1.
Boycott
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The purpose of a boycott is to inflict some economic loss on the target, or to indicate a moral outrage, to try to compel the target to alter an objectionable behavior. Sometimes, a boycott can be a form of consumer activism, when a similar practice is legislated by a national government, it is known as a sanction. As harvests had been poor that year, Lord Erne offered his tenants a ten percent reduction in their rents, in September of that year, protesting tenants demanded a twenty five percent reduction, which Lord Erne refused. Boycott then attempted to evict eleven tenants from the land, while Parnells speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was first applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail. The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest the crops in his charge, eventually 50 Orangemen from Cavan and Monaghan volunteered to do the work. This protection ended up costing far more than the harvest was worth, after the harvest, the boycott was successfully continued. Within weeks Boycotts name was everywhere, the New York Tribune reporter, James Redpath, first wrote of the boycott in the international press. The Irish author, George Moore, reported, Like a comet the verb boycott appeared and it was used by The Times in November 1880 as a term for organized isolation. According to an account in the book The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland by Michael Davitt, john OMalley of County Mayo to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or agent like Boycott. The Times first reported on November 20,1880, The people of New Pallas have resolved to boycott them, the Daily News wrote on December 13,1880, Already the stoutest-hearted are yielding on every side to the dread of being Boycotted. By January of the year, the word was being used figuratively. She Boycotted London from Kew to Mile End, girlcott is a portmanteau of girl and boycott intended to focus on the rights or actions of women. The term was coined in 1968 by American track star Lacey ONeal during the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, speaking for black women athletes, she advised that the group would not girlcott the Olympic Games, because female athletes were still focused on being recognized. It also appeared in Time magazine in 1970, and was used by retired tennis player Billie Jean King in reference to Wimbledon. The term girlcott was revived in 2005 by women in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania protesting what they said were sexist, during the 1973 oil crisis, the Arab countries enacted a crude oil embargo against the West. The first Olympic boycott was in the 1956 Summer Olympics with several countries boycotting the games for different reasons, iran also has an informal Olympic boycott against participating against Israel, and Iranian athletes typically bow out or claim injuries when pitted against Israelis. A boycott is typically a one-time affair intended to correct a single wrong. g
2.
Socially responsible investing
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Recently, it has also become known as sustainable investing or responsible investing. There is also a subset of SRI known as impact investing, in general, socially responsible investors encourage corporate practices that promote environmental stewardship, consumer protection, human rights, and diversity. Some avoid businesses involved in alcohol, tobacco, fast food, gambling, pornography, weapons, contraception/abortifacients/abortion, fossil fuel production, the areas of concern recognized by the SRI practitioners are sometimes summarized under the heading of ESG issues, environment, social justice, and corporate governance. Socially responsible investing is one of several related concepts and approaches that influence and, in some cases govern, the term socially responsible investing sometimes narrowly refers to practices that seek to avoid harm by screening companies included in an investment portfolio. However, the term is used more broadly to include more proactive practices such as impact investing, shareholder advocacy. According to investor Amy Domini, shareholder advocacy and community investing are pillars of socially responsible investing, the origins of socially responsible investing may date back to the Religious Society of Friends. In 1758, the Quaker Philadelphia Yearly Meeting prohibited members from participating in the slave trade – buying or selling humans, one of the most articulate early adopters of SRI was John Wesley, one of the founders of Methodism. Some of the applications of socially responsible investing were religiously motivated. Investors would avoid “sinful” companies, such as associated with products such as guns, liquor. The modern era of socially responsible investing evolved during the political climate of the 1960s, during this time, socially concerned investors increasingly sought to address equality for women, civil rights, and labor issues. King combined ongoing dialog with boycotts and direct action targeting specific corporations, concerns about the Vietnam War were incorporated by some social investors. That photograph channeled outrage against Dow Chemical, the manufacturer of napalm, during the 1950s and 1960s, trade unions deployed multi-employer pension fund monies for targeted investments. Labor unions also sought to leverage pension stocks for shareholder activism on proxy fights, by 1980, presidential candidates Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan and Jerry Brown advocated some type of social orientation for pension investments. SRI had an important role in ending the government in South Africa. International opposition to apartheid strengthened after the 1960 Sharpeville massacre, in 1971, Reverend Leon Sullivan drafted a code of conduct for practicing business in South Africa which became known as the Sullivan Principles. However, reports documenting the application of the Sullivan Principles said that US companies were not trying to lessen discrimination in South Africa. Due to these reports and mounting pressure, cities, states, colleges, faith-based groups. In 1976, the United Nations imposed an arms embargo against South Africa
3.
Corporate social responsibility
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Corporate social responsibility is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model. CSR policy functions as a mechanism whereby a business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards. The binary choice between complying with the law and going beyond the law must be qualified with some nuance, weak law must not be confused with soft law. CSR strategies encourage the company to make a impact on the environment and stakeholders including consumers, employees, investors, communities. Proponents argue that corporations increase long-term profits by operating with a CSR perspective, political sociologists became interested in CSR in the context of theories of globalization, neoliberalism and late capitalism. CSR is titled to aid an organizations mission as well as serve as a guide to what the company represents for its consumers, Business ethics is the part of applied ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. ISO26000 is the international standard for CSR. Public sector organizations adhere to the bottom line. It is widely accepted that CSR adheres to principles. The term corporate social responsibility became popular in the 1960s and has remained a term used indiscriminately by many to cover legal and moral responsibility more narrowly construed, Business Dictionary defines CSR as A company’s sense of responsibility towards the community and environment in which it operates. Companies express this citizenship through their waste and pollution reduction processes, by contributing educational and social programs, a broader definition expands from a focus on stakeholders to include philanthropy and volunteering. Most consumers agree that while achieving business targets, companies should do CSR at the same time, most consumers believe companies doing charity will receive a positive response. Somerville also found that consumers are loyal and willing to spend more on retailers that support charity, consumers also believe that retailers selling local products will gain loyalty. Smith shares the belief that marketing local products will gain consumer trust, however, environmental efforts are receiving negative views given the belief that this would affect customer service. Oppewal et al. found that not all CSR activities are attractive to consumers and they recommended that retailers focus on one activity. Becker-Olsen found that if the social initiative done by the company is not aligned with other company goals it will have a negative impact, mohr et al. and Groza et al. also emphasise the importance of reaching the consumer. Some commentators have identified a difference between the Canadian, the Continental European and the Anglo-Saxon approaches to CSR, and even within Europe the discussion about CSR is very heterogeneous. A more common approach to CSR is corporate philanthropy and this includes monetary donations and aid given to nonprofit organizations and communities
4.
Sustainability
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In ecology, sustainability is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinitely. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of biological systems. In more general terms, sustainability is the endurance of systems, the organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics and culture. Sustainability science is the study of development and environmental science. Sustainability can also be defined as a process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal. An ideal is by definition unattainable in a time and space. However, by persistently and dynamically approaching it, the results in a sustainable system. Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans, ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering, environmental resources management and environmental protection. Information is gained from green chemistry, earth science, environmental science, Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems. Moving towards sustainability is also a challenge that entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles. The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere, sustain can mean “maintain, support, or endure”. ”The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals, such as economic development, social development and environmental protection. This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing, in fact, the three pillars are interdependent, and in the long run none can exist without the others. The three pillars have served as a ground for numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years. Standards which today explicitly refer to the bottom line include Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade. Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated four pillars of sustainability, one such pillar is future generations, which emphasizes the long-term thinking associated with sustainability. There is also an opinion that considers resource use and financial sustainability as two pillars of sustainability. Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment. The question then becomes how to represent the relationship between those needs and the environment, a study from 2005 pointed out that environmental justice is as important as sustainable development
5.
TIAA
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TIAA, formerly TIAA—CREF, is a Fortune 100 financial services organization that is the leading retirement provider for people who work in the academic, research, medical and cultural fields. TIAA serves over 5 million active and retired employees participating at more than 16,000 institutions and has $889 billion in combined assets under management, much of TIAA operates on a not-for-profit basis, with surplus returned to participants. In 2013, TIAA ranked 97th on Fortunes list of the 500 largest corporations in America. As of 2016, TIAA is the largest global investor in agriculture, the 2nd largest grower of wine grapes in the United States, TIAA was created to replace the system of free pensions provided by Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching for professors. Later, in 1952, CREF was created to allow professors to invest in the market through the nations first variable annuity. Its core business continues to be retirement plan administration and annuity products, the company also offers 401 and 457 plans, Keogh plans, and Supplemental Retirement Plans. Contributions from these plans are typically invested in the traditional or variable annuities or its line of mutual funds. In recent years the company has expanded its capabilities and advisory services. Internally it has focused on developing customer support IT infrastructure and leadership development and these investments are offered to the general public, and TIAA is no longer limited to the academic community. While TIAA is considered to be an academic pension option at universities in the US, so, if a workers lifetime pension is affected at a university, TIAA is not operated as a party involved in labor-management or management-management disputes. Funding was provided by a combination of grants from the foundation and Carnegie Corporation of New York, as well as ongoing contributions from participating institutions and individuals. In 1921, the policyholders voted to nominate Professor Samuel M. Lindsay of Columbia University to represent them on the TIAA board of trustees, policyholder representation on the TIAA board was consistent with the Carnegie Foundation desire that educators assume a role in running the organization. Conservative investing allowed TIAA to survive the 1929 stock market crash, in 1933, Albert Einstein became a participant, a fact that TIAA–CREF later used in a notable 2001 advertising campaign. After World War II, in reaction to rising inflation and lengthening life expectancies, bill, TIAA recognized the need for its participants to invest in equities in order to diversify their retirement funds. In 1952, TIAA created the College Retirement Equities Fund, a variable annuity, on June 15,2007, TIAA became one of the first U. S. companies to voluntarily adopt, and the first to implement, a policyholder advisory vote on executive compensation policy. On August 12,2008, TIAA–CREF announced the opening of a new office in London, the office will be staffed by local investment professionals who will extend TIAA–CREF Global Real Estates activities in the United Kingdom and Europe. On September 14,2012, TIAA–CREF bought Festival Place, a center in Basingstoke. GGP will continue to oversee the management of the project
6.
Bloomberg L.P.
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Bloomberg L. P. is a privately held financial software, data, and media company headquartered in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Bloomberg L. P. was founded by Michael Bloomberg in 1981 with the help of Thomas Secunda, Duncan MacMillan, Charles Zegar, in 1981, Salomon Brothers was acquired, and Michael Bloomberg, a general partner, was given a $10 million partnership settlement. Bloomberg, having designed in-house computerized financial systems for Salomon, used his $10 million severance check to start Innovative Market Systems, Bloomberg developed and built his own computerized system to provide real-time market data, financial calculations and other financial analytics to Wall Street firms. In 1983, Merrill Lynch invested $30 million in IMS to help finance the development of the Bloomberg terminal computer system and by 1984, in 1986, the company was renamed Bloomberg L. P. and 5,000 terminals had been installed in subscribers offices. Within a few years, ancillary products including Bloomberg Tradebook, the Bloomberg Messaging Service, Bloomberg launched its news services division in 1990. Bloomberg. com was first established on September 29,1993 as a portal with information on markets, currency conversion, news and events. In late 1996, Bloomberg bought back one-third of Merrill Lynchs 30 percent stake in the company for $200 million, Bloomberg L. P. has remained a private company since its founding, the majority of which is owned by Michael Bloomberg. To run for the position of Mayor of New York against Democrat Mark Green in 2001, Bloomberg gave up his position of CEO, in 2008, Fenwick became the CEO of Bloomberg Ventures, a new venture capital division. Daniel Doctoroff, former deputy mayor in the Bloomberg administration, now serves as president, in September 2014, Bloomberg sold its Bloomberg Sports analysis division to the data analysis firm STATS LLC for a fee rumored to be between $15 million and $20 million. On July 9,2014, Bloomberg L. P. acquired RTS Realtime Systems, in 1992, Bloomberg L. P. purchased New York Radio station WNEW for $13.5 million. The station was converted into a format, known as Bloomberg Radio. Bloomberg L. P. bought weekly business magazine, BusinessWeek, following the acquisition, BusinessWeek was renamed Bloomberg Businessweek. In 2010, Bloomberg L. P acquired Eagle Eye Publishing and this acquisition became part of Bloomberg Government which was launched in early 2011. In 2009, Bloomberg L. P. purchased New Energy Finance, New Energy Finance was created by Michael Liebreich in 2004 to provide news, data and analysis on carbon and clean energy markets. Bloomberg L. P. acquired the company to become a resource for information to support low-carbon energy solutions. Liebreich continued to lead the company, serving as the executive officer until 2014. Bloomberg L. P. purchased Arlington, Virginia-based Bureau of National Affairs in August 2011 for $990 million to bolster its existing Bloomberg Government, BNA publishes specialized online and print news and information for professionals in business and government. On 16 December 2015 it was announced that Barclays had agreed to sell its business, Barclays Risk Analytics and Index Solutions Ltd, to Bloomberg L. P. for £520 million
7.
Reuters
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Reuters /ˈrɔɪtərz/ is an international news agency headquartered in London, England. It is a division of Thomson Reuters, until 2008, the Reuters news agency formed part of an independent company, Reuters Group plc, which was also a provider of financial market data. Since the acquisition of Reuters Group by the Thomson Corporation in 2008, Reuters transmits news in English, French, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Urdu, and Chinese. The Reuter agency was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in Britain at the London Royal Exchange, Paul Reuter worked at a book-publishing firm in Berlin and was involved in distributing radical pamphlets at the beginning of the Revolutions in 1848. Upon moving to England, he founded Reuters Telegram Company in 1851, headquartered in London, the company initially covered commercial news, serving banks, brokerage houses, and business firms. The first newspaper client to subscribe was the London Morning Advertiser in 1858, Reuters agency built a reputation in Europe and the rest of the world as the first to report news scoops from abroad. Reuters was the first to report Abraham Lincolns assassination in Europe, for instance, in 1872, Reuters expanded into the far east, followed by South America in 1874. Both expansions were made possible by advances in overland telegraphs and undersea cables, in 1883, Reuters began transmitting messages electrically to London newspapers. In 1923, Reuters began using radio to transmit news internationally, in 1925, The Press Association of Great Britain acquired a majority interest in Reuters, and full owners some years later. During the world wars, The Guardian reported that Reuters came under pressure from the British government to national interests. In 1941 Reuters deflected the pressure by restructuring itself as a private company, the new owners formed the Reuters Trust. In 1941, the PA sold half of Reuters to the Newspaper Proprieters Association, the Reuters Trust Principles were put in place to maintain the companys independence. At that point, Reuters had become one of the major news agencies. In 1961, Reuters scooped news of the erection of the Berlin Wall, in 1981, Reuters began making electronic transactions on its computer network, and afterwards developed a number of electronic brokerage and trading services. Reuters was floated as a company in 1984, when Reuters Trust was listed on the stock exchanges such as the London Stock Exchange. Reuters published the first story of the Berlin Wall being breached in 1989, share price grew during the dotcom boom, then fell after the banking troubles in 2001. In 2002, Brittanica wrote that most news throughout the world came from three major agencies, the Associated Press, Reuters, and Agence France-Presse, Reuters merged with Thomson Corporation in Canada in 2008, forming Thomson Reuters. In 2009, Thomson Reuters withdrew from the LSE and the NASDAQ, instead listing its shares on the Toronto Stock Exchange, the last surviving member of the Reuters family founders, Marguerite, Baroness de Reuter, died at age 96 on 25 January 2009
8.
Cable reel
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A cable reel is a round, drum-shaped object such as a spool used to carry various types of electrical wires. Cable reel which can also be termed as drums have been used for years to transport electric cables, fiber optic cables. Cable reels usually come in four different types, each with their own uses, wood, plywood, plastic, wooden drums come in three different varieties, steel-tyred for multiple use, export for sending abroad, and one-way drums for single trip use. Wooden drums can carry loads and are constructed in resinous wood. Discarded wooden reels can often be obtained cheaply from construction sites and are, owing to their shape, commonly used as furniture for college students and others seeking inexpensive furnishings. Plywood reels are used for transporting lighter loads and are an alternative to other types of drums, used extensively in the building industry. Often made of birch or poplar ply, they are strong and light-weight. In normal situations, plywood reels are used once and then destroyed. Often manufactured from recycled plastic, these reels are environmentally friendly, nowadays the steel reels have replaced the orthodox wooden reels in the cable and wire industry. They can also be made as collapsible steel drums or collapsible steel reels, the steel reels/drums are manufactured in an eco-friendly manner and are more durable than wooden drums. The life of a drum is longer and hence the overheads for the purchaser/user decrease as compared to those for the user of wooden drums and these steel reels are not as easily stolen. The major industry today prefers steel reels/drums instead of wooden or plywood or plastic reels/drums, the steel reels can be loaded with a different range cables and wires from the most heavy cables to the lightest wires. So it can be said to be multipurpose reel, eland Cables Cable Drum Dimensions Draka, General information about cable reels General Cable, Standard sizes of wooden drums
9.
Rio de Janeiro
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Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the second-most populous municipality in Brazil and the sixth-most populous in the Americas. The metropolis is anchor to the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazils third-most populous state. Part of the city has designated as a World Heritage Site, named Rio de Janeiro. Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese, the city was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, later, in 1763, it became the capital of the State of Brazil, a state of the Portuguese Empire. Rio stayed the capital of the pluricontinental Lusitanian monarchy until 1822 and this is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonising country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies. Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country, the home of many universities and institutes, it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17% of national scientific output according to 2005 data. The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the city is divided into 33 administrative regions. Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502, by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabrals fleet, allegedly the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci participated as observer at the invitation of King Manuel I in the same expedition. The region of Rio was inhabited by the Tupi, Puri, Botocudo, in 1555, one of the islands of Guanabara Bay, now called Villegagnon Island, was occupied by 500 French colonists under the French admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon. Consequently, Villegagnon built Fort Coligny on the island when attempting to establish the France Antarctique colony, Rio de Janeiro was the name of Guanabara Bay. Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several, mostly French, pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc, on 27 January 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdoms capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, as there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes. The first printed newspaper in Brazil, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, from the colonial period until the first independent decades, Rio de Janeiro was a city of slaves. There was an influx of African slaves to Rio de Janeiro, in 1819. In 1840, the number of slaves reached 220,000 people, the Port of Rio de Janeiro was the largest port of slaves in America. As a political center of the country, Rio concentrated the political-partisan life of the Empire and it was the main stage of the abolitionist and republican movements in the last half of the 19th century. Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when the monarchy was replaced by a republic, until the early years of the 20th century, the city was largely limited to the neighbourhood now known as the historic city centre, on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. Expansion of the city to the north and south was facilitated by the consolidation and electrification of Rios streetcar transit system after 1905, though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília built, at great cost, by 1960
10.
Interior design
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An interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such projects. Interior design is the process of shaping the experience of interior space, in the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building. The profession of design has been a consequence of the development of society. The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the interior design profession. The profession of design is separate and distinct from the role of Interior Decorator. The term is common in the UK where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking. In ancient India, architects used to work as interior designers and this can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect - one of the gods in Indian mythology. Additionally, the sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen in palaces built in 17th century India, in ancient Egypt, soul houses or models of houses were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete design for their buildings. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management and this business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the interior design in the mid-20th century. In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits and they framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes, as department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons. This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War, the Herter Brothers, founded by two German emigre brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the class was the architect Owen Jones. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament, in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design, in 1882, the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators
11.
Fair
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A fair is a gathering of people for a variety of entertainment or commercial activities. It is normally of the essence of a fair that it is temporary with scheduled times lasting from an afternoon to several weeks, variations of fairs include, Street fair, a fair that celebrates the character of a neighborhood. As its name suggests, it is held on the main street of a neighborhood. Fête, a festival, party, or celebration. County fair or agricultural show, an event exhibiting the equipment, animals, sports and recreation associated with agriculture. State fair, a competitive and recreational gathering of a U. S. states population. It is a version of a county fair, often including only exhibits or competitors that have won in their categories at the more local county fairs. Traveling carnival, usually called a carnival, an amusement show made up of amusement rides, food vendors, merchandise vendors, games of chance and skill, thrill acts. Travelling funfair, a small to medium-sized travelling show primarily composed of stalls, the Roman fairs were holidays on which there was an intermission of labour and pleadings. Fairs were usually tied to a special Christian religious occasions, such as the Saints day of the local church, Stagshaw in England, is documented to have held annual fairs as early as 1293 consisting of the sales of animals. Along with the fair held on 4 July, the city also hosted smaller fairs throughout the year where specific types of animals were sold, such as one for horses, one for lambs. Kumbha means a pitcher and Mela means fair in Sanskrit, in the United States, fairs draw in as many as 150 million people each summer. Childrens competitions at an American fair range from breeding small animals to robotics, because of the great numbers of people attracted by fairs they were often the scenes of riots and disturbances, so the privilege of holding a fair was granted by royal charter. At first, they were allowed only in towns and places of strength, or where there was a bishop, in time various benefits became attached to certain fairs, such as granting people the protection of a holiday and allowing them freedom from arrest in certain circumstances. The chaotic nature of the Stagshaw Bank Fair with masses of people, the American county fair is featured in E. B. Art exhibition Lists of festivals Fair
12.
Anabaptism
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Anabaptism is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in Europe. Traditionally this movement is seen as an offshoot of European Protestantism, Anabaptists are Christians who believe that baptism is only valid when the candidate confesses his or her faith in Christ and wants to be baptized. This believers baptism is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a decision to be baptized. Anabaptists are those who are in a line with the early Anabaptists of the 16th century. Other Christian groups, like Baptists, who practice believers baptism but have different roots, are not seen as Anabaptist. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement, schwarzenau Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are considered later developments among the Anabaptists. The name Anabaptist means one who baptizes again and their persecutors named them this, referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ, even if they had been baptized as infants. Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make a confession of faith that is freely chosen, the early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers was their first true baptism, but the right baptism of Christ, which is preceded by teaching and oral confession of faith, I teach, and say that infant baptism is a robbery of the right baptism of Christ. Anabaptists were persecuted largely because of their interpretation of scripture that put them at odds with official state church interpretations, most Anabaptists adhered to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government. Some groups that are now extinct, who practised rebaptism, however, felt otherwise and they were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, and Hutterites and some historians tend to consider them as being outside of true Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in a letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524, True Christian believers are sheep among wolves, Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them. For instance, Petr Chelčický, a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology, medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life, the Hussites, Dutch Sacramentists, and some forms of monasticism. The Waldensians also represent a similar to the Anabaptists. The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, no Christian has the jus gladii. Matthew 5,39 Civil government belongs to the world, the believer belongs to Gods kingdom, so must not fill any office nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed. But no force is to be used towards them, on December 27,1521, three prophets appeared in Wittenberg from Zwickau who were influenced by Thomas Müntzer—Thomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism and their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression
13.
Mennonite
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The Mennonites are Christian groups belonging to the church communities of Anabaptist denominations named after Menno Simons of Friesland. Through his writings, Simons articulated and formalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders, rather than fight, the majority of these followers survived by fleeing to neighboring states where ruling families were tolerant of their radical belief in believers baptism. Over the years, Mennonites have become known as one of the peace churches because of their commitment to pacifism. There is controversy among Mennonites about this issue, with some insisting that they are simply a group while others argue that they form a distinct ethnic group. Historians and sociologists have increasingly started to treat Mennonites as an ethno-religious group, there is also a discussion about the term ethnic Mennonite. There are about 2.1 million Anabaptists worldwide as of 2015, Mennonite congregations worldwide embody the full scope of Mennonite practice from plain people to those who are indistinguishable in dress and appearance from the general population. Mennonites can be found in communities in at least 87 countries on six continents, the largest populations of Mennonites are to be found in Canada, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, India and the United States. Today, less than 500 Mennonites remain in Ukraine, a relatively small Mennonite presence, known as the Algemene Doopsgezinde Societeit, still continues in the Netherlands, where Simons was born. The early history of the Mennonites starts with the Anabaptists in the German, the German term is Täufer or Wiedertäufer. The Greek word palin is the single most used term translated as again throughout the Greek MSS translated into the English KJV Bible, when the Greek prepositional prefix ana is used, it is always translated separately, and not transliterated. The English transliteration of anbaptizmo demands a transliterated rendering as an-other baptism, hence ANA-baptism and these forerunners of modern Mennonites were part of the Protestant Reformation, a broad reaction against the practices and theology of the Roman Catholic Church. Other significant theological views of the Mennonites developed in opposition to Roman Catholic views or to the views of other Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther, some of the followers of Zwinglis Reformed church thought that requiring church membership beginning at birth was inconsistent with the New Testament example. At a small meeting in Zurich on January 21,1525, Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz and this meeting marks the beginning of the Anabaptist movement. In the spirit of the times, many groups followed, preaching about reducing hierarchy, relations with the state, eschatology and these movements are together referred to as the Radical Reformation. They joined forces to fight the movement, using such as banishment, torture. Despite strong repressive efforts of the churches, the movement spread slowly around western Europe. Officials killed many of the earliest Anabaptist leaders in an attempt to purge Europe of the new sect, by 1530, most of the founding leaders had been killed for refusing to renounce their beliefs. Many believed that God did not condone killing or the use of force for any reason and were unwilling to fight for their lives
14.
Amish
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The Amish are a group of traditionalist Christian church fellowships with Swiss Anabaptist origins. They are closely related to, but distinct from, Mennonite churches, the Amish are known for simple living, plain dress, and reluctance to adopt many conveniences of modern technology. The history of the Amish church began with a schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and those who followed Ammann became known as Amish. In the early 18th century, many Amish and Mennonites emigrated to Pennsylvania for a variety of reasons, as of 2000, over 165,000 Old Order Amish lived in the United States and about 1,500 lived in Canada. Most of the Amish continue to have 6–7 children while benefiting from the decrease in infant. Between 1992 and 2013, the Amish population increased by 120%, Amish church membership begins with baptism, usually between the ages of 16 and 25. It is a requirement for marriage within the Amish church, once a person is baptized with the church, he or she may marry only within the faith. Church districts average between 20 and 40 families, and worship services are held every other Sunday in a members home, the district is led by a bishop and several ministers and deacons. Most Amish do not buy commercial insurance or participate in Social Security, as present-day Anabaptists, Amish church members practice nonresistance and will not perform any type of military service. The Amish value rural life, manual labor and humility, all under the auspices of living what they interpret to be Gods word, members who do not conform to these community expectations and who cannot be convinced to repent are excommunicated. In addition to excommunication, members may be shunned, a practice that limits social contacts to shame the wayward member into returning to the church, almost 90 percent of Amish teenagers choose to be baptized and join the church. Amish church groups seek to maintain a degree of separation from the non-Amish world, There is generally a heavy emphasis on church and family relationships. They typically operate their own schools and discontinue formal education after grade eight. Until the children turn 16, they have vocational training under the tutelage of their parents, community, the Amish Mennonite movement descends from the 16th century fellowship known as the Swiss Brethren. The Swiss Brethren were Anabaptists, and are viewed as having been a part of the Radical Reformation. Anabaptist means one who baptizes again—a reference to those who had baptized as infants, but later adopted a belief in believers baptism. These Swiss Brethren trace their origins to Felix Manz and Conrad Grebel and this pushed the Swiss Brethren into Canton Bern. The term Amish was first used as a schandename in 1710 by opponents of Jakob Amman, the first division between Swiss Brethren was recorded in the 17th century between Oberländers and Emmentaler
15.
Judeo-Christian
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The concept of Judeo-Christian values in an ethical sense was used by George Orwell in 1939, with the phrase the Judaeo-Christian scheme of morals. It has become part of the American civil religion since the 1940s, the term Abrahamic religions is used to include Islam as well as Judaism and Christianity. The term is used, as Judæo Christian, at least as far back as in a letter from Alexander MCaul dated October 17,1821, the term in this case referred to Jewish converts to Christianity. The term is used similarly by Joseph Wolff in 1829, referring to a style of church that would keep with some Jewish traditions in order to convert Jews. The expression appears in The Antichrist, published in 1895 and written years earlier. Christianity inherits the notion of a covenant from Second Temple Judaism, two major views of the relationship exist, namely New Covenant theology and Dual-covenant theology. In addition, although the order of the books in the Protestant Old Testament and the Tanakh differ, the Christian Old Testament is, thus, Jewish scripture, and it is used as moral and spiritual teaching material throughout the Christian world. As a result, an amount of Jewish and Christian teachings are based on a common sacred text. Promoting the concept of United States as a Judeo-Christian nation first became a program in the 1940s. Through soul-searching in the aftermath of the Holocaust, there was a revolution in Christian theology in America, the greatest shift in Christian attitudes toward the Jewish people since Constantine converted the Roman Empire. During the late 1940s, Evangelical proponents of the new Judeo-Christian approach lobbied Washington for diplomatic support of the new state of Israel, the Evangelicals have never wavered in their support for Israel. On the other hand, by the late 1960s Mainline Protestant denominations, interest in and a positive attitude towards Americas Judeo-Christian tradition has become mainstream among Evangelicals. Moreover, for many Evangelicals Israel is seen as the instrument through which prophecies of the end times are fulfilled, response of Jews towards the Judeo-Christian concept has been mixed. At funerals for the soldier, rabbis stood alongside the other chaplains. A1948 postage stamp commemorated their heroism with the words, interfaith in action, in the 1950s, a spiritual and cultural revival washed over American Jewry in response to the trauma of the Holocaust. American Jews became more confident to be identified as different, for Christians, the concept of a Judeo-Christian tradition comfortably suggests that Judaism progresses into Christianity—that Judaism is somehow completed in Christianity. The concept of a Judeo-Christian tradition flows from the Christian theology of supersession, Christianity, according to this myth, reforms and replaces Judaism. The myth therefore implies, first, that Judaism needs reformation and replacement, and second, most importantly the myth of the Judeo-Christian tradition insidiously obscures the real and significant differences between Judaism and Christianity
16.
Secularity
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Secularity is the state of being separate from religion, or of not being exclusively allied with or against any particular religion. Historically, the secular was not related or linked to religion. The idea of a dichotomy between religion and the secular originated in the 18th century European Enlightenment, one can regard eating and bathing as examples of secular activities, because there may not be anything inherently religious about them. Nevertheless, some religious traditions see both eating and bathing as sacraments, therefore making them religious activities within those world views, saying a prayer derived from religious text or doctrine, worshipping through the context of a religion, and attending a religious school are examples of religious activities. The secular is experienced in diverse ways ranging from separation of religion and state to being anti-religion or even pro-religion, a related term, secularism, involves the principle that government institutions and their representatives should remain separate from religious institutions, their beliefs, and their dignitaries. Many businesses and corporations, and some operate on secular lines. This stands in contrast to theocracy, government with deity as its highest authority, Secular and secularity derive from the Latin word saeculum which meant of a generation, belonging to an age or denoted a period of about one hundred years. In the ancient world, saeculum was not defined in contrast to any sacred concerns and had a usage in Latin. It was in Christian Latin of medieval times, that saeculum was used for distinguishing this temporal age of the world from the realm of God. The Christian doctrine that God exists outside time led medieval Western culture to use secular to indicate separation from specifically religious affairs and involvement in temporal ones. This does not necessarily imply hostility to God or religion, though some use the term this way, routinization — institutionalizing through integration into the society. Differentiation — a redefined place such as when accepting its status as one religion in a plural religious field or morphing into a more generic, disengagement — the detachment of certain facets of social life from religion. Transformation — gradual change over time in a sense that Protestantism became for Christianity. Generalization — a particular kind of change in which it becomes less specific, more abstract, has moderation of controversial and divisive claims. Desacralization — culture and rationality guide people while leaving out religious beings, segmentation — the development of specialized religious institutions, which take their place beside other specialized social institutions. Secularism — the only form that leads to rejection of religion. Examples of secular used in this way include, Secular authority, which involves legal, police, and military authority, as distinct from clerical authority, or matters under church control. Secular clergy in the Roman Catholic Church, who, traditionally, do not live the lives of the regular clergy and are therefore, in a sense
17.
Humanism
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The term was coined in 1808 by the early nineteenth century German educational reformer and theologian Friedrich Niethammer and gradually adopted into English. Niethammer had wished to introduce into German education the humane values of ancient Greece, the word Humanism is ultimately derived from the Latin concept humanitas, and, like most other words ending in -ism, entered English in the nineteenth century. Those who earnestly desire and seek after these are most highly humanized. For the desire to pursue of that kind of knowledge, and the training given by it, has granted to humanity alone of all the animals. Gellius says that in his day humanitas is commonly used as a synonym for philanthropy – or kindness and he himself was involved in public affairs. By assigning pride of place to Paideia in his comment on the etymology of humanitas, gelliuss writings fell into obscurity during the middle ages, but during the Italian Renaissance, Gellius became a favorite author. Teachers and scholars of Greek and Latin grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, during the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany, humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and it is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. The first Humanist Manifesto was issued by a conference held at the University of Chicago in 1933, signatories included the philosopher John Dewey, but the majority were ministers and theologians. But in the century, during the French Enlightenment, a more ideological use of the term had come into use. In 1765, the author of an article in a French Enlightenment periodical spoke of The general love of humanity. A virtue hitherto quite nameless among us, and which we will venture to call humanism, for the time has come to create a word for such a beautiful and necessary thing. The latter part of the 18th and the early 19th centuries saw the creation of numerous philanthropic and benevolent societies dedicated to human betterment. Humanism began to acquire a negative sense, the Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word humanism by an English clergyman in 1812 to indicate those who believe in the mere humanity of Christ, i. e. Unitarians and Deists. Human-centered philosophy that rejected the supernatural may also be found circa 1500 BCE in the Lokayata system of Indian philosophy, nasadiya Sukta, a passage in the Rig Veda, contains one of the first recorded assertions of agnosticism. Another instance of ancient humanism as a system of thought is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra. Zarathustras philosophy in the Gathas lays out a conception of humankind as thinking beings, dignified with choice, in China, Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor. Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded, king Wu of Zhou has the famous saying, Humanity is the Ling of the world
18.
Life
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Various forms of life exist, such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. The criteria can at times be ambiguous and may or may not define viruses, viroids, biology is the primary science concerned with the study of life, although many other sciences are involved. The definition of life is controversial, the current definition is that organisms maintain homeostasis, are composed of cells, undergo metabolism, can grow, adapt to their environment, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. However, many other definitions have been proposed, and there are some borderline cases. Modern definitions are more complex, with input from a diversity of scientific disciplines, biophysicists have proposed many definitions based on chemical systems, there are also some living systems theories, such as the Gaia hypothesis, the idea that the Earth itself is alive. Another theory is that life is the property of systems, and yet another is elaborated in complex systems biology. Abiogenesis describes the process of life arising from non-living matter. Properties common to all organisms include the need for certain chemical elements to sustain biochemical functions. Life on Earth first appeared as early as 4.28 billion years ago, soon after ocean formation 4.41 billion years ago, Earths current life may have descended from an RNA world, although RNA-based life may not have been the first. The mechanism by which began on Earth is unknown, though many hypotheses have been formulated and are often based on the Miller–Urey experiment. The earliest known forms are microfossils of bacteria. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes believed to be present in the last universal ancestor of all living organisms. Since its primordial beginnings, life on Earth has changed its environment on a time scale. To survive in most ecosystems, life must often adapt to a range of conditions. Some microorganisms, called extremophiles, thrive in physically or geochemically extreme environments that are detrimental to most other life on Earth, Aristotle was the first person to classify organisms. Later, Carl Linnaeus introduced his system of nomenclature for the classification of species. Eventually new groups and categories of life were discovered, such as cells and microorganisms, cells are sometimes considered the smallest units and building blocks of life. There are two kinds of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, both of which consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane and contain many such as proteins
19.
Creditworthiness
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A credit risk is the risk of default on a debt that may arise from a borrower failing to make required payments. In the first resort, the risk is that of the lender and includes lost principal and interest, disruption to cash flows, the loss may be complete or partial. In an efficient market, higher levels of credit risk will be associated with higher borrowing costs, because of this, measures of borrowing costs such as yield spreads can be used to infer credit risk levels based on assessments by market participants. Losses can arise in a number of circumstances, for example, A consumer may fail to make a payment due on a loan, credit card, line of credit. A company is unable to repay asset-secured fixed or floating charge debt, a business or consumer does not pay a trade invoice when due. A business does not pay an employees earned wages when due, a business or government bond issuer does not make a payment on a coupon or principal payment when due. An insolvent insurance company does not pay a policy obligation, an insolvent bank wont return funds to a depositor. A government grants bankruptcy protection to an insolvent consumer or business, the lender can also take out insurance against the risk or on-sell the debt to another company. In general, the higher the risk, the higher will be the interest rate that the debtor will be asked to pay on the debt, Credit risk mainly arises when borrowers are unable to pay due willingly or unwillingly. Concentration risk – The risk associated with any single exposure or group of exposures with the potential to produce large enough losses to threaten a banks core operations and it may arise in the form of single name concentration or industry concentration. Significant resources and sophisticated programs are used to analyze and manage risk, some companies run a credit risk department whose job is to assess the financial health of their customers, and extend credit accordingly. They may use in programs to advise on avoiding, reducing and transferring risk. They also use third party provided intelligence, companies like Standard & Poors, Moodys, Fitch Ratings, DBRS, Dun and Bradstreet, Bureau van Dijk and Rapid Ratings International provide such information for a fee. Most lenders employ their own models to rank potential and existing customers according to risk, with products such as unsecured personal loans or mortgages, lenders charge a higher price for higher risk customers and vice versa. With revolving products such as cards and overdrafts, risk is controlled through the setting of credit limits. Some products also require collateral, usually an asset that is pledged to secure the repayment of the loan, Credit scoring models also form part of the framework used by banks or lending institutions to grant credit to clients. Once this information has been reviewed by credit officers and credit committees. Sovereign credit risk is the risk of a government being unwilling or unable to meet its loan obligations, many countries have faced sovereign risk in the late-2000s global recession
20.
Natural Capitalism
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Natural Capitalism, Creating the Next Industrial Revolution is a 1999 book co-authored by Paul Hawken, Amory Lovins and Hunter Lovins. It has been translated into a dozen languages and was the subject of a Harvard Business Review summary, in Natural Capitalism the authors describe the global economy as being dependent on natural resources and ecosystem services that nature provides. Natural Capitalism is a critique of traditional Industrial Capitalism, saying that the system of capitalism does not fully conform to its own accounting principles. It liquidates its capital and calls it income and it neglects to assign any value to the largest stocks of capital it employs – the natural resources and living systems, as well as the social and cultural systems that are the basis of human capital. Natural capitalism recognizes the interdependency between the production and use of human-made capital and the maintenance and supply of natural capital. The authors argue that only through recognizing this essential relationship with the Earths valuable resources can businesses, and their fundamental questions are, What would an economy look like if it fully valued all forms of capital. What if an economy were organized not around the abstractions of neoclassical economics and accountancy, what if generally accepted accounting principles recognized natural and human capital not as a free amenity in inexhaustible supply but as a finite and integrally valuable factor of production. What if in the absence of a way to practice such accounting. The book has many practical suggestions for companies interested in a sustainable future, while traditional industrial capitalism primarily recognizes the value of money and goods as capital, Natural Capitalism extends recognition to natural capital and human capital. Problems such as pollution and social injustice may then be seen as failures to properly account for capital, one of the keys to the most beneficial employment of people, money, and the environment is radical increases in resource productivity. Human welfare is best served by improving the quality and flow of desired services delivered, economic and environmental sustainability depends on redressing global inequities of income and material well-being. In a 2009 interview, Paul Hawken described his motivation behind the title Natural Capitalism and he stated that it was intended to be a pun on natural capital, a term originally coined by E. F. Schumacher in 1973. Hawken endorsed the concept of natural capital, and its implications for society. Despite this intention from Hawken, many interpreted this wordplay in the opposite way. There was dissent from readers who misunderstood the title, believing that Capitalism was the word. Global List of Natural Capitalism related Organizations
21.
Commodity market
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A commodity market is a market that trades in primary economic sector rather than manufactured products. Soft commodities are products such as wheat, coffee, cocoa. Hard commodities are mined, such as gold and oil, Investors access about 50 major commodity markets worldwide with purely financial transactions increasingly outnumbering physical trades in which goods are delivered. Futures contracts are the oldest way of investing in commodities, Futures are secured by physical assets. Commodity markets can include physical trading and derivatives trading using spot prices, forwards, futures, farmers have used a simple form of derivative trading in the commodity market for centuries for price risk management. A financial derivative is an instrument whose value is derived from a commodity termed an underlier. Derivatives are either exchange-traded or over-the-counter, derivatives such as futures contracts, Swaps, Exchange-traded Commodities, forward contracts have become the primary trading instruments in commodity markets. Futures are traded on regulated commodities exchanges, Over-the-counter contracts are privately negotiated bilateral contracts entered into between the contracting parties directly. Exchange-traded funds began to feature commodities in 2003, Gold ETFs are based on electronic gold that does not entail the ownership of physical bullion, with its added costs of insurance and storage in repositories such as the London bullion market. According to the World Gold Council, ETFs allow investors to be exposed to the market without the risk of price volatility associated with gold as a physical commodity. Commodity-based money and commodity markets in an early form are believed to have originated in Sumer between 4500 BC and 4000 BC. Sumerians first used clay tokens sealed in a vessel, then clay writing tablets to represent the amount—for example. These promises of time and date of delivery resemble futures contract, early civilizations variously used pigs, rare seashells, or other items as commodity money. Since that time traders have sought ways to simplify and standardize trade contracts, Gold and silver markets evolved in classical civilizations. At first the precious metals were valued for their beauty and intrinsic worth and were associated with royalty, in time, they were used for trading and were exchanged for other goods and commodities, or for payments of labor. Gold, measured out, then became money, golds scarcity, unique density and the way it could be easily melted, shaped, and measured made it a natural trading asset. Beginning in the late 10th century, commodity markets grew as a mechanism for allocating goods, labor, land, indeed, the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, often cited as the first stock exchange, originated as a market for the exchange of commodities. Early trading on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange often involved the use of sophisticated contracts, including short sales, forward contracts
22.
Service economy
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Service economy can refer to one or both of two recent economic developments, The increased importance of the service sector in industrialized economies. The current list of Fortune 500 companies contains more service companies, the relative importance of service in a product offering. The service economy in developing countries is concentrated in financial services, hospitality, retail, health, human services, information technology. Products today have a service component than in previous decades. In the management literature this is referred to as the servitization of products or a product-service system, virtually every product today has a service component to it. The old dichotomy between product and service has replaced by a service-product continuum. Many products are being transformed into services, for example, IBM treats its business as a service business. Although it still manufactures computers, it sees the physical goods as a part of the business solutions industry. They have found that the elasticity of demand for business solutions is much less than for hardware. There has been a shift to a subscription pricing model. Rather than receiving a payment for a piece of manufactured equipment. Full cost accounting and most accounting reform and monetary reform measures are thought to be impossible to achieve without a good model of the service economy. g. Meat inspection is a service that is assumed within a product price, products are purchased for their assumed reliability in some known process. That is, paying for the safe and proper disposal when you pay for the product and those who advocate it are concerned with the later phases of product lifecycle and the comprehensive outcome of the whole production process. It is considered a pre-requisite to a service economy interpretation of commodity. It is often applied to paint, tires, and other goods that become toxic waste if not disposed of properly and it is most familiar as the container deposit charged for a deposit bottle. One pays a fee to buy the bottle, separately from the fee to buy what it contains, if one returns the bottle, the fee is returned, and the supplier must return the bottle for re-use or recycling. If not, one has paid the fee, and presumably this can pay for landfill or litter control measures that dispose of diapers or a broken bottle
23.
Money
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The main functions of money are distinguished as, a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a store of value, and, sometimes, a standard of deferred payment. Any item or verifiable record that fulfills these functions can be considered as money, Money is historically an emergent market phenomenon establishing a commodity money, but nearly all contemporary money systems are based on fiat money. Fiat money, like any check or note of debt, is without use value as a physical commodity. It derives its value by being declared by a government to be legal tender, the money supply of a country consists of currency and, depending on the particular definition used, one or more types of bank money. Bank money, which consists only of records, forms by far the largest part of money in developed countries. The word money is believed to originate from a temple of Juno, in the ancient world Juno was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located, the name Juno may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni and Moneta either from the Latin word monere or the Greek word moneres. In the Western world, a prevalent term for coin-money has been specie, stemming from Latin in specie, meaning in kind. The use of methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago. Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economy, when barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or potential enemies. Many cultures around the world eventually developed the use of commodity money, the Mesopotamian shekel was a unit of weight, and relied on the mass of something like 160 grains of barley. The first usage of the came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. Societies in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia used shell money – often, according to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins. It is thought by scholars that these first stamped coins were minted around 650–600 BC. The system of commodity money eventually evolved into a system of representative money and this occurred because gold and silver merchants or banks would issue receipts to their depositors – redeemable for the commodity money deposited. Eventually, these became generally accepted as a means of payment and were used as money. Paper money or banknotes were first used in China during the Song Dynasty and these banknotes, known as jiaozi, evolved from promissory notes that had been used since the 7th century. However, they did not displace commodity money, and were used alongside coins, in the 13th century, paper money became known in Europe through the accounts of travelers, such as Marco Polo and William of Rubruck
24.
Economics
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Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
25.
Hypocrisy
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It is the practice of engaging in the same behavior or activity for which one criticizes another. In moral psychology, it is the failure to follow ones own expressed moral rules and principles, American political journalist Michael Gerson says that political hypocrisy is the conscious use of a mask to fool the public and gain political benefit. Hypocrisy has been a subject of wisdom and wisdom literature from the beginnings of human history. The word hypocrisy comes from the Greek ὑυπόκρισις, which means jealous, play-acting, acting out, alternatively, the word is an amalgam of the Greek prefix hypo-, meaning under, and the verb krinein, meaning to sift or decide. Thus the original meaning implied a deficiency in the ability to sift or decide and this deficiency, as it pertains to ones own beliefs and feelings, informs the words contemporary meaning. Whereas hypokrisis applied to any sort of performance, hypokrites was a technical term for a stage actor and was not considered an appropriate role for a public figure. This negative view of the hypokrites, perhaps combined with the Roman disdain for actors and it is this later sense of hypokrisis as play-acting, i. e. the assumption of a counterfeit persona, that gives the modern word hypocrisy its negative connotation. He assumes that politics is worthwhile, but since it is linked to lying and hypocrisy. Hypocrisy became a topic in English political history in the early 18th century. The Toleration Act of 1689 allowed for rights, but it left Protestant Nonconformists deprived of important rights. Nonconformists who wanted office ostentatiously took the Anglican sacrament once a year in order to avoid the restrictions, high Church Anglicans were outraged and outlawed what they called occasional conformity in 1711 with the Occasional Conformity Act 1711. This campaign of moderation versus zealotry, peaked in 1709 during the impeachment trial of high church preacher Henry Sacheverell, historian Mark Knights, argues that by its very ferocity, the debate may have led to more temperate and less hypercharged political discourse. Occasional conformity was restored by the Whigs when they returned to power in 1719, English author Bernard Mandeville famous s Fable of the Bees explored the nature of hypocrisy in contemporary European society. On the one hand, Mandeville was an heir to the French Augustinianism of the previous century, viewing sociability as a mere mask for vanity. On the other, he was a ‘materialist’ who helped found modern economics and he tried to demonstrate the universality of human appetites for corporeal pleasures. He argued that the efforts of self-seeking entrepreneurs are the basis of emerging commercial and industrial society, in the Enlightenment of the 18th century, discussions of hypocrisy were common in the works of Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montaigne. In the 1750 to 1850 era, Whig aristocrats in England boasted of their special benevolence for the common people and they claimed to be guiding and counseling reform initiatives to prevent the outbreaks of popular discontent that caused instability and revolution across Europe. Mitchell defends the Whigs, pointing out that thanks to them radicals always had friends at the centre of the political elite and he points out that the debates on the 1832 Reform Bill showed that reformers would indeed receive a hearing at parliamentary level with a good chance of success
26.
Fair trade
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Fair trade is a social movement whose stated goal is to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions and to promote sustainable farming. Members of the movement advocate the payment of prices to exporters. The movement seeks to promote equity in international trading partnerships through dialogue, transparency. It promotes sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, Fair trade is grounded in three core beliefs, first, producers have the power to express unity with consumers. Secondly, the trade practices that currently exist promote the unequal distribution of wealth between nations. Lastly, buying products from producers in developing countries at a price is a more efficient way of promoting sustainable development than traditional charity. Specifically, fair trade is a partnership, based on dialogue, transparency, and respect. There are several recognized fair trade certifiers, including Fairtrade International, IMO, Make Trade Fair, in 2008, Fairtrade International certified approximately of products. The World Trade Organization publishes annual figures on the trade of goods. The fair trade movement is popular in the UK, where there are 500 Fairtrade towns,118 universities, over 6,000 churches, according to Fairtrade International, nearly six out of ten consumers have seen the Fairtrade mark and almost nine in ten of them trust it. Some criticisms have been raised about fair trade systems, some research indicates that the implementation of certain fair trade standards can cause greater inequalities in some markets where these rigid rules are inappropriate for the specific market. In the Fair trade debate there are complaints of failure to enforce the fair trade standards, with producers, cooperatives, there are a large number of fair trade and ethical marketing organizations employing different marketing strategies. Most fair trade marketers believe it is necessary to sell the products through supermarkets to get a sufficient volume of trade to affect the developing world, the Fairtrade brand is by far the biggest of the fair trade coffee brands. Packers in developed countries pay a fee to The Fairtrade Foundation for the right to use the brand and logo, packers and retailers can charge as much as they want for the coffee. The coffee has to come from a fair trade cooperative. Additionally, the cooperatives are paid an additional 10c per lb premium by buyers for community development projects, the cooperatives can, on average, sell only a third of their output as fair trade, because of lack of demand, and sell the rest at world prices. The exporting cooperative can spend the money in several ways, some is spent on social projects such as building schools, health clinics and baseball pitches. Sometimes there is left over for the farmers
27.
Ten Thousand Villages
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Ten Thousand Villages is a nonprofit fair trade organization that markets handcrafted products made by disadvantaged artisans from more than 120 artisan groups in more than 35 countries. Ten Thousand Villages is a member of the International Fair Trade Association. Ten Thousand Villages is also a partner of Mennonite Central Committee. The original philosophy of Ten Thousand Villages was inspired by Mennonite values including compassion, service, mutual aid, the founding of Ten Thousand Villages in the mid-twentieth century marks the beginning of a movement later to be called fair trade. Edna Ruth Byler was moved to action by the poverty she witnessed during a trip to Puerto Rico in 1946. Byler began a campaign among her family and friends in the United States by selling handcrafted products out of the trunk of her car. She sought to provide economic opportunities for artisans in developing countries by creating a viable marketplace for their products. Over 30 years, Byler worked to connect individual entrepreneurs in developing countries with market opportunities in North America, in the 1970s the small project moved out of Bylers basement to become SELFHELP Crafts of the World, an official program of Mennonite Central Committee. In 1996, SELFHELP became Ten Thousand Villages, a company that now has over 100 stores in the United States. The new name was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi who said “India is not to be found in its few cities but in the 700,000 villages. ”By 2008, the other two thirds covered importing, storage, marketing, retail costs, and administration. In 2012, Ten Thousand Villages and Mennonite Central Committee entered a partnership agreement, Ten Thousand Villages is no longer wholly owned by MCC. Ten Thousand Villages encourages artisans to employ methods that are environmentally sustainable and to use recycled. In 2007, Ten Thousand Villages redesigned stores to minimize environmental impact in order to meet what they call their triple bottom line of economic, most of these groups are found in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Middle East. The company often selects artisan partners that provide training and employment to those who have no chance of securing employment in the mainstream labor market. Many of these artisans are disadvantaged because of disability or gender, Ten Thousand Villages also purchases from export businesses that market handicraft products on behalf of artisans who lack access to markets. These groups provide tools and sustainable sources of income for small artisan workshops to develop their infrastructure, prices are determined by a combination of what the artisan believes fair and demand in the foreign market. Artisans are paid up-front fifty percent of the price in order to help them pay for the raw materials used in their products. The other fifty percent is paid once the products are complete, the artisans are paid in full before their products are sold in North America, even if they never get sold
28.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
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Catholic Relief Services
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Catholic Relief Services is the international humanitarian agency of the Catholic community in the United States. Assistance is based solely on need, not race, creed or nationality, Catholic Relief Services is headquartered in the Posner Building in Baltimore, Maryland, while operating numerous field offices on five continents. CRS has approximately 5,000 employees around the world, the agency is governed by a Board of Directors consisting of 13 clergy and 10 lay people. Initially founded as the War Relief Services, the original purpose was to aid the refugees of war-torn Europe. S. Government — helped CRS expand operations and its name was officially changed to Catholic Relief Services in 1955, and over the next 10 years it opened 25 country programs in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East. CRSs executive director during this period was Bishop Edward E. Swanstrom, as the agency grew, its programming focus widened, adapting to meet the needs of the post-World War II Roman Catholic Church and the circumstances of the people it encountered. In the 1970s and 1980s, programs began as simple distributions of food, clothing. By the late 1980s, health care, nutrition education, micro enterprise, in the mid-1990s, CRS went through a significant institutional transformation. In 1993, CRS officials embarked on a planning effort to clarify the mission. All programming is evaluated according to a set of social justice criteria called the Justice Lens, CRS emphasizes the empowerment of partners and beneficiaries in programming decisions. Program examples include, Agriculture — CRS’ immediate goal is to improve family well-being through agro-economic development, the long-term goal is to strengthen the capacity of local communities to take control of their own development. Emergency Response — Natural and human-caused disasters disproportionately affect the lives of the poor, CRS works to ensure that disaster-affected populations are at least able to meet their basic needs and live a life with dignity. The agency works directly with affected communities and local partners to help restore, hIV/AIDS — CRS promotes community-based programs that help those infected, address the underlying causes of AIDS and reduce the spread of HIV. CRS is the agency in a consortium that is expanding the delivery of antiretroviral treatments to people infected with HIV in Africa. Funding for this comes from the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. In addition to this, programming addresses AIDS-related stigma, poverty, peacebuilding — The agencys commitment to global solidarity led CRS to adopt peacebuilding as an agency-wide priority. Peacebuilding in this context is defined as the project of building peaceful. CRS assembled a team of advisors and a headquarters-based technical staff to work with partners
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B Corporation (certification)
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As of September 2016, there are 1,863 certified B Corporations across 130 industries in 50 countries. B-Lab certification applies to the company across all product lines. For-profits of all legal business structures are eligible for certification, similar to other business associations, certified B Corporations and their employees have access to a number of discounts from outside entities and fellow members. B-Lab certification has no legal status, Benefit corporation is a legal status conferred by State law in the US, B Lab certification is issued by a private organisation and has no legislative framework. B Lab certification is not needed to obtain Benefit corporation status, to obtain a B Corporation certification, a company first completes an online assessment. Companies that earn a score of 80 out of 200 points undergo an assessment review process. Companies are required to provide supporting documentation before they are certified, socially and environmentally-focused business model points ultimately are accrued in their relevant impact area. Depending on an industry, geographic location, and number of employees. For instance, companies with more employees will have a heavier weighting in the workers category, to maintain credibility, the B Corporation certification standard operates under principles that are independent, comprehensive, comparable, dynamic, and transparent. B Lab has an established standards advisory council that can make decisions with or without the support of B Lab. As of May 2014,28 of 30 members were listed by their business affiliation, the council recommends improvements to the B Corp assessment on a biennial basis. There is a 30-day public consultation period before releasing a new version of the B Corporation assessment, currently the B Corp assessment is its third version, with the fourth version scheduled to be released in January 2014. Certification also requires companies to integrate their stakeholder commitments into the governing documents. In the United States, the avenue for corporations making the amendment to certify will depend on the state they are incorporated in. Beyond the corporate model, other business entities make an amendment of the company by-laws or governing documents. These include, The establishment of clear wording to consider stakeholder interests in company articles of incorporation or company by-laws, define stakeholders as the employees, the community, the environment, suppliers, customers, and shareholders. No prioritization of one stakeholder over another, allowing for the companys values to exist under new management, investors, or ownership. However, B-Lab certification allows the company bylaws to remain secret, as of April 2017, there are over 2000 certified B Corporations across 140 industries in 50 countries, including Canada, Australia, South Africa, and Afghanistan
31.
Cooperative
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Cooperatives frequently have social goals which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6. 9% of their profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2. 4% for other rival supermarkets. The International Co-operative Alliance was the first international association formed by the cooperative movement and it includes the World Council of Credit Unions. A second organization was formed later in Germany, the International Raiffeisen Union, in the United States, the National Cooperative Business Association serves as the sectors oldest national membership association. It is dedicated to ensuring that cooperative businesses have the same opportunities as other businesses operating in the country, a U. S. National Cooperative Bank was formed in the 1970s. By 2004, a new association focused on worker co-ops was founded, since 2002 cooperatives and credit unions could be distinguished on the Internet by use of a. coop domain. Since 2014, following International Cooperative Alliances introduction of the Cooperative Marque, ICA cooperatives, cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefit. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, in alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1472. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context, in 1761, the Fenwick Weavers Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education, owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop coop ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, in 1828, William King set up a newspaper, The Cooperator, to promote Owens thinking, having already set up a cooperative store in Brighton. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern coops. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford, within ten years there were over a thousand cooperative societies in the United Kingdom. Other events such as the founding of a society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor. Cooperatives traditionally combine social benefit interests with capitalistic property-right interests, Cooperatives achieve a mix of social and capital purposes by democratically governing distribution questions by and between equal by not controlling members. Democratic oversight of decisions to equitably distribute assets and other benefits means capital ownership is arranged in a way for social benefit inside the organization, external societal benefit is also encouraged by incorporating the operating-principle of cooperation between co-operatives. In the final year of the 20th century, cooperatives banded together to establish a number of social enterprise agencies which have moved to adopt the cooperative model. In the years 1994–2009 the EU and its member nations gradually revised national accounting systems to make visible the increasing contribution of social economy organizations, the roots of the cooperative movement can be traced to multiple influences and extend worldwide
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Cetacean bycatch
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Cetacean bycatch is the incidental capture of non-target cetacean species such as dolphins, porpoises, and whales by fisheries. Bycatch can be caused by entanglement in fishing nets and lines, cetacean bycatch is increasing in intensity and frequency. These fisheries come into direct and indirect contact with cetaceans, an example of direct contact is the physical contact of cetaceans with fishing nets. Indirect contact is through marine trophic pathways where fisheries are severely reducing fish stocks that cetaceans rely on for food, in some fisheries, cetaceans are captured as bycatch but then retained because of their value as food or bait. In this fashion, cetaceans can become a target of fisheries, generally cetacean bycatch is on the increase. Most of the cetacean bycatch occurs in gillnet fisheries. The mean annual bycatch in the U. S. alone from 1990–1999 was 6,215 marine mammals, with dolphins and porpoises being the primary cetaceans caught in gillnets. While gillweed nets are a concern, other types of nets also pose a problem, trawl nets, purse seines, beach seines, longline gear. Driftnets are known for high rates of bycatch and they affect all cetaceans and they are fatal for small toothed whales and sperm whales, as well as other marine mammals and fish such as sharks, sea birds and sea turtles. Many fisheries routinely use driftnets exceeding the EU size limit of 2.5 km/boat and this illegal drift-netting is a major issue, especially in important feeding and breeding grounds for cetaceans. However, the industry has achieved successes in reversing cetacean bycatch trends. In particular, dolphin bycatch in fishing in the East Tropical Pacific has dropped from 500,000 per year in 1970 to 100,000 per year in 1990 to 3,000 per year in 1999 to 1,000 per year in 2006. Bycatch is recognized as a threat to all cetaceans. The following cetaceans are at risk for entanglement in gillnets. Several stocks have been identified with numbers ranging from tens to a few hundred, gaps in the species range and hence distribution is evident. Bycatch is only documented in a few West African countries, surveys and evaluations need to be conducted to determine the presence/ absence of humpback dolphins in their historical range. Conservation measures need to be implemented to save this species, because many people live off the sea, it is not feasible to have complete gillnet closures. Some areas may be designated as off-limits to gillnet fisheries, eco-tourism may be implemented successfully because of high species diversity
33.
EKOenergy
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EKOenergy is an ecolabel for electricity. It is an initiative of the EKOenergy Network, a group of more than 40 environmental organizations from 30 countries. EKOenergy started in 2013 in Europe and its secretariat is based in Helsinki. Nowadays, EKOenergy is the only international ecolabel for renewable electricity and it is available all over the world and its material is available in more than 30 languages. Every member organization appoints one person to the EKOenergy Board, the Network’s highest governing authority, other language version of the label can be found in various countries. EKOénergie in France, EKOenergie in Germany or EKOenergia in Finland, only electricity from renewable sources can be sold as EKOenergy. But EKOenergy is more than just green electricity, EKOenergy also sets criteria for the following aspects, Consumer information, Consumers get information about where and how the electricity has been produced. Sustainability, EKOenergy takes into account the impacts of electricity production on ecosystem services, habitats, firstly, it does this by excluding the most environmentally degrading and problematic electricity production methods. Secondly, it finances river restoration through an Environmental Fund, Climate, per every MWh sold, minimum 10 euro cents will be paid into the EKOenergy Climate Fund. Tracking of the electricity, The criteria are based on the European best practice, auditing and verification, All EKOenergy claims are verified by independent auditors. Well known sellers of EKOenergy certified electricity include Fortum, Vattenfall, Ekosähkö, also sellers of electricity tracking certificates can help consumers to get EKOenergy, E. g. A full list of licensed sellers can be found on EKOenergy’s website, http, an increasing number of EKOenergy consumers uses the label in its own communication, e. g. Otava Printing and Saimaan juomatehdas. For each MWh of EKOenergy sold, the seller pays a minimum of €0.10 to EKOenergy’s Climate Fund and this money is used to finance climate projects that would not have happened without the contributions. These projects are managed by experienced organisations, All projects are selected in an open process, with sellers, buyers and independent experts actively involved. Examples of earlier funded projects, Murronjoki river restoration Norina river restoration The European versions of the LEED Standard explicitly recommend the use of EKOenergy labelled electricity, buildings aiming at LEED certification can get extra points if the electricity used in that building is EKOenergy certified. The text “LEED2009 BD+C Supplemental Reference Guide with Alternative Compliance Paths for Europe” gives EKOenergy the same status as Green-e certified RECs in the US. They write, The EKOenergy electricity certification scheme represents the best available option for the sustainable. EKOenergy certifies renewable electricity that goes beyond the regulations of European directives, the Greenhouse Gas Protocol is a worldwide standard for carbon accounting
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Equal Exchange
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Equal Exchange is a for-profit Fairtrade worker-owned, cooperative headquartered in West Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Equal Exchange distributes organic, gourmet coffee, tea, sugar, bananas, avocados, cocoa, founded in 1986, it is the oldest and largest Fair Trade coffee company in the United States. The highest paid employee of Equal Exchange may not make more than four times what the lowest paid employee receives, Equal Exchange is currently collaborating with cranberry, pecan, and almond farmers in the United States. Equal Exchange was founded in 1986 by Rink Dickinson, Jonathan Rosenthal, before founding Equal Exchange, Dickinson, Rosenthal and Rozyne were managers at a food cooperative in New England and were actively involved in American food industry reform. For three years prior to Equal Exchanges birth, the three founders met once weekly to discuss how global food trade could be changed to increase incomes and stabilize economic situations of farmers. The meetings resulted in the development of a trade model that utilized direct trade, established long term contracts. This differs from the traditional model, in which buyers go through a series of middlemen to purchase coffee beans from plantation farmers. Equal Exchange operates two cafés in the United States, the Boston café, located in the historic North End, serves Equal Exchange tea, coffee and espresso drinks as well as locally sourced pastries, sandwiches and other lunch items. The Seattle café serves Equal Exchange coffee and espresso drinks exclusively, list of bean-to-bar chocolate manufacturers Official website
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Fairtrade certification
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The Fairtrade certification initiative was created to form a new method for economic trade. This method takes a stand point, and considers the producers first. The Fairtrade organization forms a partnership between the consumer and the producer, and aims to eliminate other parties within the supply chain, the second part of Fairtrade International is the independent certifier, FLOCert. FLOCert ensures that companies and producers all comply with FLOs standards of trade, Fairtrade International was initially made up of other national fair trade initiatives from around the world, who came together to form one international umbrella organisation. Fairtrade International started with the industry, but now covers a range of products such as cocoa, fruit, cotton, flowers, tea. The established buyers of these make up a niche market. As of 2011,827 producer organizations in 58 developing countries were Fairtrade certified, the effectiveness of Fairtrade is questionable, and in some cases workers on Fairtrade farms have a lower standard of living than on similar farms outside the Fairtrade system. The fair trade movement stemmed from an initiative established by the Dutch development agency, Solidaridad, the agency recognised that the producers were not being treated fairly, and strived to create a more ethical system to trade. The Max Havelaar seal, which was based on a character, was established to license existing roasters and retailers who complied with its fair trade criteria. The seal provided specific benefits for cooperatives of small producers in Mexico, with the aim of balancing the production of crops to be exported. The four benefits in this model of the fairtrade initiative were. An additional 10% of the price for their investment in social and environmental projects. The Solidaridad informed large audiences of the mistreatment of coffee producers and they worked with other associations as well as the mass media to spread the message and create an awareness of their fair trade initiative. Because of their efforts, in 1988 the first bag of Max Hevelaar sealed coffee from Mexico was delivered to Hollands Prince Claus, by the 1990s every western European country had established their own national version of the Max Hevelaar initiative. Between the late 1980s and the mid 1990s, multiple national initiatives following a trade system coexisted within Europe, USA, Canada. 1997 however,17 national initiatives joined forces to create one international umbrella organisation called the Fair Trade Organization, FLO is based in Bonn, Germany, and has quickly become the largest organisation of its kind. FLO also has branches and field workers situated in Africa, Central and South America, the international fair trade label was introduced in 2002 to improve visibility for consumers. A key part of the Fair Trade initiative is to consumers through innovative marketing
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Free range
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Free range denotes a method of farming husbandry where the animals, for at least part of the day, can roam freely outdoors, rather than being confined in an enclosure for 24 hours each day. Free range may apply to meat, eggs or dairy farming, the term is used in two senses that do not overlap completely, as a farmer-centric description of husbandry methods, and as a consumer-centric description of them. There is a diet where the practitioner only eats meat from free-range sources called ethical omnivorism, in ranching, free-range livestock are permitted to roam without being fenced in, as opposed to fenced-in pastures. In many of the economies, free-range livestock are quite common. If one allows free range to include herding, free range was a typical husbandry method at least until the development of barbed wire and chicken wire. In the case of poultry, free range was the dominant system until the discovery of vitamins A and D in the 1920s, before that, green feed and sunshine were necessary to provide the necessary vitamin content. Some large commercial breeding flocks were reared on pasture into the 1950s, nutritional science resulted in the increased use of confinement for other livestock species in much the same way. In the United States, USDA free range regulations currently apply only to poultry, the USDA regulations do not specify the quality or size of the outside range nor the duration of time an animal must have access to the outside. There have been proposals to regulate by the USDA the labeling of products as free range within the United States. Yarding, as well as floorless portable chicken pens may have some of the benefits of free-range livestock but, in reality, a behavioral definition of free range is perhaps the most useful, chickens kept with a fence that restricts their movements very little. For example, according to Jull, The most effective measure of preventing cannibalism seems to be to give the good grass range. The U. S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service requires that chickens raised for their meat have access to the outside in order to receive the free-range certification. There is no requirement for access to pasture, and there may be access to dirt or gravel. Free-range chicken eggs, however, have no definition in the United States. Likewise, free-range egg producers have no standard on what the term means. The broadness of free range in the U. S. has caused people to look for alternative terms. Pastured poultry is a term promoted by farmer/author Joel Salatin for broiler chickens raised on pasture for all of their lives except for the initial brooding period. The Pastured Poultry concept is promoted by the American Pastured Poultry Producers Association, traditional American usage equates free range with unfenced, and with the implication that there was no herdsman keeping them together or managing them in any way
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Forest Stewardship Council
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The Forest Stewardship Council is an international non-profit, multi-stakeholder organization established in 1993 to promote responsible management of the world’s forests. The FSC does this by setting standards on forest products, along with certifying and labeling them as eco-friendly, the FSC’s stated mission is to promote environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial and economically viable management of the worlds forests. To this end the body has published a Global Strategy with five Goals, ensure equitable access to the benefits of FSC systems. Ensure integrity, credibility and transparency of the FSC system, create business value for products from FSC certified forests. Strengthen the global network to deliver on goals 1 through 4, using the FSC logo signifies that the product comes from responsible sources — environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial and economically viable. The FSC label is used on a range of timber and non-timber products from paper and furniture to medicine. And aims to give consumers the option of supporting responsible forestry, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, half of the world’s forests have already been altered, degraded, destroyed or converted into other land uses. Much of the remaining forests today suffer from illegal exploitation and otherwise poor management, FSC was established as a response to these concerns over global deforestation. Prior to this, a number of economic and regulatory mechanisms such as financial aid, policy frameworks. These include the International Tropical Timber Agreement, the Convention of International Trade on Endangered Species, in the lead up to the Earth Summit, social groups, NGOs and industries were also beginning to consult on the issue of deforestation. Through stakeholder involvement it became apparent that a body would be required to verify the source of wood products. After 18 months of consultation in ten different countries, the Forest Stewardship Council was finally established in 1993, FSC is an international membership organization with a governance structure based on participation, democracy, equity and transparency. It is a platform for forest owners, timber industries, social groups, FSC has three levels of decision making bodies, The General Assembly, the Board of Directors and the Executive Director. The General Assembly, which place every three years, is made up of the three membership chambers and is the highest decision-making body in FSC. The most recent General Assembly took place in 2014, every member has the right to attend, formulate and submit motions, and vote. The General Assembly represents an opportunity for everybody to share, learn, establish new alliances and exchange, the FSC Board of Directors is accountable to the FSC members. It is made up of nine elected individuals who are FSC members, one member of the Board of Directors is elected from each sub-chamber of the General Assembly. The Executive Director runs FSC on a basis with the support of a multi-cultural professional team at the FSC International Center
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Cattle feeding
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Different cattle feeding production systems have separate advantages and disadvantages. Most cattle in the US have a diet that is composed of at least some forage, in fact, most beef cattle are raised on pasture from birth in the spring until autumn. Then for pasture-fed animals, grass is the forage that composes all or at least the majority of their diet. Cattle fattened in feedlots are fed small amounts of hay supplemented with grain, soy, the debate is whether cattle should be raised on diets primarily composed of pasture or a concentrated diet of grain, soy, corn and other supplements. The issue is complicated by the political interests and confusion between labels such as free range, organic, or natural. Cattle raised on a forage diet are termed grass-fed or pasture-raised. However, the term pasture-raised can lead to confusion with the free range. Animals grazing in rangelands, pastures, and grasslands and with little or no integration of crops involved, about 60% of the worlds pasture land is covered by grazing systems. Grazing systems supply approximately 9 percent of the production of beef, according to Food. Animal productions are integrated with crop productions, moreover, livestock such as cattle are primarily fed on pastures, crop residues, and fallows. An integrated farming system aims to achieve acceptable profits and high, mixed farming systems are the largest category of livestock system in the world. Animals are fed in landless environments such as in stalls, pens, intensive or industrial factory farming of animals originated in the United States in the late 1930s. Grass and other forage compose most or the majority of a grass-fed diet, there is debate as to whether cattle should be raised on diets primarily composed of pasture or a concentrated diet of grain, soy, and other supplements. The issue is complicated by the political interests and confusion between labels such as free range, organic, and natural. Cattle raised on a forage diet are termed grass-fed or pasture-raised. However, the term pasture-raised can lead to confusion with the free range which does not describe exactly what the animals eat. Thus, cattle can be labelled free range but not necessarily grass-fed, another term is grass-finished, for which cattle are generally held to a higher standard in terms of tenderness and marbling. However, the label generally has no strict regulations, Cattle called corn-fed, grain-fed, or corn-finished are typically fattened on maize, soy, and other types of feed for several months before slaughter
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Halal
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Halāl, also spelled hallal or halaal, is any object or action which is permissible to use or engage in, according to Islamic law. The term covers and designates food and drink as well as matters of daily life and it is one of five Ahkam—fard, mustahabb, halal, makruh, haram —that define the morality of human action in Islam. Mubah is also used to mean permissible or allowed in Islam, growth regions include Indonesia and Turkey. The European Union market for food has an estimated annual growth of around 15 percent and is worth an estimated US$30 billion. Several food companies offer halal processed foods and products, including foie gras, spring rolls, chicken nuggets, ravioli, lasagna, pizza. Halal ready meals are a consumer market for Muslims in Britain. The most common example of food is pork. While pork is the meat that categorically may not be consumed by Muslims. The criteria for non-pork items include their source, the cause of the animals death and it also depends on the Muslims madhab. Muslims must also ensure that all foods, as well as items like cosmetics. Frequently, these products contain animal by-products or other ingredients that are not permissible for Muslims to eat or use on their bodies, foods that are not considered halal for Muslims to consume include blood and intoxicants such as alcoholic beverages. If there is no food available and a Muslim is forced by necessity. Globally, halal certification has been criticized by anti-Halal lobby groups. The critics argue that the results in added costs, a requirement to officially certify intrinsically-halal foods, leads to consumers subsidising a particular religious belief. Australian Federation of Islamic Councils spokesman Keysar Trad told a journalist in July 2014 that this was an attempt to exploit anti-Muslim sentiments, the food must come from a supplier that uses halal practices. Dhabīḥah is the method of slaughter for all meat sources, excluding fish and other sea-life. This method of slaughtering animals consists of using a knife to make a swift, deep incision that cuts the front of the throat, the carotid artery, trachea. The head of an animal that is slaughtered using halal methods is aligned with the qiblah, in addition to the direction, permitted animals should be slaughtered upon utterance of the Islamic prayer Bismillah in the name of God
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Kashrut
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Kashrut is a set of Jewish religious dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to halakha is termed kosher /ˈkoʊʃər/ in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér, there are also laws regarding agricultural produce that might impact the suitability of food for consumption. Most of the laws of kashrut are derived from the Torahs Books of Leviticus. Their details and practical application, however, are set down in the oral law, while the Torah does not state the rationale for most kashrut laws, many reasons have been suggested, including philosophical, practical and hygienic. Over the past century, there have developed numerous rabbinical organizations that certify products, manufacturers, currently, about a sixth of American Jews or 0. 3% of the American population fully keep kosher, and many more abstain from some non-kosher foods, especially pork. Some Jewish scholars say that kashrut should be categorized as laws for which there is no particular explanation, in this line of thinking, the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of Gods authority, and man must obey without asking why. However, Maimonides believed that Jews were permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah, some theologians have said that the laws of kashrut are symbolic in character, Kosher animals represent virtues, while non-kosher animals represent vices. The 1st century BCE Letter of Aristeas argues that the laws have been given, to awake pious thoughts and to form the character. This view reappears in the work of the 19th century Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, the Torah prohibits seething the kid in its mothers milk. While the Bible does not provide a reason, it has suggested that the practice was perceived as cruel. These sparks of Holiness are released whenever a Jew manipulates any object for a reason, however. The Hasidic argument is that animals are imbued with signs that reveal the release of these sparks, in 1953, David Macht, an Orthodox Jew and proponent of the theory of biblical scientific foresight, conducted toxicity experiments on many kinds of animals and fish. At the same time, these explanations are controversial, scholar Lester L. Grabbe, writing in the Oxford Bible Commentary on Leviticus, says n explanation now almost universally rejected is that the laws in this section have hygiene as their basis. Although some of the laws of ritual purity roughly correspond to ideas of physical cleanliness. For example, there is no evidence that the animals are intrinsically bad to eat or to be avoided in a Mediterranean climate. The laws of kashrut can be classified according to the origin of the prohibition, biblically prohibited foods include, Non-kosher animals and birds, mammals require certain identifying characteristics, while birds require a tradition that they can be consumed. All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from certain types of locust, on which most communities lack a clear tradition, no reptiles or amphibians are kosher. Carrion, meat from an animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of shechita
