1.
Arial
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Arial, sometimes marketed or displayed in software as Arial MT, is a sans-serif typeface and set of computer fonts. The typeface was designed in 1982 by a 10-person team, led by Robin Nicholas and Patricia Saunders, the extended Arial type family includes more styles, Rounded, Monospaced. Many of these have been issued in multiple font configurations with different degrees of language support, the most widely used and bundled Arial fonts are Arial Regular, Italic, Bold, and Bold Italic, the same styles of Arial Narrow, and Arial Black. More recently, Arial Rounded has also been widely bundled, the overall treatment of curves is softer and fuller than in most industrial style sans serif faces. Terminal strokes are cut on the diagonal which helps to give the face a less mechanical appearance, in 2005, Robin Nicholas said It was designed as a generic sans serif, almost a bland sans serif. The designs of the R, G and r also resemble Gill Sans, the changes cause the typeface to nearly match Linotype Helvetica in both proportion and weight, and perfectly match in width. Monotype executive Allan Haley observed Arial was drawn more rounded than Helvetica, the softer and fuller. The ends of the strokes on letters such as c, e, g and s, matthew Carter, a consultant for IBM during its design process, described it as a Helvetica clone, based ostensibly on their Grots 215 and 216. The styling of Arabic glyphs comes from Times New Roman, which have more varied stroke widths than the Latin, Greek, Arial Unicode MS uses monotone stroke widths on Arabic glyphs, similar to Tahoma. The Cyrillic, Greek and Coptic Spacing Modifier Letters glyphs initially introduced in Arial Unicode MS, IBM debuted two printers for the in-office publishing market in 1982, the 240-DPI 3800-3 laserxerographic printer, and the 600-DPI4250 electro-erosion laminate typesetter. Monotype was under contract to supply bitmap fonts for both printers, the fonts for the 4250, delivered to IBM in 1983, included Helvetica, which Monotype sub-licensed from Linotype. For the 3800-3, Monotype replaced Helvetica with Arial, the hand-drawn Arial artwork was completed in 1982 at Monotype by a 10-person team led by Robin Nicholas and Patricia Saunders and was digitized by Monotype at 240 DPI expressly for the 3800-3. There were initially 14 point sizes, ranging from 6 to 36, each contained 238 graphic characters, providing support for eleven national languages, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish. Monotype and IBM later expanded the family to include 300-DPI bitmaps, in 1989, Monotype produced PostScript Type 1 outline versions of several Monotype fonts, but an official PostScript version of Arial was not available until 1991. In the meantime, a company called Birmy marketed a version of Arial in a Type 1-compatible format, in 1990, Robin Nicholas, Patricia Saunders and Steve Matteson developed a TrueType outline version of Arial which was licensed to Microsoft. In 1992, Microsoft chose Arial to be one of the four core TrueType fonts in Windows 3.1, matthew Carter has noted that the deal was complex and included a bailout of Monotype, which was in financial difficulties, by Microsoft. Microsoft would later fund the development of Arial as a font that supported many languages. Version 2.76 or later includes Hebrew and Arabic glyphs, version 5.00 added support for Latin-C and Latin D, IPA Extension, Greek Extended, Cyrillic Supplement, and Coptic characters
2.
Times New Roman
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Although no longer used by The Times, Times New Roman is still very common in book and general printing. Through distribution as a computer font, it has become one of the most widely used typefaces in history. Times New Romans creation took place through the influence of Stanley Morison of Monotype and this matched a common trend in printing of the period. Morison proposed an older Monotype typeface named Plantin as a basis for the design, in particular, contrast between strokes was enhanced to give a crisper image. The new font was drawn by Victor Lardent, an artist from the department of The Times, with Morison consulting. The new design made its debut in The Times on 3 October 1932, after one year, the design was released for commercial sale. However, all the new fonts have been variants of the original New Roman typeface, in commercial sale, Times New Roman became extremely successful, becoming Monotypes best-selling typeface of all in metal type. Although Morison did not literally draw the design, his influence on its concept was sufficient that he felt that he could take credit for it as my one effort at designing a fount. In Times New Romans name, Roman is a reference to the style of a conventional serif font, or what is called its roman. Roman type has some roots in Italian printing of the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Times New Roman has a robust colour on the page and influences of European early modern and Baroque printing. The design is slightly condensed, with ascenders and descenders. This style is sometimes categorised as part of the old-style of serif fonts, Morison admired this style for its solid structure and clarity. Other changes from Plantin include a straight-sided M and W with three terminals not Plantins four, both choices that move away from the old-style model. It has, indeed, more in common with the eighteenth century, Morison himself told Harry Carter that the italic owes more to Didot than dogma. Morison wrote in a letter of Times New Romans mixed heritage that it has the merit of not looking as if it had been designed by somebody in particular. The development of Times New Roman was relatively involved due to the lack of a specific pre-existing model – or perhaps a surfeit of possible choices. Walter Tracy, who knew Lardent, suggested in the 1980s that Morison did not begin with a vision of the ultimate type. During the project, Monotype and The Times examined research on legibility of type, Rhatigan has said that Lardents originals show the spirit of the final type, but not the details
3.
Letter case
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Letter case is the distinction between the letters that are in larger upper case and smaller lower case in the written representation of certain languages. The writing systems that distinguish between the upper and lower case have two sets of letters, with each letter in one set usually having an equivalent in the other set. Basically, the two variants are alternative representations of the same letter, they have the same name and pronunciation. Letter case is generally applied in a fashion, with both upper- and lower-case letters appearing in a given piece of text. The choice of case is often prescribed by the grammar of a language or by the conventions of a particular discipline, in mathematics, letter case may indicate the relationship between objects, with upper-case letters often representing superior objects. In some contexts, it is conventional to use only one case, the terms upper case and lower case can be written as two consecutive words, connected with a hyphen, or as a single word. These terms originated from the layouts of the shallow drawers called type cases used to hold the movable type for letterpress printing. Traditionally, the letters were stored in a separate case that was located above the case that held the small letters. Majuscule, for palaeographers, is technically any script in which the letters have very few or very short ascenders and descenders, or none at all. By virtue of their impact, this made the term majuscule an apt descriptor for what much later came to be more commonly referred to as uppercase letters. The word is often spelled miniscule, by association with the word miniature. This has traditionally been regarded as a mistake, but is now so common that some dictionaries tend to accept it as a nonstandard or variant spelling. Miniscule is still less likely, however, to be used in reference to lower-case letters, the glyphs of lower-case letters can resemble smaller forms of the upper-case glyphs restricted to the base band or can look hardly related. There is more variation in the height of the minuscules, as some of them have higher or lower than the typical size. In Times New Roman, for instance, b, d, f, h, k, l, t are the letters with ascenders, and g, j, p, q, y are the ones with descenders. In addition, with old-style numerals still used by traditional or classical fonts,6 and 8 make up the ascender set. Writing systems using two separate cases are bicameral scripts, languages that use the Latin, Cyrillic, Greek, Coptic, Armenian, Adlam, Varang Kshiti, Cherokee, and Osage scripts use letter cases in their written form as an aid to clarity. Other bicameral scripts, which are not used for any modern languages, are Old Hungarian, Glagolitic, the Georgian alphabet has several variants, and there were attempts to use them as different cases, but the modern written Georgian language does not distinguish case
4.
Letter (alphabet)
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A letter is a grapheme in an alphabetic system of writing, such as the Greek alphabet and its descendants. Letters also appear in abjads and abugidas, letters broadly denote phonemes in the spoken form of the language, although there is rarely a consistent exact correspondence between letters and phonemes. Written signs in writing systems are best called syllabograms or logograms. Letter, borrowed from Old French lettre, entered Middle English around AD1200, letter derives from Latin littera, which may have derived, via Etruscan, from the Greek διφθέρα. The Middle English plural lettres could refer to an epistle or written document, use of the singular letter to refer to a written document emerged in the 14th century. As symbols that denote segmental speech, letters are associated with phonetics, in a purely phonemic alphabet, a single phoneme is denoted by a single letter, but in history and practice letters often denote more than one phoneme. A pair of letters designating a single phoneme is called a digraph, examples of digraphs in English include ch, sh and th. A phoneme can also be represented by three letters, called a trigraph, an example is the combination sch in German. A letter may also be associated more than one phoneme. As an example of positional effects, the Spanish letter c is pronounced before a, o, or u, letters also have specific names associated with them. These names may differ with language, dialect and history, Z, for example, is usually called zed in all English-speaking countries except the U. S. where it is named zee. Letters, as elements of alphabets, have prescribed orders and this may generally be known as alphabetical order though collation is the science devoted to the complex task of ordering and sorting of letters and words in different languages. In Spanish, for instance, ñ is a letter being sorted after n. In English, n and ñ are sorted alike, letters may also have numerical value. This is true of Roman numerals and the letters of other writing systems, in English, Arabic numerals are typically used instead of letters. Letters may be used as words, the words a and I are the most common English letter-words. Sometimes O is used for Oh in poetic situations, in extremely informal cases of writing individual letters may replace words, e. g. u may be used instead of you in English, when the letter name is pronounced as a homophone of the word. Nearly all alphabets in the world today either descend directly from development or were inspired by its design
5.
Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
6.
Middle English
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This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the High to the Late Middle Ages. Middle English developed out of Late Old English, seeing many dramatic changes in its grammar, pronunciation and this largely forms the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by the era of Early Modern English, by that time, a variant of the Northumbrian dialect was developing into the Scots language. During the Middle English period many Old English grammatical features were simplified or disappeared, noun, adjective and verb inflections were simplified, a process that included the reduction of most grammatical case distinctions. Middle English also saw an adoption of Norman French vocabulary, especially in areas such as politics, law. Everyday English vocabulary remained mostly Germanic, with Old Norse influence becoming apparent, significant changes in pronunciation took place, especially for long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift. Little survives of early Middle English literature, most likely due to the Norman domination, poets wrote both in the vernacular and courtly English. It is popularly believed that William Shakespeare wrote in Middle English, the latter part of the 11th century was a period of transition from Late Old English to Early Middle English. The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a synthetic language towards a more analytic or isolating word order and it was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss, there was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength. The change to Old English from Old Norse was substantive, pervasive and it is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw these endings must have led to confusion, tending gradually to become obscured. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in simplifying English grammar. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the cultures that arose in the 12th century. Sometimes, and particularly later, words were taken from Latin, giving such sets as kingly, later French borrowings came from standard rather than Norman French, this leads to such cognate pairs as warden, guardian. The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not, of course, change the language immediately, the general population would have spoken the same dialects as before the Conquest, these changed slowly until written records of them became available for study, which varies in different regions. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, Early Middle English has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, but a greatly simplified inflectional system
7.
Icelandic orthography
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Icelandic orthography is the way in which Icelandic words are spelt and how their spelling corresponds with their pronunciation. Icelanders call the ten letters, especially thorn and eth, séríslenskur. Eth is also used in Faroese, and while thorn is no longer used in any living language, it was used in many historical languages. Icelandic words never start with ð, which means the capital version Ð is mainly just used when words are spelled using all capitals, sometimes the glyphs are simplified when handwritten, for example æ may be written as ae, which can make it easier to write cursively. The alphabet consists of the following 32 letters, deleted letter The letters a, á, e, é, i, í, o, ó, u, ú, y, ý, æ and ö are considered vowels, and the remainder are consonants. The letters C, Q and W are only used in Icelandic in words of foreign origin, otherwise, c, qu, and w are replaced by k/s/ts, hv, and v respectively. The letter Z was used until 1973, when it was abolished, however, one of the most important newspapers in Iceland, Morgunblaðið, still uses it sometimes, and a secondary school, Verzlunarskóli Íslands has it in its name. It is also found in proper names, and loanwords such as pizza. Older people, who were educated before the abolition of the z sometimes also use it. While the letters C, Q, W, and Z are found on the Icelandic keyboard, they are used in Icelandic, they are used in some proper names of Icelanders. The modern Icelandic alphabet has developed from an established in the 19th century. It is ultimately based heavily on a standard created in the early 12th century by a document referred to as The First Grammatical Treatise. The standard was intended for the common North Germanic language, Old Norse and it did not have much influence, however, at the time. The most defining characteristics of the alphabet were established in the old treatise, Use of the acute accent, Use of þ, also used in the Old English alphabet as the letter thorn. The later Rasmus Rask standard was basically a re-enactment of the old treatise, with changes to fit concurrent North Germanic conventions. Various old features, like ð, had not seen much use in the later centuries. Later 20th century changes are most notably the adoption of é, which had previously written as je. This section lists Icelandic letters and letter combinations, and how to pronounce them using a narrow International Phonetic Alphabet transcription, Icelandic vowels may be either long or short, but this distinction is only relevant in stressed syllables, unstressed vowels are neutral in quantitative aspect
8.
Faroese language
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It is one of five languages descended from Old West Norse spoken in the Middle Ages, the others being Norwegian, Icelandic, and the extinct Norn and Greenlandic Norse. Around 900, the language spoken in the Faroes was Old Norse, however, many of the settlers were not from Scandinavia, but descendants of Norse settlers in the Irish Sea region. In addition, women from Norse Ireland, Orkney, or Shetland often married native Scandinavian men before settling in the Faroe Islands, as a result, the Irish language has had some influence on both Faroese and Icelandic. There is some evidence of Irish language place names in the Faroes, for example. Until the 15th century Faroese had a similar to Icelandic and Norwegian. The islanders continued to use the language in ballads, folktales and this maintained a rich spoken tradition, but for 300 years the language was not used in written form. This changed when Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb and the Icelandic grammarian and politician Jón Sigurðsson published a standard for Modern Faroese in 1854. They set a standard for the orthography of the language, based on its Old Norse roots and this had the advantage of being etymologically clear, as well as keeping the kinship with the Icelandic written language. The actual pronunciation, however, often differs from the written rendering, the letter ð, for example, has no specific phoneme attached to it. Jakob Jakobsen devised a system of orthography, based on his wish for a phonetic spelling. In 1937, Faroese replaced Danish as the school language, in 1938 as the church language. However, Faroese did not become the language of media. Today Danish is considered a language, although around 5% of residents on the Faroes learn it as a first language. Old Faroese is a form of Old Norse spoken in medieval times in the Faroe Islands, the most crucial aspects of the development of Faroese are diphthongisation and palatalisation. There is not enough available to establish an accurate chronology of Faroese. Iotacism may be connected with the palatalisation of k, g and sk before Old Norse e, i, y, ø, au > /kj, ɡj, skj/ > /cç, ɟʝ, ɕcç/ > /tʃʰ, tʃ. Before the palatalisation é and ǽ merged as /ɛː/ and approximately in the same period epenthesis u is inserted into word-final /Cr/, the Great Quantity Shift operated in the 15th/16th centuries. In the case of skerping, it took place after iotacism, the shift of hv to /kw/, the deletion of /h/ in word-initial /h/–sonorant clusters, and the dissolution of þ appeared before the end of the 13th century
9.
Elfdalian
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It developed in relative isolation since the Middle Ages and is considered to have remained closer to Old Norse than the other Dalecarlian dialects. Traditionally regarded as a Swedish dialect, but by several criteria closer to West Norse dialects, a comprehensive Elfdalian–Swedish dictionary was published on the Internet in September 2015. e. Approximately when the North Germanic languages split into Western and Eastern branches, archaisms, Lack of vowel lengthening in open syllables. The medial voiced fricatives /ð/ and /ɣ/ are retained, Old Norse nasal vowels are retained. Innovations and unique developments, More frequent assimilation of pre-Norse mp, nt and nk to pp, tt and kk, a > o before Pre-Norse nk. Old Norse ei, ey and au develop into ie, ä and o respectively. Diphthongization of Old Norse long high vowels í, ý, ú to closing diphthongs ai, åy, au, Elfdalian is comparable to Swedish and Norwegian in number and quality of vowels, but also has nasal vowels. It has retained the Old Norse dental fricative in the middle, alveolo-palatal affricate consonants occur in all Uvåsiljan dialects. Like many variants of Norwegian and Swedish, all Dalecarlian dialects except Orsamål assimilate /rt, rd, rs, rn, stress is generally on the first syllable of a word. Nasal vowels are a feature of Elfdalian, having been lost from all other descendants of Old Norse at some point of their history. They have several origins, belonging to different layers of history, late Proto-Germanic loss of *n before *h. The *h was lost in early Norse, but the nasalisation remained, Old Norse loss of nasal consonants before *s, gą̊ss goose, įster lard. Old Norse loss of *n before *l and *r, ųor our, Old Norse loss of word-final *n but only monosyllables, ą̊ on, sją̊ to see, tųo two and the prefix ųo- un-. Central Scandinavian loss of word-final -n, the change affected neither Standard Swedish nor did final geminate -nn. It occurred in primarily the definite noun suffix of feminine nouns but also ą̊ she, secondary post-Norse loss of n before s, rįesa to wash, wįster} left. Spontaneous nasality, rįesa to travel, kęse cheese, then, nasalisation is allophonic and is not indicated in the orthography. Having developed in isolation since the Middle Ages, quite a few linguistic innovations are also present in the language. Elfdalian has a structure inherited from its Old Norse ancestor
10.
Scandinavia
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Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
11.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
12.
D
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D is the fourth letter of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The Semitic letter Dāleth may have developed from the logogram for a fish or a door, there are many different Egyptian hieroglyphs that might have inspired this. In Semitic, Ancient Greek and Latin, the letter represented /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous, the equivalent Greek letter is Delta, Δ. The minuscule form of d consists of a loop and a vertical stroke. It developed by gradual variations on the majuscule form, in handwriting, it was common to start the arc to the left of the vertical stroke, resulting in a serif at the top of the arc. This serif was extended while the rest of the letter was reduced, resulting in an angled stroke, the angled stroke slowly developed into a vertical stroke. In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, and in the International Phonetic Alphabet, however, in the Vietnamese alphabet, it represents the sound /z/ in northern dialects or /j/ in southern dialects. In Fijian it represents a prenasalized stop /nd/, in some languages where voiceless unaspirated stops contrast with voiceless aspirated stops, ⟨d⟩ represents an unaspirated /t/, while ⟨t⟩ represents an aspirated /tʰ/. Examples of such languages include Icelandic, Scottish Gaelic, Navajo, the Roman numeral Ⅾ represents the number 500. D is the grade below C but above E in the grading system. The dictionary definition of D at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of d at Wiktionary
13.
Mnemonic
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A mnemonic device, or memory device is any learning technique that aids information retention in the human memory. Mnemonics make use of encoding, retrieval cues, and imagery as specific tools to encode any given information in a way that allows for efficient storage. Mnemonics aid original information in becoming associated with something more meaningful—which, in turn, the word mnemonic is derived from the Ancient Greek word μνημονικός, meaning of memory, or relating to memory and is related to Mnemosyne, the name of the goddess of memory in Greek mythology. Both of these words are derived from μνήμη, remembrance, memory, mnemonics in antiquity were most often considered in the context of what is today known as the art of memory. Ancient Greeks and Romans distinguished between two types of memory, the memory and the artificial memory. The former is inborn, and is the one that everyone uses instinctively, the latter in contrast has to be trained and developed through the learning and practice of a variety of mnemonic techniques. Mnemonic systems are techniques or strategies consciously used to improve memory and they help use information already stored in long-term memory to make memorisation an easier task. Mnemonic devices were much cultivated by Greek sophists and philosophers and are referred to by Plato. In later times the poet Simonides was credited for development of these techniques, the Romans valued such helps in order to support facility in public speaking. The Greek and the Roman system of mnemonics was founded on the use of mental places and signs or pictures, to recall these, an individual had only to search over the apartments of the house until discovering the places where images had been placed by the imagination. Except that the rules of mnemonics are referred to by Martianus Capella, among the voluminous writings of Roger Bacon is a tractate De arte memorativa. Ramon Llull devoted special attention to mnemonics in connection with his ars generalis, about the end of the 15th century, Petrus de Ravenna provoked such astonishment in Italy by his mnemonic feats that he was believed by many to be a necromancer. His Phoenix artis memoriae went through as many as nine editions, about the end of the 16th century, Lambert Schenkel, who taught mnemonics in France, Italy and Germany, similarly surprised people with his memory. He was denounced as a sorcerer by the University of Louvain, the most complete account of his system is given in two works by his pupil Martin Sommer, published in Venice in 1619. In 1618 John Willis published Mnemonica, sive ars reminiscendi, containing a statement of the principles of topical or local mnemonics. Giordano Bruno included a memoria technica in his treatise De umbris idearum, other writers of this period are the Florentine Publicius, Johannes Romberch, Hieronimo Morafiot, Ars memoriae, and B. The philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz adopted a very similar to that of Wennsshein for his scheme of a form of writing common to all languages. Wennssheins method was adopted with slight changes afterward by the majority of subsequent original systems and it was modified and supplemented by Richard Grey, a priest who published a Memoria technica in 1730
14.
Voiced dental fricative
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The voiced dental fricative is a consonant sound used in some spoken languages. It is familiar to English-speakers, as the th sound in father, very rarely-used variant transcriptions of the dental approximant include ⟨ʋ̠⟩, ⟨ɹ̟⟩ and ⟨ɹ̪⟩. This sound and its unvoiced counterpart are rare phonemes, almost all languages of Europe and Asia, such as German, French, Persian, Japanese, and Mandarin, lack the sound. As for Europe, there seems to be an arc where the sound is present. Most of Mainland Europe lacks the sound, within Turkic languages, Bashkir and Turkmen have both voiced and voiceless dental non-sibilant fricatives among their consonants. Among Semitic languages, they are used in Modern Standard Arabic, albeit only by some speakers, as well as in some dialects of Hebrew and it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant. Its place of articulation is dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, note that most stops and liquids described as dental are actually denti-alveolar. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, in the following transcriptions, the undertack diacritic may be used to indicate an approximant. Danish is actually a weak, velarized alveolar approximant, voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative Sibilant consonant#Possible combinations Index of phonetics articles
15.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
16.
Thorn (letter)
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Thorn or þorn is a letter in the Old English, Gothic, Old Norse and modern Icelandic alphabets, as well as some dialects of Middle English. It was also used in medieval Scandinavia, but was replaced with the digraph th, except in Iceland. The letter originated from the rune ᚦ in the Elder Fuþark and was called thorn in the Anglo-Saxon and its reconstructed Proto-Germanic name is Thurisaz. It is similar in appearance to the archaic Greek letter sho and it is pronounced as either a voiceless dental fricative or the voiced counterpart of it. In typography, the thorn character is unusual in that it has both an ascender and a descender. The letter thorn was used for writing Old English very early on, as was ð, unlike ð, however, both letters were used for the phoneme /θ/, sometimes by the same scribe. A thorn with the ascender crossed was an abbreviation for the word that. The modern digraph th began to grow in popularity during the 14th century, at the same time, in some hands, such as that of the scribe of the unique mid-15th-century manuscript of The Boke of Margery Kempe, it ultimately became indistinguishable from the letter Y. By this stage, th was predominant and the use of thorn was largely restricted to certain common words, in William Caxtons pioneering printed English, it is rare except in an abbreviated the, written with a thorn and a superscript E. This was the use, though the substitution of Y for thorn soon became ubiquitous, leading to the common ye. One major reason for this was that Y existed in the printers type fonts that were imported from Germany or Italy, the word was never pronounced with a y sound, though, even when so written. The first printing of the King James Version of the Bible in 1611 used the Y form of thorn with a superscript E in places such as Job 1,9, John 15,1, and Romans 15,29. It also used a form with a superscript T, which was an abbreviated that. All were replaced in later printings by the or that, respectively, the definite article spelt with Y for thorn is often jocularly or mistakenly pronounced /jiː/ or mistaken for the archaic nominative case of the second person plural pronoun, ye. The Icelandic language is the living language to retain the letter thorn. The letter is the 30th in the Icelandic alphabet, it is transliterated to th when it cannot be reproduced, höfuðstaf þe-sins rita ég hvergi nema í vers upphafi því að hans atkvæði má eigi æxla þótt hann standi eftir raddarstaf í samstöfun. For example, the name of Icelandic athlete Anníe Mist Þórisdóttir is anglicised as Thorisdottir. Thorn can be typed on a normal QWERTY keyboard using various system dependent methods, thorn may also be accessible by copy-and-pasting from a character map, through changing the keyboard layout or through a compose key
17.
Phoneme
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A phoneme is one of the units of sound that distinguish one word from another in a particular language. The difference in meaning between the English words kill and kiss is a result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/, two words that differ in meaning through a contrast of a single phoneme form a minimal pair. In linguistics, phonemes are written between slashes like this, /p/, whereas when it is desired to show the exact pronunciation of any sound, linguists use square brackets. Within linguistics there are differing views as to exactly what phonemes are, however, a phoneme is generally regarded as an abstraction of a set of speech sounds which are perceived as equivalent to each other in a given language. For example, in English, the k sounds in the kit and skill are not identical. Different speech sounds that are realizations of the same phoneme are known as allophones, phonemes are conventionally placed between slashes in transcription, whereas speech sounds are placed between square brackets. Thus /pʊʃ/ represents a sequence of three phonemes /p/, /ʊ/, /ʃ/, while represents the sequence of sounds. The symbols used for particular phonemes are often taken from the International Phonetic Alphabet, however, descriptions of particular languages may use different conventional symbols to represent the phonemes of those languages. A phoneme is a sound or a group of different sounds perceived to have the function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example is the English phoneme /k/, which occurs in such as cat, kit, scat. Although most native speakers do not notice this, in most English dialects the c/k sounds in words are not identical, in kit the sound is aspirated. The words therefore contain different speech sounds, or phones, transcribed for the aspirated form, the above shows that in English, and are allophones of a single phoneme /k/. For example, in Icelandic, is the first sound of kátur meaning cheerful, Icelandic therefore has two separate phonemes /kʰ/ and /k/. A pair of words like kátur and gátur that differ only in one phone is called a pair for the two alternative phones in question. The existence of pairs is a common test to decide whether two phones represent different phonemes or are allophones of the same phoneme. In other languages, though, including Korean, even though both sounds and occur, no minimal pair exists. The lack of minimal pairs distinguishing and in Korean provides evidence that in this language they are allophones of a single phoneme /t/, the word /tata/ is pronounced, for example. Signed languages, such as American Sign Language also have minimal pairs, Sign language minimal pairs refer to one of the signs parameters, handshape, movement, location, palm orientation, and non-manual signal/marker
18.
Voiceless dental fricative
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The voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some oral languages. It is familiar to English speakers as the th in thing, though rather rare as a phoneme in the worlds inventory of languages, it is encountered in some of the most widespread and influential. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨θ⟩, the IPA symbol is the Greek letter theta, which is used for this sound in post-classical Greek, and the sound is thus often referred to as theta. Among the more than 60 languages with over 10 million speakers, only English, Modern Standard Arabic, Standard European Spanish, Burmese, among Turkic languages, Bashkir and Turkmen have voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative. It has likewise disappeared from many Semitic languages, such as Hebrew and it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant. Its place of articulation is dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, note that most stops and liquids described as dental are actually denti-alveolar. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, the voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant is the only sibilant fricative in some dialects of Andalusian Spanish. It has no symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet, though its features would be transcribed ⟨s̻̪⟩ or ⟨s̪̻⟩. It is usually represented by a symbol such as ⟨s̄⟩, ⟨θˢ̣⟩. Dalbor describes this sound as follows, is a voiceless, corono-dentoalveolar groove fricative and its place of articulation is denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with a flat tongue against the alveolar ridge and upper teeth. It is normally laminal, which means it is pronounced with the blade of the tongue and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a channel at the place of articulation. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
19.
Th (digraph)
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Th is a digraph in the Latin script. It was originally introduced into Latin to transliterate Greek loan words, in modern languages that use the Latin alphabet, it represents a number of different sounds. It is the most common digraph in order of frequency in the English language, the most logical use of ⟨th⟩ is to represent a consonant cluster of the phonemes /t/ and /h/, as in English knighthood. This is not a digraph, since a digraph is a pair of letters representing a single phoneme or a sequence of phonemes that does not correspond to the values of the separate characters. The digraph ⟨th⟩ was first introduced in Latin to transliterate the letter theta ⟨Θ, theta was pronounced as an aspirated stop /tʰ/ in Classical and Koine Greek. ⟨th⟩ is used in academic transcription systems to represent letters in east Asian alphabets that have the value /tʰ/, according to the Royal Thai General System of Transcription, for example, ⟨th⟩ represents a series of Thai letters with the value /tʰ/. Because neither /tʰ/ nor /θ/ were native phonemes in Latin, the Greek sound represented by ⟨th⟩ came to be pronounced /t/, the spelling retained the digraph for etymological reasons. This practice was borrowed into German, French, Dutch and other languages, where ⟨th⟩ still appears in originally Greek words. Examples of unetymological ⟨th⟩ in English are the name of the River Thames from Middle English Temese, in English, ⟨th⟩ for /t/ can also occur in loan-words from French or German, such as Neanderthal. The English name Thomas has initial /t/ because it was loaned from Norman, in the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages ⟨th⟩ represents a dental stop, /t̪/. During late antiquity, the Greek phoneme represented by the letter ⟨θ⟩ mutated from an aspirated stop /tʰ/ to a fricative /θ/ and this mutation affected the pronunciation of ⟨th⟩, which began to be used to represent the phoneme /θ/ in some of the languages that had it. One of the earliest languages to use the digraph this way was Old High German, before the phase of the High German consonant shift, in which /θ/. The Old English Latin alphabet adapted the runic letters ⟨þ⟩ and ⟨ð⟩ to represent this sound, however, in early Old English of the 7th and 8th centuries, the runic letters were initially not used yet and the digraph used in its place. In Old and Middle Irish, ⟨th⟩ was used for /θ/ as well, the letters ⟨þ⟩ and ⟨ð⟩ were used indiscriminately for both sounds, and when these were replaced by ⟨th⟩ in the 15th century, it was likewise used for both sounds. In the Norman dialect Jèrriais, the French phoneme /r/ is realized as /ð/, in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, ⟨th⟩ represents the lenition of /t/. In most cases word-initially, it is pronounced /h/, for example, Irish and Scottish Gaelic toil will → do thoil your will. This use of digraphs with ⟨h⟩ to indicate lenition is distinct from the other uses which derive from Latin. While it is true that the presence of digraphs with ⟨h⟩ in Latin inspired the Goidelic usage and this is an example of inverted spelling, the model of words where the original interdental fricative had disappeared between vowels caused ⟨th⟩ to be reinterpreted as a marker of hiatus
20.
Runes
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The Scandinavian variants are also known as futhark or fuþark, the Anglo-Saxon variant is futhorc or fuþorc. Runology is the study of the runic alphabets, runic inscriptions, runestones, runology forms a specialised branch of Germanic linguistics. The earliest runic inscriptions date from around 150 AD, the characters were generally replaced by the Latin alphabet as the cultures that had used runes underwent Christianisation, by approximately 700 AD in central Europe and 1100 AD in northern Europe. However, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes in northern Europe, until the early 20th century, runes were used in rural Sweden for decorative purposes in Dalarna and on Runic calendars. The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, and the Younger Futhark, the Younger Futhark is divided further into the long-branch runes, short-branch or Rök runes, and the stavlösa or Hälsinge runes. The Younger Futhark developed further into the Medieval runes, and the Dalecarlian runes, historically, the runic alphabet is a derivation of the Old Italic scripts of antiquity, with the addition of some innovations. Which variant of the Old Italic family in particular gave rise to the runes is uncertain, suggestions include Raetic, Venetic, Etruscan, or Old Latin as candidates. At the time, all of these scripts had the same angular letter shapes suited for epigraphy, the process of transmission of the script is unknown. The oldest inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany, not near Italy, a West Germanic hypothesis suggests transmission via Elbe Germanic groups, while a Gothic hypothesis presumes transmission via East Germanic expansion. The runes were in use among the Germanic peoples from the 1st or 2nd century AD, no distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present phonologically in the spoken languages of the time. Similarly, there are no signs for labiovelars in the Elder Futhark The term runes is used to distinguish these symbols from Latin and it is attested on a 6th-century Alamannic runestaff as runa and possibly as runo on the 4th-century Einang stone. The name comes from the Germanic root run-, meaning secret or whisper, in Old Irish Gaelic, the word rún means mystery, secret, intention or affectionate love. Similarly in Welsh and Old English, the word rhin and rūn respectively means mystery, secret, secret writing, or sometimes in the sense of the word. Ogham is a Celtic script, similarly carved in the Norse manner, the root run- can also be found in the Baltic languages, meaning speech. In Lithuanian, runoti means both to cut and to speak, according to another theory, the Germanic root comes from the Indoeuropean root *reuə- dig. The Finnish term for rune, riimukirjain, means scratched letter, the Finnish word runo means poem and comes from the same source as the English word rune, it is a very old loan of the Proto-Germanic *rūnō. The runes developed centuries after the Old Italic alphabets from which they are historically derived. The formation of the Elder Futhark was complete by the early 5th century, specifically, the Raetic alphabet of Bolzano is often advanced as a candidate for the origin of the runes, with only five Elder Futhark runes having no counterpart in the Bolzano alphabet
21.
Roman cursive
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Roman cursive is a form of handwriting used in ancient Rome and to some extent into the Middle Ages. It is customarily divided into old cursive, and new cursive, a more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals, but cursive was used for quicker, informal writing. It was most commonly used from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD, pseudolus, Ut opinor, quaerunt litterae hae sibi liberos, alia aliam scandit. Pseudolus, Has quidem pol credo nisi Sibylla legerit, interpretari alium posse neminem, calidorus, Cur inclementer dicis lepidis litteris lepidis tabellis lepida conscriptis manu. Pseudolus, An, opsecro hercle, habent quas gallinae manus, calidorus, Take these letters, then tell yourself what misery and concern are wasting me away. Pseudolus, I will do this for you, pseudolus, In my opinion, these letters are seeking children for themselves, one mounts the other. Calidorus, Are you mocking me with your teasing, pseudolus, Indeed, by Pollux I believe that unless the Sibyl can read these letters, nobody else can understand them. Calidorus, Why do you speak harshly about these letters and charming tablets. Pseudolus, By Hercules I beg you, do even hens have hands like these, for indeed a hen wrote these letters. Old Roman cursive is very difficult to read for people used to the current cursive forms of the Latin script. New Roman cursive, also called minuscule cursive or later Roman cursive, the uncial and half-uncial scripts also most likely developed from this script, a, g, r, and s are particularly similar. According to Jan-Olaf Tjäder, new Roman cursive influenced the development of not only uncial, gaelic type is an example of a later usage of uncial. Demotic Hieratic Jan-Olaf Tjäder, Die nichtliterarischen lateinischen Papyri Italiens aus der Zeit 445–700, staff, Vindolanda Tablets on line, Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents and the Academic Computing Development Team at Oxford University
22.
Mercia
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Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. The name is a Latinisation of the Old English Mierce or Myrce, the kingdom was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries, in the region now known as the English Midlands. The kingdoms capital was the town of Tamworth, which was the seat of the Mercian Kings from at least around AD584, when King Creoda built a fortress at the town. The reign of King Offa, who is best remembered for his Dyke that designated the boundary between Mercia and the Welsh kingdoms, is known as the Golden Age of Mercia. Mercia was originally a pagan kingdom, but King Peada converted to Christianity around 656, the Diocese of Mercia was founded in 656, with the first bishop, Diuma, based at Repton. After only 13 years at Repton, in 669 the fifth bishop, Saint Chad, moved the bishopric to Lichfield, in 691, the Diocese of Mercia became the Diocese of Lichfield. For a brief period between 787 and 799 the diocese was an archbishopric, although it was dissolved in 803. The current bishop, Michael Ipgrave, is the 99th since the diocese was established, at the end of the 9th century, following the invasions of the Vikings and their Great Heathen Army, much of the former Mercian territory was absorbed into the Danelaw. At its height, the Danelaw included London, all of East Anglia, the final Mercian king, Ceolwulf II, died in 879, the kingdom appears to have thereby lost its political independence. Initially, it was ruled by a lord or ealdorman under the overlordship of Alfred the Great, Mercia is still used as a geographic designation, and the name is used by wide range of organisations, including military units, public, commercial and voluntary bodies. Mercias exact evolution at the start of the Anglo-Saxon era remains more obscure than that of Northumbria, Kent, Mercia developed an effective political structure and adopted Christianity later than the other kingdoms. Archaeological surveys show that Angles settled the north of the River Thames by the 6th century. The name Mercia is Old English for boundary folk, and the interpretation is that the kingdom originated along the frontier between the native Welsh and the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Hunter Blair argued an alternative interpretation, that emerged along the frontier between Northumbria and the inhabitants of the Trent river valley. The earliest person named in any records as a king of Mercia is Creoda, coming to power around 584, he built a fortress at Tamworth which became the seat of Mercias kings. His son Pybba succeeded him in 593, Cearl, a kinsman of Creoda, followed Pybba in 606, in 615, Cearl gave his daughter Cwenburga in marriage to Edwin, king of Deira, whom he had sheltered while he was an exiled prince. The next Mercian king, Penda, ruled from about 626 or 633 until 655, some of what is known about Penda comes from the hostile account of Bede, who disliked him – both as an enemy to Bedes own Northumbria and as a pagan. However, Bede admits that Penda freely allowed Christian missionaries from Lindisfarne into Mercia, and did not restrain them from preaching
23.
Anglo-Saxon charters
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Anglo-Saxon charters are documents from the early medieval period in England, which typically made a grant of land, or recorded a privilege. The term charter covers a range of legal documentation including diplomas, writs. A diploma was a charter that granted rights over land or other privileges by the king. Diplomas were usually written on parchment in Latin, but often contained sections in the vernacular, describing the bounds of estates, the writ was authenticated by a seal and gradually replaced the diploma as evidence of land tenure during the late Anglo-Saxon and early Norman periods. Land held by virtue of a charter was known as bookland, Charters have provided historians with fundamental source material for understanding Anglo-Saxon England, complementing the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and other literary sources. They are catalogued in Peter Sawyers Annotated List and are referred to by their Sawyer number. The Anglo-Saxon charter can take many forms, it can be a lease, a will, an agreement, a writ or, most commonly and our picture is skewed towards those that regard land, particularly in the earlier period. Land charters can further be subdivided into royal charters, or diplomas, over a thousand Anglo-Saxon charters are extant today, as a result of being maintained in the archives of religious houses. These preserved their charters so as to record their right to land, the oldest extant original charter, now in Canterbury Cathedral archive, was issued in 679 by King Hlothhere of Kent granting land to the Reculver Abbey. Some surviving charters are later copies, which sometimes include interpolations, overall, some two hundred charters exist in the original form, whilst others are post-Conquest copies, that were often made by the compilers of cartularies or by early modern antiquaries. The primary motivation for forging charters was to provide evidence of rights to land, often forging was focussed on providing written evidence for the holdings recorded as belonging to a religious house in the Domesday Book. It is important when studying charters to establish their authenticity, the study of charters to determine authenticity gave rise to diplomatics – the science of ancient documents. Anglo-Saxon charters are catalogued in Peter Sawyers Annotated List, and are referred to by their Sawyer number. The three most common forms of Anglo-Saxon charter are diplomas, writs and wills, the largest number of surviving charters are diplomas, or royal charters, that granted privileges and rights, usually over land. The typical diploma had three sections, protocol, corpus, and eschatocol, the protocol opened the charter by invoking God and enumerating the pious considerations for the Kings act. The corpus was usually in Latin and named the beneficiary, recorded the grant or transfer, reserved common burdens, the corpus final section, which was often in Old English, described the boundaries of the land. The eschatocol was composed of a clause and witness-list, which usually included powerful lay. Much of the language of the diploma was explicitly religious - that a grant was made for the benefit of the soul or that anyone breaking the charter would be excommunicated
24.
D with stroke
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Đ, known as crossed D or dyet, is a letter formed from the base character D/d overlaid with a crossbar. Crossing was used to create eth, but eth has an uncial as its base whereas đ is based on the straight-backed roman d, crossed d is a letter in the alphabets of several languages and is used in linguistics as a phonetic symbol. In the lowercase, the crossbar is usually drawn through the ascender, in some African languages orthographies, such as that of Moro, the barred d is preferred. In the uppercase, the crossbar normally crosses just the left stem, the DE ligature should not be confused with the Đ. That ligature was used stylistically in pre-19th century Spanish as a contraction for de, a lowercase đ appeared alongside a lowercase retroflex D in a 1982 revision of the African reference alphabet. This revision of the alphabet eliminated uppercase forms, so there was no conflict between ɖ and đ, Đ was used in Medieval Latin to mark abbreviations of words containing the letter d. For example, hđum could stand for heredum of the heirs, similar crossbars were added to other letters to form abbreviations. The crossed d was introduced by Đuro Daničić in 1878 for use in Serbo-Croatian in his Dictionary of the Croatian or Serbian Language, replacing the older digraphs dj, Daničić modeled the letter after the Icelandic or Anglo-Saxon letter eth, albeit representing a different sound, the affricate. In 1892 it was introduced in Croatian and Slavonian schools. The letter thereafter gradually entered daily use, spreading throughout Serbo-Croatian, the crossed d is today considered a distinct letter, and is placed between Dž and E in alphabetical order. Its Cyrillic equivalent is Ђ ђ and its partial equivalent in Macedonian is Ѓ ѓ. When a true đ is not available or desired, it is transcribed as dj in modern Serbo-Croatian, the use of dj in place of đ used to be more common in Serbo-Croatian texts, but is now considered obsolete and discouraged by style guides. In the present-day orthographies of Northern Sami, Inari Sami and Skolt Sami and it is considered a distinct letter and placed between D and E in alphabetical order. Đ is the letter of the Vietnamese alphabet, after D and before E. Traditionally, digraphs and trigraphs like CH and NGH were considered letters as well. Đ is a letter in its own right, rather than a ligature or letter-diacritic combination, therefore, Đ represents a voiced alveolar implosive or, according to Thompson, a preglottalized voiced alveolar stop. Whereas D is pronounced as some sort of dental or alveolar stop in most Latin alphabets, alternatively, a hyphen can be overstruck onto a D. On computers without support for a Vietnamese character set or Unicode, Đ is encoded as DD, Vietnamese computer users typically input Đ as DD in the Telex and VIQR input methods or as D9 in the VNI input method. In the absence of a method, the TCVN6064,1995 and Microsoft Windows Vietnamese keyboard layouts map ZA0-09 to đ
25.
Alphabet
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An alphabet is a standard set of letters that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries and logographies, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet, the Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic. Under a terminological distinction promoted by Peter T. Daniels, an alphabet is a script that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, in other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants, such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal letters, as in Devanagari. The Khmer alphabet is the longest, with 74 letters, there are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet. Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks, while most alphabets have letters composed of lines, there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. Alphabets are usually associated with an ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order and it also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of numbering ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements. The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, the Greek word was made from the first two letters, alpha and beta. The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, aleph, which also meant ox, and bet, in the alphabet song in English, the term ABCs is used instead of the word alphabet. Knowing ones ABCs, in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything, the history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. These glyphs were used as guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs and this script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit, the Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called Proto-Canaanite before ca.1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram and this script is the parent script of all western alphabets
26.
Nynorsk
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Nynorsk, literally New Norwegian or New Norse, is one of the two written standards of the Norwegian language, the other being Bokmål. From 1885, when the parliament declared them official and equal, until new voting in 1929, the official standard of Nynorsk has since been significantly altered. A minor purist fraction of the Nynorsk populace has stayed firm with the Aasen norm, in local communities, one-fourth of Norwegian municipalities have declared Nynorsk as their official language form, and these municipalities account for about 12% of the Norwegian populace. Of the remaining municipalities, half are neutral and half have adopted Bokmål as their official language form, four of Norways nineteen counties, Rogaland, Hordaland, Sogn og Fjordane and Møre og Romsdal, have Nynorsk as their official language form. These four together comprise the region of Western Norway, the word Nynorsk also has another meaning. Nynorsk was the written Norwegian in use until it died out in the early 1600s during the period of Danish rule, a major source of old written material is Diplomatarium Norvegicum in 22 printed volumes. Written Nynorsk is found in all the types of places. Bokmål has, however, a larger basis in the cities. Most Norwegians do not speak either Nynorsk or Bokmål as written, Nynorsk shares many of the problems that minority languages face. In Norway, each municipality and county can choose to one of the two languages as its official language, or it can remain language neutral. As of 2015, 26% of the 428 municipalities have declared Nynorsk as their language, while 36% have chosen Bokmål and another 36% are neutral. At least 128 of the municipalities are in areas where Bokmål is the prevailing form. As for counties, three have declared Nynorsk, Hordaland, Sogn og Fjordane and Møre og Romsdal, two have declared Bokmål, Østfold and Vestfold. The remaining fourteen are officially language neutral, there are few municipalities in language neutral counties that use nynorsk. The main language used in schools is decided by referendum within the local school district. The number of districts and pupils using primarily Nynorsk has decreased from its height in the 1940s. As of 2016,12. 2% of pupils in school are taught Nynorsk as their primary language. The prevailing regions for Nynorsk are the areas of the western counties of Rogaland, Hordaland, Sogn og Fjordane and Møre og Romsdal
27.
Welsh language
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Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
28.
Uralic Phonetic Alphabet
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The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet or Finno-Ugric transcription system is a phonetic transcription or notational system used predominantly for the transcription and reconstruction of Uralic languages. It was first published in 1901 by Eemil Nestor Setälä, a Finnish linguist, for this reason, it is not possible to automatically convert a UPA transcription into an IPA one. The basic UPA characters are based on the Finnish alphabet where possible, with extensions taken from Cyrillic, small-capital letters and some novel diacritics are also used. Unlike the IPA, which is transcribed with upright characters. Although many of its characters are used in standard Latin, Greek, Cyrillic orthographies or the IPA. These have been encoded in the Phonetic Extensions and Phonetic Extensions Supplement blocks, font support for these extended characters is very rare, Code2000 and Fixedsys Excelsior are two fonts that do support them. A professional font containing them is Andron Mega, it supports UPA characters in Regular, a vowel to the left of a dot is illabial, to the right is labial. Other vowels are denoted using diacritics, however, in keeping with the principles of the UPA, the open-mid front labial and back illabial vowels are still transcribed with the addition of diacritics, as ⟨ɔ̈⟩ and ⟨ɛ̮⟩. The following table describes the consonants of the UPA, note that the UPA does not distinguish voiced fricatives from approximants, and does not contain many characters of the IPA such as. When there are two or more consonants in a column, the rightmost one is voiced, when there are three, the one is partially devoiced. A major difference is that IPA notation allows distinguishing between phonetic and phonemic transcription, by enclosing the transcription between either brackets or slashes /ai pi e/, UPA has no corresponding standard, and context must be relied upon to distinguish the closeness of transcription. For phonetic transcription, numerous differences from IPA come into relevance, UPA e, o denote mid vowels with no particular bias towards open or close. IPA, denote close-mid vowels in particular, common in Romance, being designed for languages largely featuring vowel harmony, UPA has no simple way to denote a basic, backness-ambiguous schwa sound, IPA. ə denotes a reduced form of e, corresponding with IPA, a further backing diacritic must be appended, resulting in ə̑. For the voiced fricative, UPA uses a Greek delta δ. In UPA, eth ð stands for a tap, IPA. UPA uses Greek chi χ for the velar fricative. In IPA, stands for a voiceless fricative, while the velar counterpart is
29.
Compose key
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A compose key, also called multi key, is a part of the computer keyboard that is—or behaves like—a kind of special dead key. Thus, unlike a modifier key, which must be held down, the effect of the compose key is to convert to a dead key every specified key that is pressed after it. The next keypress triggers the insertion of a character, typically a precomposed character or a symbol. Being a dead key, the key only needs one key position. This is ideally in the Base shift state, while the key positions may be attributed to other characters or dead keys. On the other hand, with respect to compact keyboards, the key may also be hidden in one of the present classic dead keys. More generally, any dead key may be programmed to compose more than what it is expected to produce. Having one dedicated compose key on keyboard, regardless of the number of other dead keys. For ergonomics, the place for the Compose key is Right Alt. If they do, the user might prefer to have Compose on Left Alt. Alternately, the Compose key may be placed on Right Ctrl, as actual keyboards can manage key rollover, the compose key does not really have to be released before the subsequent keystrokes. This makes it possible for experienced typists to enter composed characters rapidly, the typing speed is increased if the compose key can be acted with one thumb while other fingers are already about to hit the keys of the sequence. At the beginning, the Compose sequences followed handwriting and the overstrike technique, for example, striking Compose, followed by n, and then ~, produced the character ñ. This order is still in use, but multidiacriticized characters are hard to obtain this way, the inverse order is known from standard dead keys as present on the last typewriters and as used today on computer keyboards, Compose~n for ñ. Likewise, striking Compose, followed by O, and then C and this allows typing Compose^a, for ấ. There is no limit on combinations or sequence length, which only should respect the rules of mnemonics and ergonomics. For example, U+278C ➌ DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT THREE might be inserted when the sequence is typed. This example is based on the use of @ for all circled characters, % after @ for all negative circled, the choice of % for negative can be made with respect to ergonomics on a U. S
30.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
31.
GTK+
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GTK+ is a cross-platform widget toolkit for creating graphical user interfaces. It is licensed under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License and it is one of the most popular toolkits for the Wayland and X11 windowing systems, along with Qt. The GTK+ library contains a set of graphical elements, version 3.13.3 contains 203 active and 37 deprecated widgets. GTK+ is a widget toolkit written in the C programming language, it uses GObject. While GTK+ is primarily targeted at windowing systems based upon X11 and Wayland, it works on other platforms, including Microsoft Windows, there is also an HTML5 back-end called Broadway. GTK+ can be configured to change the look of the widgets drawn, several display engines exist which try to emulate the look of the native widgets on the platform in use. Starting with version 2.8, released in 2005, GTK+ began the transition to using Cairo to render the majority of its control elements. Since GTK+ version 3.0, all the rendering is done using Cairo, GDK acts as a wrapper around the low-level functions provided by the underlying windowing and graphics systems. GDK is found in the /gdk directory, GSK is the rendering and scene graph API for GTK+. GSK lies between the control elements and the rendering. GSK was finally merged into GTK+ version 3.90 released March 2017, GSK is found in the /gsk directory. GtkInspector has been introduced with version 3.14, gtkInspector can only be invoked after installing the development package libgtk-3-dev/gtk+-devel. There are several GUI designers for GTK+, the following projects are active as of July 2011, Glade, supports GtkBuilder, which is a GTK+ built-in GUI description format. Gazpacho, GUI builder for the GTK+ toolkit written in Python Crow Designer, relies on its own GuiXml format, Stetic, part of MonoDevelop, oriented towards Gtk#. GtkBuilder allows user interfaces to be designed without writing code, the interface is described in an Extensible Markup Language file, which is then loaded at runtime and the objects created automatically. The Glade Interface Designer allows creation of the interface in a WYSIWYG manner. The description of the interface is independent from the programming language being used. A library written in one programming language may be used in another language if bindings are written, Gtk# is a set of. NET bindings for the GTK+ GUI toolkit and assorted GNOME libraries
32.
Unicode input
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Unicode input is the insertion of a specific Unicode character on a computer by a user, it is a common way to input characters not directly supported by a physical keyboard. Unicode is similar to ASCII, but provides more options. A Unicode input system needs to provide a repertoire of characters. This is different from a layout which defines keys and their combinations only for a limited number of characters appropriate for a certain locale. Unicode characters are distinguished by code points, which are represented by the letter U followed by four or five hexadecimal digits. Characters in the Basic Multilingual Plane, containing modern scripts – including many Chinese and Japanese characters –, historic scripts, but also many modern symbols and pictographs have 5-digit codes. In some applications on Microsoft Windows, particularly using the RichEdit control. HTML uses a different syntax for code points, Character codes may be specified after ampersand and the number sign, and are followed by the semicolon. The number can be either in decimal or in hexadecimal, if the input is in hexadecimal, the number is preceded by an x. Some characters can also be used by entity name, very few fonts have full Unicode coverage, most only contain the glyphs needed to support a few writing systems and natural languages, at most. g. Many systems provide a way to select Unicode characters visually, ISO14755 refers to this as a screen-selection entry method. Microsoft Windows has provided a Unicode version of the Character Map program since version NT4.0 – appearing in the edition since XP. This is limited to characters in the Basic Multilingual Plane, Characters are searchable by Unicode character name, and the table can be limited to a particular code block. More advanced third-party tools of the type are also available. MacOS provides a character palette with much the same functionality, along with searching by related characters, glyph tables in a font, etc. It can be enabled in the menu in the menu bar under System Preferences → International → Input Menu or can be viewed under Edit → Emoji & Symbols in many programs. Equivalent tools – such as gucharmap or kcharselect – exist on most Linux desktop environments, clause 5.1 of ISO14755 describes a Basic method whereby a beginning sequence is followed by the hex number representation of the code point and the ending sequence. On some systems, this is limited to the BMP, users need to log off/in on Windows 8. 1/8.0, Windows 7, and Vista or reboot on earlier systems after editing the registry for this input method to start working
33.
HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
34.
TeX
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TeX is a typesetting system designed and mostly written by Donald Knuth and released in 1978. TeX is free software, which has made it accessible to a wider range of users. TeX is a means by which to typeset complex mathematical formulae. TeX is popular in academia, especially in mathematics, computer science, economics, engineering, physics, statistics and it has largely displaced Unix troff, the other favored formatting system, in many Unix installations, which use both for different purposes. It is also used for many other typesetting tasks, especially in the form of LaTeX, ConTeXt, the widely used MIME type for TeX is application/x-tex. Within the typesetting system, its name is stylized as TeX, when the first paper volume of Donald Knuths The Art of Computer Programming was published in 1968, it was typeset using hot metal typesetting set by a Monotype Corporation typecaster. This method, dating back to the 19th century, produced a classic style appreciated by Knuth. When Knuth received the proofs of the new book on 30 March 1977. Around that time, Knuth saw for the first time the output of a high-quality digital typesetting system, the disappointing galley proofs gave him the final motivation to solve the problem at hand once and for all by designing his own typesetting system. On 13 May 1977, he wrote a memo to himself describing the features of TeX. He planned to finish it on his sabbatical in 1978, but as it happened the language was not frozen until 1989, guy Steele happened to be at Stanford during the summer of 1978, when Knuth was developing his first version of TeX. When Steele returned to Massachusetts Institute of Technology that autumn, he rewrote TeXs input/output to run under the Incompatible Timesharing System operating system, the first version of TeX was written in the SAIL programming language to run on a PDP-10 under Stanfords WAITS operating system. For later versions of TeX, Knuth invented the concept of literate programming, the language used is called WEB and produces programs in DEC PDP-10 Pascal. A new version of TeX, rewritten from scratch and called TeX82, was published in 1982, among other changes, the original hyphenation algorithm was replaced by a new algorithm written by Frank Liang. In 1989, Donald Knuth released new versions of TeX and METAFONT and this is a reflection of the fact that TeX is now very stable, and only minor updates are anticipated. The current version of TeX is 3.14159265, it was last updated 2014-01-12, the design was frozen after version 3.0, and no new feature or fundamental change will be added, so all newer versions will contain only bug fixes. For this reason, he has stated that the final change will be to change the version number to π. Likewise, versions of METAFONT after 2.0 asymptotically approach e, for example, the Omega project was developed after 1991, primarily to enhance TeXs multilingual typesetting abilities
35.
LaTeX
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LaTeX is a document preparation system. When writing, the writer uses plain text as opposed to the text found in WYSIWYG word processors like Microsoft Word or LibreOffice Writer. The writer uses markup tagging conventions to define the structure of a document, to stylise text throughout a document. A TeX distribution such as TeX Live or MikTeX is used to produce a file suitable for printing or digital distribution. Within the typesetting system, its name is stylised as LaTeX and it also has a prominent role in the preparation and publication of books and articles that contain complex multilingual materials, such as Tamil, Sanskrit and Greek. LaTeX uses the TeX typesetting program for formatting its output, LaTeX can be used as a standalone document preparation system or as an intermediate format. In the latter role, for example, it is used as part of a pipeline for translating DocBook. LaTeX is intended to provide a language that accesses the power of TeX in an easier way for writers. In short, TeX handles the layout side, while LaTeX handles the content side for document processing, LaTeX comprises a collection of TeX macros and a program to process LaTeX documents. LaTeX was originally written in the early 1980s by Leslie Lamport at SRI International, LaTeX is free software and is distributed under the LaTeX Project Public License. It therefore encourages the separation of layout from content while still allowing manual typesetting adjustments where needed and this concept is similar to the mechanism by which many word processors allow styles to be defined globally for an entire document or the use of Cascading Style Sheets to style HTML. The LaTeX system is a language that also handles typesetting and rendering. LaTeX can be extended by using the underlying macro language to develop custom formats. Such macros are often collected into packages, which are available to address special formatting such as complicated mathematical content or graphics. Indeed, in the example below, the environment is provided by the amsmath package. In order to create a document in LaTeX, you first write a file, say document. tex, then you give your document. tex file as input to the TeX program, and TeX writes out a file suitable for viewing onscreen or printing. This write-format-preview cycle is one of the ways in which working with LaTeX differs from what-you-see-is-what-you-get word-processing. It is similar to the code-compile-execute cycle familiar to computer programmers, today, many LaTeX-aware editing programs make this cycle a simple matter of pressing a single key, while showing the output preview on the screen beside the input window
