of law. In many circumstances, where law is in question, the matter judicially treated as tort, contract. Consumer Protection issues are dealt with when complaints are made to the Director-General of Fair Trade, the Office of Fair Trading will then investigate, impose an injunction or take the matter to litigation. However, consumers cannot directly complain to the OFT, complaints need to be made to the Citizens Advice Consumer Service who will provide legal advice to complainants, or re-direct the individual complaint to Trading Standards for investigation
12.
Feminism
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Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
13.
Danish people
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Danes are the citizens of Denmark, most of whom speak Danish and consider themselves to be of Danish ethnicity. The first mention of Danes are from the 6th century in Jordanes Getica, by Procopius, the first mention of Danes within the Danish territory is on the Jelling Rune Stone which states how Harald Bluetooth converted the Danes to Christianity in the 10th century. Since the formulation of a Danish national identity in the 19th century, Danish national identity was built on a basis of peasant culture and Lutheran theology, theologian N. F. S. Grundtvig and his popular movement played a prominent part in the process. Today, the criterion for being considered a Dane is having Danish citizenship. Frankish annalists of the 8th century often refer to Danish kings, the Bobbio Orosius from the early 7th century, distinguishes between South Danes inhabiting Jutland and North Danes inhabiting the isles and the province of Scania. The first mention of Danes within the Danish territory is on the Jelling Rune Stone which mentions how Harald Bluetooth converted the Danes to Christianity in the 10th century. Between c.960 and the early 980s, Harald Bluetooth established a kingdom in the lands of the Danes, stretching from Jutland to Scania. Around the same time, he received a visit from a German missionary who, by surviving an ordeal by fire according to legend, the following years saw the Danish Viking expansion, which incorporated Norway and Northern England into the Danish kingdom. After the death of Canute the Great in 1035, England broke away from Danish control, canutes nephew Sweyn Estridson re-established strong royal Danish authority and built a good relationship with the archbishop of Bremen — at that time the Archbishop of all of Scandinavia. The Reformation, which originated in the German lands in the early 16th century from the ideas of Martin Luther, had a impact on Denmark. The Danish Reformation started in the mid-1520s, some Danes wanted access to the Bible in their own language. In 1524, Hans Mikkelsen and Christiern Pedersen translated the New Testament into Danish and those who had traveled to Wittenberg in Saxony and come under the influence of the teachings of Luther and his associates included Hans Tausen, a Danish monk in the Order of St John Hospitallers. The Dano-Norwegian Kingdom grew wealthy during the 16th century, largely because of the traffic through the Øresund. The Crown of Denmark could tax the traffic, because it controlled both sides of the Sound at the time, in the centuries after this loss of territory, the populations of the Scanian lands, who had previously been considered Danish, came to be fully integrated as Swedes. Later, in the early 19th century, Denmark suffered a defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark lost control over Norway, the political and economic defeat ironically sparked what is known as the Danish Golden Age during which a Danish national identity first came to be fully formed. The Danish liberal and national movements gained momentum in the 1830s, a new constitution emerged, separating the powers and granting the franchise to all adult males, as well as freedom of the press, religion, and association. The king became head of the executive branch, Danishness is the concept on which contemporary Danish national and ethnic identity is based. It is a set of values formed through the historic trajectory of the formation of the Danish nation, importantly, since its formulation, Danish identity has not been linked to a particular racial or biological heritage, as many other ethno-national identities have
14.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
15.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
16.
YWCA
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For other uses, including specific buildings and chapters, see Young Womens Christian Association. The World Young Womens Christian Association is a global movement working for the empowerment, leadership and rights of women, young women, the members and supporters include women from many different faiths, ages, backgrounds, beliefs and cultures. The World office is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The YWCA is independent of the YMCA, but many local YMCA and YWCA associations have merged into YM/YWCAs or YMCA-YWCAs, today, YWCAs in 70 countries have programs related to HIV, including prevention, advocacy, treatment, care and support, and addressing stigma. The YWCA works closely with HIV-positive women on a grassroots level, initiatives within the YWCA by HIV-positive women have allowed for the tailoring of programs to meet the specific needs of their communities. Along with HIV prevention, the World YWCA has strongly promoted access to the female condom, according to a statement made by Dr. Musimbi Kanyoro, former General Secretary of the World YWCA “Accelerated female condom distribution and education is essential. HIV infection rates among women are rising disproportionately to men in every region of the world, and when AIDS affects women, it affects entire families and communities, tearing apart social safety nets and fueling instability and conflict. The World YWCA recently held the first international conference on Women and HIV, the International Womens Summit on HIV and AIDS featured speakers from UNAIDS, YWCAs and other global leaders. The Positive Womens Forum, held on the first day, was organised by and for HIV-positive women, while the YWCAs had, on various levels, been active with refugees for some time, the issue took a central focus during Israels War of Independence. Since then there have been programs to provide income and to meet the needs of those living in refugee camps, such as adequate healthcare, education and literacy programs. Underpinning refugee work has been the movement for peace and justice, with its policy rooted in the 1920s, the World YWCA has emphasized peace education and justice as an integral part of the movement’s promotion of human rights. Sustainable development has also been a priority for the YWCA. In 1987, the World YWCA stated its commitment to development that empowers women to become decision-makers and community leaders. ”The movement has emphasized a gender and human rights approach, acknowledging the exploitative. Racial equality and anti-lynching initiatives Throughout the course of its existence, in coordination with this imitative, the YWCA focused on creating campaigns and writing letters to legislators, with the intention of passing anti-lynching legislation. The YWCA’s participation in this movement peaked during the 1940s, shortly after the start of the second World War, “In 1940, a National Board commission was charged with mobilizing decisively integration work in the YWCA. This group devised an ‘Interracial Charter’ calling for the integration of black women into YWCA life and pledging the efforts of the collective YWCA to fight racial prejudice. ”While these efforts weren’t successful on a National level, they did raise awareness. It is also a member of CONGO, Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations in a Consultative Relationship with the United Nations, each year during the third week in October, YWCAs worldwide focus on raising awareness on violence against women. The YWCA Week Without Violence was launched in 1995 and has grown from an initiative into a global movement with women, men and children participating in events in over 20 countries
17.
American Federation of Teachers
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The American Federation of Teachers is an American labor union that primarily represents teachers. The union was founded in Chicago in 1916, with Margaret Haley credited as its founder, a precursor to the group, the American Federation of Teachers and Students, was founded in 1900. The AFTs affiliations include the union federation since its founding, the old American Federation of Labor until 1955. AFT was founded in Chicago, Illinois, on April 15,1916, by 1919, AFT had 100 local affiliates and a membership of approximately 11,000 teachers, which amounted to 1. 5% of the nations teaching force. In its early days, AFT distinguished itself from the National Education Association by its exclusion of school administrators from membership, facing opposition from politicians and boards of education, membership in AFT declined to 7,000 by 1930. During this period, the organization had impact on local or national education policy. AFT membership climbed during the Great Depression, reaching 33,000 by 1939, during the 1930s, AFT, whose members had historically been primary school teachers, saw influential college professors join the union. Also during the 1930s, the Communist Party gained influence within the AFT, in 1941, under pressure from the AFL, the union ejected three local unions in New York City and Philadelphia for being communist-dominated. The charter revocations represented nearly a third of the national membership. The 1940s were marked by a series of strikes, including 57 strikes that occurred from 1946 through 1949. By 1947, AFT had a membership of 42,000, the 1960s and 1970s also saw numerous teacher strikes, including 1,000 strikes involving more than 823,000 teachers between 1960 and 1974. AFT membership was 59,000 in 1960,200,000 in 1970, since 1977, AFT has published a quarterly magazine for teachers covering various issues about children and education called American Educator. In 1998, the membership of the NEA rejected a merger with AFT. The AFTs membership is half that of the NEAs, Albert Shanker In 1974, Albert Shanker was elected president of AFT. He served in this role until his death on February 22,1997, for 27 years, Shanker wrote a weekly column entitled Where We Stand that ran as an advertisement in The New York Times. Shanker was an advocate of charter schools. He also called for a competency test for teachers, merit pay for teachers. During his tenure as AFT president, Shanker was jailed twice for leading illegal strikes, Sandra Feldman Sandra Feldman served as AFTs president from 1997 to 2004
18.
National Labor Relations Board
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The National Labor Relations Board is an independent US government agency with responsibilities for enforcing US labor law in relation to collective bargaining and unfair labor practices. Under the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 it supervises elections for labor union representation and can investigate, unfair labor practices may involve union-related situations or instances of protected concerted activity. The NLRB is governed by a board and a General Counsel. Board members are appointed to five-year terms and the General Counsel is appointed to a four-year term, the General Counsel acts as a prosecutor and the Board acts as an appellate judicial body from decisions of administrative law judges. The NLRB is headquartered at 1015 Half St. SE, Washington, D. C. with over 30 regional, sub-regional, the history of the National Labor Relations Board can be traced to enactment of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933. The National Industrial Recovery Act was administered by the National Recovery Administration, at the outset, NRA Administrator Hugh S. Johnson naïvely believed that Section 7 would be self-enforcing, but the tremendous labor unrest proved him wrong. On August 5,1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced the establishment of the National Labor Board under the auspices of the NRA to implement the collective bargaining provisions of Section 7, the National Labor Board established a system of 20 regional boards to handle the immense caseload. Each regional board had a representative designated by local unions, local employers. The public representative acted as the chair, the regional boards could hold hearings and propose settlements to disputes. Initially, they lacked authority to order representation elections, but this changed after Roosevelt issued additional executive orders on February 1 and February 23,1934. Congress passed Public Resolution No.44 on June 19,1934, which empowered the president to appoint a new board with authority to issue subpoenas, hold elections. On June 29, President Roosevelt abolished the NLB and in Executive Order 6763 established a new, lloyd K. Garrison was the first chair of the National Labor Relations Board. In its brief existence, the First NLRB established organizational structures which remain in place at the NLRB in the 21st century. Formally, Garrison established the, Executive Office, which handled administrative activities of the national and regional boards, field staff and it was overseen by an Executive Secretary. Examining Division, national staff which conducted field investigations and assisted the regional boards with adjudications, hearings, information Division, which provided the press and public with news. Legal Division, which assisted the Department of Justice in seeking compliance with board decisions in the courts, Research Division, which studied decisions of the regional boards so that a comprehensive labor law might be developed, and studied the economics of each case. Within a year, however, most of the jurisdiction of the First NLRB was stripped away and its decisions in the automobile, newspaper, textile, and steel industry proved so volatile that Roosevelt himself often removed these cases from the boards jurisdiction. Several federal court decisions further limited the boards power, Senator Robert F. Wagner subsequently pushed legislation through Congress to give a statutory basis to federal labor policy that would survive court scrutiny
19.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
20.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
21.
AFL-CIO
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The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations is a national trade union center and the largest federation of unions in the United States. It is made up of national and international unions, together representing more than 12 million active. The AFL–CIO engages in political spending and activism. The AFL–CIO was formed in 1955 when the AFL and the CIO merged after a long estrangement, membership in the union peaked in 1979, when the AFL–CIO had nearly twenty million members. From 1955 until 2005, the AFL–CIOs member unions represented nearly all unionized workers in the United States, several large unions split away from AFL–CIO and formed the rival Change to Win Federation in 2005, although a number of those unions have since re-affiliated. The largest union currently in the AFL–CIO is the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, the AFL–CIO is a federation of international labor unions. As a voluntary federation, the AFL–CIO has little authority over the affairs of its unions except in extremely limited cases. As of June 2014, the AFL–CIO had 56 member unions representing 12.5 million members, the AFL–CIO was a major component of the New Deal Coalition that dominated politics into the mid-1960s. In recent years the AFL–CIO has concentrated its efforts on lobbying in Washington and the state capitals. For example, in the 2010 midterm elections, it sent 28.6 million pieces of mail, in addition,100,000 volunteers went door-to-door to promote endorsed candidates to 13 million union voters in 32 states. The AFL–CIO gave $6,123,437 to super PACs in 2012, in June 2016, it was reported that the AFL–CIO planned to endorse Hillary Clinton in the 2016 U. S. presidential election. The AFL–CIO is governed by its members, who meet in a quadrennial convention, Each member union elects delegates, based on proportional representation. The AFL–CIOs state federations, central and local councils, constitutional departments. The delegates elect officers and vice presidents, debate and approve policy, Executive council The AFL–CIO has three executive officers, president, secretary-treasurer and executive vice president. Each officers term is four years, and elections occur at the quadrennial convention, current officers are Richard Trumka, Liz Shuler and Tefere Gebre. The AFL–CIO membership elects 43 vice presidents at each convention, who have a term of four years, the AFL–CIO constitution permits the president of the federation to appoint up to three additional vice presidents during the period when the convention is not in session. Annual meetings From 1951 to 1996, the Executive Council held its meeting in the resort town of Bal Harbour. The meeting at the Bal Harbour Sheraton has been the object of frequent criticism, citing image concerns, the council changed the meeting site to Los Angeles
22.
United States Department of Labor
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The department is headed by the U. S. Secretary of Labor. In carrying out this mission, the Department of Labor administers and enforces more than 180 federal laws and these mandates and the regulations that implement them cover many workplace activities for about 10 million employers and 125 million workers. The U. S. Congress first established a Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1884 with the Bureau of Labor Act, to information about labor. This bureau was under the Department of the Interior, the Bureau started collecting economic data in 1884, and published their first report in 1886. Later, the Bureau of Labor became an independent Department of Labor and it became a bureau again within the Department of Commerce and Labor, which was established February 15,1903. President William Howard Taft signed the March 4,1913, bill establishing the Department of Labor as a Cabinet-level Department, William B. Wilson was appointed as the first Secretary of Labor on March 5,1913 by President Wilson. Secretary Wilson chaired the first meeting of the International Labour Organization in October 1919, the Federal Employees Compensation Act, signed Sept.7,1916, provided benefits to workers who are injured or contract illnesses in the workplace. Frances Perkins, the first female member, was appointed to be Secretary of Labor by President Roosevelt on March 4,1933. Perkins served for 12 years, making her the longest serving Secretary of Labor, during the John F. Kennedy Administration, planning was undertaken to consolidate most of the departments offices, then scattered around more than 20 locations. Construction on the New Labor Building began in the mid‑1960s and finished in 1975 and it was named in honor of Perkins in 1980. President Lyndon Johnson asked Congress to consider the idea of reuniting Commerce and he argued that the two departments had similar goals and that they would have more efficient channels of communication in a single department. However, Congress never acted on it, in the 1970s, following the civil rights movement, the Labor Department under Secretary George P. Shultz made a concerted effort to promote racial diversity in unions. In 1978, the Department of Labor created the Philip Arnow Award, Department officials said the program was modern and fair and that it was part of ongoing contract negotiations with the local. In August 2010, the Partnership for Public Service ranked the Department of Labor 23rd out of 31 large agencies in its annual Best Places to Work in the Federal Government list. In December 2010, then-Department of Labor Secretary Hilda Solis was named the Chair of the U. S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, in July 2011, the Department was rocked by the resignation of Ray Jefferson, Assistant Secretary for VETS, in a contracting scandal. On March 4,2013, the Department began commemorating its centennial, tom Perez was appointed as Secretary of Labor on July 23,2013. According to remarks by Perez at his swearing-in ceremony, Boiled down to its essence, did not earn a satisfactory overall grade. Title 20 of the Code of Federal Regulations Equal Employment Opportunity Commission National Labor Relations Board Occupational Information Network Ticket to Work Lombardi, labors Voice in the Cabinet, A History of the Department of Labor from Its Origins to 1921
23.
Giant-Carlisle
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Giant Food Stores, LLC is an American supermarket chain that operates stores in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia and West Virginia under the names of Giant and Martins. Giant is a subsidiary of Netherlands-based Ahold Delhaize, Giant Food Stores are often referred to as Giant-Carlisle to distinguish it from sister company Giant-Landover. Giant was founded in 1923, when David Javitch opened a meat market in Carlisle. The Carlisle Meat Market, as it was known, began as a butcher shop. David Javitch, otherwise known as D. J. built his business on the premise of the best product at the fairest price and he spent most of his hours in the store, and his children were raised there. His store prospered during the 1920s and 1930s, in 1936, Javitch decided to take a chance on a new business opportunity. He purchased a store in Lewistown, Pennsylvania, which he named the Giant Shopping Food Center and it was a big change from the original Carlisle Meat Market in that it was a total grocery store. It was very modern and offered customers the opportunity to purchase their dry goods and perishables under one roof, the store was a great success, and soon a decision was made to expand the Carlisle store from a basic meat market into a full-fledged grocery store. Prior to purchasing the Lewistown store, he purchased a store in Hagerstown, Maryland, though it was a short-lived and costly venture, it provided a learning experience to Javitch. In addition, his store in Carlisle was destroyed by fire. After each setback, Javitch started over, adding features for his customers. The Carlisle store was modern for its time, with features like a parking lot, baggers. The stores continued to flourish in the 1950s as some serious decisions about the business were made, Shopping malls became a new American experience with the population moving outside of the cities and into the suburbs, and Javitch took advantage of the strip malls dotting the landscape. As a result, the company embarked on a plan of steady growth, in 1968, the ninth store opened in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania with Lee Javitch, Davids son, serving as President of Giant Food Stores. In 1970, a decision was made to compete with larger regional supermarket chains. The companys growth accelerated with the purchase of the Martins chain in Hagerstown and it was now becoming more difficult for the Javitch family to personally supervise the operation of the expanding company. In 1972, Nick Riso joined the company as Vice President of Sales, Nick assisted the Javitch family in bringing about their desired growth plan. A new merchandising effort began with the introduction of Everyday Low Prices and this concept would begin a span of 29 consecutive years of record sales and earnings
24.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
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The Presidential Medal of Freedom is an award bestowed by the President of the United States and is—along with the comparable Congressional Gold Medal—the highest civilian award of the United States. The award is not limited to U. S. citizens and, while it is an award, it can also be awarded to military personnel. It was established in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, President John F. Kennedy established the current decoration in 1963 through Executive Order 11085, with unique and distinctive insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. It was the first U. S. civilian neck decoration and, in the grade of Awarded With Distinction, is the only U. S. sash and star decoration. The Executive Order calls for the medal to be awarded annually on or around July 4, and at other convenient times as chosen by the president, Recipients are selected by the president, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order establishing the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to a more than once. It may also be awarded posthumously, examples include John F, golden American bald eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a ribbon with white edge stripes. When the medal With Distinction is awarded, the star may be presented descending from a neck ribbon, the sash and medal of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction has never been worn in public since its inception. Andrew Presidential Medal of Freedom, an article from jfklibrary. org, Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, a list of recipients from May 5,1993, through August 19,2009, from senate. gov, the U. S. Senates official website. Hosted on georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov, a section of the U. S. National Archives, Medal of Freedom Ceremony, a news release, August 12,2009, from the White House Press Secretary at whitehouse. gov, the White Houses official website. War Figures Honored With Medal of Freedom, The New York Times, December 15,2004
25.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
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UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
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Great Society
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The Great Society was a set of domestic programs in the United States launched by Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964–65. The main goal was the elimination of poverty and racial injustice, President Johnson first used the term Great Society during a speech at Ohio University, then unveiled the program in greater detail at an appearance at University of Michigan. New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, rural poverty, the program and its initiatives were subsequently promoted by him and fellow Democrats in Congress in the 1960s and years following. The Great Society in scope and sweep resembled the New Deal domestic agenda of Franklin D. Roosevelt, some Great Society proposals were stalled initiatives from John F. Kennedys New Frontier. Anti-war Democrats complained that spending on the Vietnam War choked off the Great Society, the Great Societys programs expanded under the administrations of Republican presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. Kennedy proposed a tax cut lowering the top marginal income tax rate in the United States by 20%, from 91% to 71%. The tax cut also significantly reduced rates in the lower brackets as well as for corporations. The gross national product rose 10% in the first year of the tax cut, Johnsons tax cut measure triggered what one historian described as the greatest prosperity of the postwar years. GNP increased by 7% in 1964, 8% in 1965, the unemployment rate fell below 5%, and by 1966 the number of families with incomes of $7,000 a year or more had reached 55%, compared with 22% in 1950. In 1968, when John Kenneth Galbraith published a new edition of The Affluent Society, disposable personal income rose 15% in 1966 alone. Federal revenues increased dramatically from $94 billion in 1961 to $150 billion in 1967, as the Baby Boom generation aged, two and a half times more Americans would enter the labor force between 1965 and 1980 than between 1950 and 1965. Racial segregation persisted in the Southern United States, the Civil Rights Movement was gathering momentum, and in 1964, urban riots began within black neighborhoods in New York City and Los Angeles. By 1968 hundreds of cities had major African-American riots that caused a conservative political backlash. Foreign affairs were generally quiet except for the Vietnam War, which escalated from limited involvement in 1963 to a military operation in 1968 that soon overshadowed the Great Society. It is a society where no child will go unfed, and he later formally presented his specific goals for the Great Society in another speech at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on May 22,1964. We are going to assemble the best thought and broadest knowledge from all over the world to find these answers. I intend to establish working groups to prepare a series of conferences and meetings—on the cities, on beauty, on the quality of education. From these studies, we begin to set our course toward the Great Society
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The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
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The New York Times Company
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The New York Times Company is an American media company which publishes its namesake, The New York Times. Arthur Ochs Sulzberger Jr. has served as chairman since 1997 and it is headquartered in Manhattan, New York. The company was founded by Henry Jarvis Raymond and George Jones in New York City, the company moved into the cable channel industry purchasing a 40% interest in the Popcorn Channel, a theatrical movie preview and local movie times, in November 1994. The company completed its purchase of The Washington Posts 50 percent interest in the International Herald Tribune for US$65 million on January 1,2003, on March 18,2005, the company acquired About. com, an online provider of consumer information for US$410 million. In 2005, the company reported revenues of US$3.4 billion to its investors, the Times, on August 25,2006, acquired Baseline StudioSystems, an online database and research service on the film and television industries for US$35 million. The company announced that it had finalized the sale of its Broadcast Media Group on May 7,2007, for approximately $575 million. On July 14,2009, the announced that WQXR was to be sold to WNYC. This US$45 million transaction, which involved Univision Radios WCAA moving to the 96.3 FM frequency from 105.9 FM, ended the Times 65-year-long ownership of the station. On December 27,2011, The Boston Globe reported that the company would sell its Regional Media Group to Halifax Media Holdings LLC, owners of The Daytona Beach News-Journal, the Boston Globe and The Telegram & Gazette of Worcester were not part of the sale. In 2011, the Times sold Baseline StudioSystems back to its owners, Laurie S. Silvers and Mitchell Rubenstein. Facing falling revenue from print advertising in its publication in 2011, The New York Times. As of 2012, it has been successful, garnering several hundred thousand subscriptions. In 2013, the New York Times Company sold The Boston Globe and other New England media properties to John W. Henry, according to the Times Company, the move was made in order to focus more on its core brands. Alongside its namesake newspaper, the company owns the International New York Times. Since 1967, the company has listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol NYT. In 2015, Mexican billionaire Carlos Slim became the top New York Times stockholder, at the April 2005 board meeting, Class B shareholders elected nine of the fourteen directors of the company. The company sponsors a series of national and local awards designed to highlight the achievements of individuals, in 2007, it inaugurated its first Nonprofit Excellence Award, awarded to four organizations for the excellence of their management practices. Only nonprofits in New York City, Long Island, or Westchester were eligible, jointly with the Carnegie Corporation of New York and the American Library Association, The New York Times Company sponsors an award to honor librarians for service to their communities
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International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
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Consumerism
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Consumerism is a social and economic order and ideology that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts. In economics, consumerism may refer to policies which emphasise consumption. In this sense, consumerism expresses the idea not of one man, one voice, but of one dollar, one voice, the term consumerism has several definitions. These definitions may not be related to other and confusingly. One sense of the term relates to efforts to support consumers interests, by the early 1970s it had become the accepted term for the field and began to be used in these ways, Consumerism is the concept that consumers should be informed decision makers in the marketplace. Practices such as product testing make consumers informed, Consumerism is the concept that the marketplace itself is responsible for ensuring social justice through fair economic practices. Consumer protection policies and laws compel manufacturers to make products safe, Consumerism refers to the field of studying, regulating, or interacting with the marketplace. The consumer movement is the movement which refers to all actions. While the above definitions were becoming established, other people using the term consumerism to mean high levels of consumption. This definition has gained popularity since the 1970s and began to be used in ways, Consumerism is the selfish and frivolous collecting of products. In protest against this, some people promote anti-consumerism and advocate simple living, Consumerism is a force from the marketplace which destroys individuality and harms society. It is related to globalization and in protest against this some people promote the anti-globalization movement, vance Packard worked to change the meaning of the term consumerism from a positive word about consumer practices to a negative word meaning excessive materialism and waste. The ads for his 1960 book The Waste Makers prominently featured the word consumerism in a negative way, the consumer society emerged in the late seventeenth century and intensified throughout the eighteenth century. This included sugar, tobacco, tea and coffee, these were grown on vast plantations in the Caribbean as demand steadily rose. In particular, sugar consumption in Britain during the course of the 18th century increased by a factor of 20, critics argue that colonialism was indeed a driver of consumerism, but they would place the emphasis on the supply rather than the demand as the motivating factor. An increasing mass of exotic imports as well as domestic manufactures had to be consumed by the number of people who had been consuming far less than was becoming necessary. That idea was produced later, more or less strategically in order to intensify consumption domestically, marketplaces expanded as shopping centres, such as the New Exchange, opened in 1609 by Robert Cecil in the Strand. Shops started to become important as places for Londoners to meet and socialise, restoration London also saw the growth of luxury buildings as advertisements for social position with speculative architects like Nicholas Barbon and Lionel Cranfield
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Consumer
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A consumer is a person or organization that uses economic services or commodities. In economic systems consumers are utilities expressed in the decision to trade or not, the consumer is the one who pays to consume goods and services produced. As such, consumers play a role in the economic system of a nation. Without consumer demand, producers would lack one of the key motivations to produce, the consumer also forms part of the chain of distribution. The law primarily uses the notion of the consumer in relation to protection laws. As of all voters are also consumers, consumer protection takes on a clear political significance. Concern over the interests of consumers has also spawned activism, as well as incorporation of consumer education into school curricula, there are also various non-profit publications, such as Which. Consumer Reports and Choice Magazine, dedicated to assist in education and decision making. In India, the Consumer Protection Act 1986 differentiates the consummation of a commodity or service for use or to earn a livelihood. Only consumers are protected per this act and any person, entity or organization purchasing a commodity for commercial reasons are exempted from any benefits of this act, U. S. Government National Consumer Protection Week
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Anti-consumerism
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Anti-consumerism is a sociopolitical ideology that is opposed to consumerism, the continual buying and consuming of material possessions. The criticism of materialism as a dehumanizing behaviour that is destructive of the Earth, as human habitat, comes from religion. From the secular perspective, social activism indicates that from consumerist materialism derive crime, industrial pollution and the consequent environmental degradation, and war as a business. The term consumerism also denotes economic policies associated with Keynesian economics, many anti-corporate activists believe the rise of large-business corporations poses a threat to the legitimate authority of nation states and the public sphere. They feel corporations are invading peoples privacy, manipulating politics and governments, anti-consumerism protesters point out that the main responsibility of a corporation is to answer only to shareholders, giving human rights and other issues almost no consideration. The management does have a responsibility to their shareholders, since any philanthropic activities that do not directly serve the business could be deemed to be a breach of trust. This sort of financial responsibility means that multi-national corporations will pursue strategies to intensify labor, for example, they will attempt to find low wage economies with laws which are conveniently lenient on human rights, the natural environment, trade union organization and so on. It is preoccupation with possessions, more than anything else, that prevents us from living freely and nobly, trying to reduce environmental pollution without reducing consumerism is like combating drug trafficking without reducing the drug addiction. It is a term which most people deny, having some more specific excuse or rationalization for consumption other than the idea that they are compelled to consume. A culture that has an amount of consumerism is referred to as a consumer culture. The older term conspicuous consumption described the United States in the 1960s, but was linked to larger debates about media influence, culture jamming. The term and concept of conspicuous consumption originated at the turn of the 20th century in the writing of economist Thorstein Veblen, the term describes an apparently irrational and confounding form of economic behaviour. We need things consumed, burned up, worn out, replaced and discarded at an ever-increasing rate, according to archaeologists, evidence of conspicuous consumption up to several millennia ago has been found, suggesting that such behavior is inherent to humans. Anti-consumerists believe advertising plays a role in human life by informing values and assumptions of the cultural system, deeming what is acceptable. They declare that ads create a world where commodities appear as the key to securing happiness. Anti-consumerists cite studies that find that individuals believe their quality of life improves in relation to values that lie outside the capability of the market place. Therefore, advertising attempts to equate the social with the material by utilizing images and slogans to link commodities with the sources of human happiness. The underlying message is that owning these products will enhance our image, anti-consumerists claim that in a consumerist society, advertisement images disempower and objectify the consumer
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Consumer revolution
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The consumer revolution marked a departure from the traditional mode of life that was dominated by frugality and scarcity to one of increasingly mass consumption in society. Consumerism has weak links with the Western world, but is in fact an international phenomenon, people purchasing goods and consuming materials in excess of their basic needs is as old as the first civilizations. The consumer society emerged in the seventeenth century and intensified throughout the eighteenth century. Change was propelled by the growing middle-class who embraced new ideas about luxury consumption and this revolution encompassed the growth in construction of vast country estates specifically designed to cater for comfort and the increased availability of luxury goods aimed at a growing market. This included sugar, tobacco, tea and coffee, these were grown on vast slave plantations in Caribbean colonies as demand steadily rose. In particular, sugar consumption in Britain during the course of the 18th century increased by a factor of 20, moreover, the expansion of trade and markets also contributed to the burgeoning consumer revolution, by increasing the variety of goods that could be made available to affluent society. Marketplaces expanded as shopping centres, such as the New Exchange, shops started to become important as places for Londoners to meet and socialise and became popular destinations alongside the theatre. Restoration London also saw the growth of buildings as advertisements for social position with speculative architects like Nicholas Barbon. There was growth in industries like glass making and silk manufacturing and these trends were vastly accelerated in the 18th century, as rising prosperity and social mobility increased the number of people with disposable income for consumption. The pottery inventor and entrepreneur, Josiah Wedgwood, noticed the way aristocratic fashions, themselves subject to changes in direction. His example was followed by other producers of a range of products. Popular culture drew aesthetic techniques, design, and technology from the goods England gathered from trade in Asia, with the increased demand for Asian ceramics, European markets had difficulty supplying buyers so inventors started imitating Chinese porcelain. Imitation goods were used to disguise social class. Middle-class consumers could not afford the same exotic luxury goods brought back from overseas trade that the class used to distinguish their elevated rank. Markets and shops whose target buyers were middle-class consumers began creating semi-luxury goods that imitated actual luxury goods, household decorations, kitchenware, clothes, and transportation vehicles were all objects that could be used to crossover into polite society. The goal was not to mimic the exact product, but instead use the techniques that successful in other European imitations to create a superior product. Imitation and semi-luxury goods were also popular because they showed the modernization of English production, large-scale production required standardization, advanced mechanical replication, and an organized system of assembly. Substitutes for the materials used to create the original products were seen as a show of enlightened and advanced thinking
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Ethical consumerism
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Ethical consumerism is a type of consumer activism that is based on the concept of dollar voting. It is practiced through positive buying in that products are favoured, or moral boycott. The term ethical consumer, now used generically, was first popularised by the UK magazine Ethical Consumer, Ethical Consumer magazines key innovation was to produce ratings tables, inspired by the criteria-based approach of the then emerging ethical investment movement. Today, Bloomberg and Reuters provide environmental, social and governance ratings direct to the financial data screens of hundreds of thousands of stock market traders, the not-for-profit Ethical Consumer Research Association continues to publish Ethical Consumer and its associated website, which provides free access to ethical ratings tables. Some trust criteria, e. g. creditworthiness or implied warranty, are considered to be part of any purchasing or sourcing decision. Paul Hawken, a proponent of Natural Capitalism, refers to comprehensive outcomes of production services as opposed to the outcomes of using the product of such services. Some theorists believe that it is the clearest way that we express our actual moral choices, for example, McDonalds started to sell salads and has a corporate social responsibility blog. Ethical Consumerism can be seen as a movement in marketing, which may or may not reflect changes in the practices of businesses. Particular areas of interest for large businesses are environmental impact and the treatment of workers at the bottom of the organisational hierarchy and this change reflects an increasing awareness of ethical issues and corporate identity amongst mainstream consumers. This practice has extended in some developing nations, e. g. where every item carries the name, phone number. And, more importantly, to prove that the item was not made by prison labor, such labels have also been used for boycotts, as when the merchandise mark Made in Germany was introduced in 1887. These labels serve as tokens of some reliable validation process, some instructional capital and they also signal some social capital, or trust, in some community of auditors that must follow those instructions to validate those labels. In 2009, Atlantas Virginia-Highland neighborhood became the first Carbon-Neutral Zone in the United States, seventeen merchants in Virginia-Highland allowed their carbon footprint to be audited. Now, they are partnered with the Valley Wood Carbon Sequestration Project—thousands of acres of forest in rural Georgia—through the Chicago Climate Exchange, the businesses involved in the partnership display the Verus Carbon Neutral seal in each store front and posted a sign prominently declaring the areas Carbon Neutral status. Over time, some theorists suggest, the amount of capital or trust invested in nation-states will continue to decrease. This can only be offset by retrenched national sovereignty to reinforce shared national standards in tax, trade, and tariff laws and these arguments have been a major focus of the anti-globalization movement, which includes many broader arguments against the amoral nature of markets as such. GfK NOP, the research group, has made a five-country study of consumer beliefs about the ethics of large companies. com. The countries surveyed were Germany, the United States, Britain, France, more than half of respondents in Germany and the US believed there is a serious deterioration in standards of corporate practice
