1.
Imperial Japanese Navy
–
The Imperial Japanese Navy was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 until 1945, when it was dissolved following Japans defeat and surrender in World War II. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force was formed after the dissolution of the IJN, the Japanese Navy was the third largest navy in the world by 1920, behind the Royal Navy and the United States Navy. It was supported by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service for aircraft and it was the primary opponent of the Western Allies in the Pacific War. This eventually led to the Meiji Restoration, accompanying the re-ascendance of the Emperor came a period of frantic modernization and industrialization. Following the attempts at Mongol invasions of Japan by Kubilai Khan in 1274 and 1281, Japan undertook major naval building efforts in the 16th century, during the Warring States period, when feudal rulers vying for supremacy built vast coastal navies of several hundred ships. Around that time Japan may have developed one of the first ironclad warships when Oda Nobunaga, in 1588 Toyotomi Hideyoshi issued a ban on Wakō piracy, the pirates then became vassals of Hideyoshi, and comprised the naval force used in the Japanese invasion of Korea. Japan built her first large ocean-going warships in the beginning of the 17th century, from 1604 the Bakufu also commissioned about 350 Red seal ships, usually armed and incorporating some Western technologies, mainly for Southeast Asian trade. For more than 200 years, beginning in the 1640s, the Japanese policy of seclusion forbade contacts with the outside world and prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships on pain of death. Contacts were maintained, however, with the Dutch through the port of Nagasaki, the Chinese also through Nagasaki and the Ryukyus and Korea through intermediaries with Tsushima. Apart from Dutch trade ships no other Western vessels were allowed to enter Japanese ports, an exception was during the Napoleonic wars. However frictions with foreign ships started from the beginning of the 19th century, the Nagasaki Harbour Incident involving the HMS Phaeton in 1808 and other subsequent incidents in the following decades led to the Shogunate to enact an edict to repel foreign vessels. Western ships which were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling, the shogunate also began to strengthen the nations coastal defenses. Numerous attempts to open Japan ended in failure in part to Japanese resistance, during 1853 and 1854, American warships under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry entered Edo Bay and made demonstrations of force requesting trade negotiations. After two hundred years of seclusion the 1854 Convention of Kanagawa led to the opening of Japan to international trade and this was soon followed by the 1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce and treaties with other powers. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the Shogunate acquired its first steam warship, Kankō Maru, samurai such as the future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki were sent by the Shogunate to study in the Netherlands for several years. In 1859 the Naval Training Center relocated to Tsukiji in Tokyo, in 1857 the Shogunate acquired its first screw-driven steam warship Kanrin Maru and used it as an escort for the 1860 Japanese delegation to the United States. In 1865 the French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build Japans first modern naval arsenals, at Yokosuka, in 1867–1868 a British Naval mission headed by Commander Richard Tracey went to Japan to assist the development of the Japanese Navy and to organize the naval school of Tsukiji. The Shogunate also allowed and then ordered various domains to purchase warships and to develop naval fleets, Satsuma, a naval center had been set up by the Satsuma domain in Kagoshima, students were sent abroad for training and a number of ships were acquired
2.
Republic of China Navy
–
The Republic of China Navy is the maritime branch of the Republic of China Armed Forces. Operations include maritime patrols in the Taiwan Strait and surrounding waters, as well as counter-strike, the Republic of China Marine Corps functions as a branch of the Navy. The ship prefix for ROCN combatants is ROCS, a usage is CNS. The Navy CHQs is subordinate to the General Staff, the Minister of Defense, internal units, Personnel, Combat Readiness & Training, Logistics, Planning, Combat Systems, General Affairs, Comptroller, Inspector General, Political Warfare. 7th Hai Feng Shore Based Anti-ship Missile Squadron, Haulien, Eastern Taiwan, Aviation Command Naval Aviation, at Pingtung, will receive 12 P-3C 2013/2014. 1st ASW Aviation Group 133rd Squadron, S-2T, at Pingtung, 2nd ASW Aviation Group 701st Helicopter Squadron, S-70C-1, at Hualien. 702nd Helicopter Squadron, S-70C-2, at Tsoying, 501st Helicopter Squadron, 500MD ASW, at Tsoying. Sources, The precursor to the modern ROC Navy was established as the Ministry of the Navy in the Provisional Government of the Republic of China in 1911 following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. During the period of warlordism that scarred China in the 1920s and 1930s the ROCN remained loyal to the Kuomintang government of Sun Yat-sen instead of the government in Beijing. During that time and throughout World War II, the ROCN concentrated mainly on riverine warfare as the poorly equipped ROCN was not a match to Imperial Japanese Navy over ocean or coast. Following World War II, a number of Japanese destroyers and decommissioned U. S. ships were transferred to the ROC Navy. During the Chinese Civil War, the ROCN was involved in the protection of supply convoys, the subsequent reorganization and reestablishment of the Navy after evacuation to Taiwan is referenced in the lyrics of the post 1949 ROC Navy Song The New Navy. Since the 1990s the Navy has grown in importance as the emphasis of the ROCs military doctrine moves towards countering a possible Peoples Republic of China blockade, as well as offshore engagement. The ROCN has been working hard to expand its capability in electronic and anti-submarine warfare, however local shipbuilder CSBC still lacks the technology to build modern submarines. Traditionally, most ROCN equipment is purchased from the United States, the ROCN has also purchased Lafayette-class frigates from France and Zwaardvis-class submarines from the Netherlands as well as four U. S. Kidd-class destroyers originally intended for Iran. Despite the ROCN refurbishing and extending the life of its vessels and equipment. It has only two useful submarines, the U. S. Furthermore, the Legislative Yuan did not approve the budget and thereby slowed the opportunity to procure the badly needed underwater defense capability. A contract was awarded to Lockheed Martin to refurbish the 12 P-3C Orion aircraft for the ROC on 13 March 2009, in 2008, the ROCN set out to acquire an improved anti-ship capability
3.
People's Liberation Army Navy
–
The PLAN can trace its lineage to naval units fighting during the Chinese Civil War and was established in September 1950. Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s the Soviet Union provided assistance to the PLAN in the form of advisers and export of equipment. Until the late 1980s, the PLAN was largely a riverine and this led to the development of the Peoples Liberation Army Navy into a green-water navy by 2009. Before the 1990s the PLAN had traditionally played a role to the Peoples Liberation Army Ground Force. In 2008, General Qian Lihua confirmed that China plans to operate a fleet of aircraft carriers in the near future. As of 2013 PLA officials have also outlined plans to operate in the first, Chinese strategists term the development of the PLAN from a green-water navy into a regional blue-water defensive and offensive navy. The PLAN traces its lineage to units of the Republic of China Navy who defected to the Peoples Liberation Army towards the end of the Chinese Civil War, in 1949, Mao Zedong asserted that to oppose imperialist aggression, we must build a powerful navy. During the Landing Operation on Hainan Island, the used wooden junks fitted with mountain guns as both transport and warships against the Republic of China Navy. The Naval Academy was set up at Dalian on 22 November 1949, the navy was established in September 1950 by consolidating regional naval forces under Joint Staff Department command in Jiangyan, now in Taizhou, Jiangsu province. It then consisted of a collection of ships and boats acquired from the Kuomintang forces. The Naval Air Force was added two years later, by 1954 an estimated 2,500 Soviet naval advisers were in China—possibly one adviser to every thirty Chinese naval personnel—and the Soviet Union began providing modern ships. In shipbuilding the Soviets first assisted the Chinese, then the Chinese copied Soviet designs without assistance, eventually Soviet assistance progressed to the point that a joint Sino-Soviet Pacific Ocean fleet was under discussion. Through the upheavals of the late 1950s and 1960s the Navy remained relatively undisturbed, under the leadership of Minister of National Defense Lin Biao, large investments were made in naval construction during the frugal years immediately after the Great Leap Forward. In the 1970s, when approximately 20 percent of the budget was allocated to naval forces. The Navy also began development of attack submarines and nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines. In the 1980s, under the leadership of Chief Naval Commander Liu Huaqing, Liu Huaqing was an Army Officer who spent most of his career in administrative positions involving science and technology. It was not until 1988 that the Peoples Liberation Army Navy was led by a Naval Officer, Liu was also very close to Deng Xiaoping as his modernization efforts were very much in keeping with Dengs national policies. While under his leadership Naval construction yards produced fewer ships than the 1970s, greater emphasis was placed on technology, in 1982 the navy conducted a successful test of an underwater-launched ballistic missile
4.
Shimushu-class escort ship
–
The Shimushu-class escort ships were a quartet of ships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy just prior to World War II. The Japanese called these ships Kaibōkan, ocean defence ships, to denote a multi-purpose vessel and they were initially intended for patrol and fishery protection, minesweeping and as convoy escorts. The ships measured 77.72 meters overall, with a beam of 9.1 meters and they displaced 870 metric tons at standard load and 1,040 metric tons at deep load. The ships had two engines, each driving one propeller shaft, which were rated at a total of 4,200 brake horsepower for a speed of 19.7 knots. The ships had a range of 8,000 nautical miles at a speed of 16 knots, the main armament of the Shimushu class consisted of three Type 3 120-millimeter guns in single mounts, one superfiring pair aft and one mount forward of the superstructure. They were built with four Type 96 25-millimeter anti-aircraft guns in two mounts, but the total was increased to 15 guns by August 1943. A dozen depth charges were stowed aboard initially, but this was doubled in May 1942 when their minesweeping gear was removed, the anti-submarine weaponry later rose to 60 depth charges with a Type 97 81-millimeter trench mortar and six depth charge throwers. Ceded to the Soviet Union,5 July 1947, torpedoed and sunk by submarine USS Herring on 31 May 1944. Chesneau, Roger, ed. Conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships 1922–1946, jentschura, Hansgeorg, Jung, Dieter & Mickel, Peter. Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945, annapolis, Maryland, United States Naval Institute
5.
Mikura-class escort ship
–
The Mikura-class escort ships were a class of ships in the service of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. The Japanese called these ships Kaibōkan, ocean defence ships, a used to denote a multi-purpose vessel. The eight ships of the Mikura class served as escorts during World War II. They were denoted Type B and were the class of Kaibokan. The Mikuras, unlike the two preceding Etorofu and Shimushu classes, were dedicated to the anti-aircraft and anti-submarine role, the Mikura class was initially armed with 120 depth charges with six depth charge throwers and would later receive an 8 cm trench mortar. The number of AA machine guns was increased to up to eighteen and they received Type 22 and Type 13 radars, and Type 93 or Type 3 sonar in 1943-1944. Two ships of the probably had success against US submarines, with Mikura helping to sink USS Trigger with kaibokans CD-33. Chiburi also helped sink USS Growler with destroyer Shigure and kaibokan CD-19 on 8 November 1944, Mikura, constructed at Nihon Kōkan, Tsurumi, laid down on October 1,1942, launched on July 16,1943, and commissioned on October 30,1943. Sunk by torpedoes from the USS Threadfin on March 28,1945, with all 216 men aboard, miyake, constructed at Nihon Kōkan, Tsurumi, laid down on February 12,1943, launched on August 30,1943, and commissioned on November 30,1943. Miyake was sold for scrap on July 2,1948, awaji, constructed at Hitachi, Sakurajima, and laid down on June 1,1943, launched on October 30,1943, and completed on February 15,1944. Torpedoed on June 2,1944, by USS Guitarro with the loss of 76 men, Kurahashi, constructed at Nihon Kōkan, Tsurumi, being laid down on June 1,1943, launched on October 15,1943, and commissioned on March 10,1944. On January 16,1945, Kurahashi was damaged by near misses from TF38 carrier aircraft that killed 2 and she survived the war and was ceded to the UK as a war reparation on September 14,1947, and shortly after was sold for scrapping. Nomi, constructed at Nihon Kōkan, Tsurumi, being laid down on August 10,1943, launched on December 3,1943, and commissioned on March 15,1944. Sunk on April 14,1945, by two torpedoes from the USS Tirante, that hit her under her bridge and sank her with the loss of 134 men as she was attacking the submarine. Chiburi, constructed at Nihon Kōkan, Tsurumi, laid down on July 20,1943, launched on November 30,1943, sunk in an air attack on January 12,1945, losing 88 men. Yashiro, constructed at Hitachi, Sakurajima, laid down on November 18,1943, launched on February 16,1944, yashiro survived the war and was ceded to China on August 29,1947, being renamed Cheng An before being discarded in 1954. Kusagaki, constructed at Nihon Kōkan, Tsurumi, laid down on September 7,1943, launched on January 12,1944, sunk on August 7,1944, by torpedoes from USS Guitarro with the loss of 97 men
6.
Knot (unit)
–
The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
7.
Type 3 120 mm 45 caliber naval gun
–
Type 3120 mm 45 caliber naval gun was a Japanese naval gun and coast defense gun used on destroyers, submarines and torpedo boats of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I and World War II. The proper title of the gun under the Japanese naval artillery naming system is 12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun. Other guns using this system are the 41 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun,20 cm/50 3rd Year Type naval gun,15.5 cm/60 3rd Year Type naval gun. The 12 cm/45 gun designed in 1914 was a variant of the British QF4.7 inch Gun Mk I - IV, produced under license from the Elswick Ordnance Company. In the Japanese Army artillery naming system, Type 3 refers to the year of introduction, a re-design in 1922 called the 12 cm/45 11th Year Type with a shorter gun barrel and a horizontal sliding breech-block was used on submarines and torpedo boats. The 12 cm/45 was manually loaded and fired a 20.3 kilograms High-explosive, BL4.7 inch /45 naval gun, British equivalent Bishop, Chris The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Naval Weapons of World War Two, Naval Institute Press, artillery of World War II, Zenith Press,2001, ISBN 0-7603-1172-2 DiGiulian, Tony
8.
Caliber
–
In guns, particularly firearms, caliber or calibre is the approximate internal diameter of the barrel, or the diameter of the projectile it fires, in hundredths or sometimes thousandths of an inch. For example, a 45 caliber firearm has a diameter of.45 of an inch. Barrel diameters can also be expressed using metric dimensions, as in 9mm pistol, when the barrel diameter is given in inches, the abbreviation cal can be used. Good performance requires a bullet to closely match the diameter of a barrel to ensure a good seal. While modern cartridges and cartridge firearms are referred to by the cartridge name. Firearm calibers outside the range of 17 to 50 exist, but are rarely encountered. Larger calibers, such as.577.585.600.700, the.950 JDJ is the only known cartridge beyond 79 caliber used in a rifle. Referring to artillery, caliber is used to describe the length as multiples of the bore diameter. A 5-inch 50 calibre gun has a diameter of 5 in. The main guns of the USS Missouri are 1650 caliber, makers of early cartridge arms had to invent methods of naming the cartridges, since no established convention existed then. One of the early established cartridge arms was the Spencer repeating rifle, later various derivatives were created using the same basic cartridge, but with smaller-diameter bullets, these were named by the cartridge diameter at the base and mouth. The original No.56 became the. 56-56, and the smaller versions. 56-52. 56-50, the. 56-52, the most common of the new calibers, used a 50-cal bullet. Optionally, the weight in grains was designated, e. g. 45-70-405. Variations on these methods persist today, with new cartridges such as the.204 Ruger, metric diameters for small arms refer to cartridge dimensions and are expressed with an × between the bore diameter and the length of the cartridge case, for example,7. 62×51 NATO. This indicates that the diameter is 7. 62mm, loaded in a case 51mm long. Similarly, the 6. 5×55 Swedish cartridge has a diameter of 6.5 mm. An exception to rule is the proprietary cartridge used by U. S. maker Lazzeroni. The following table lists commonly used calibers where both metric and imperial are used as equivalents
9.
Type 96 25 mm AT/AA Gun
–
The Type 96 25mm Gun was an automatic cannon used by the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. In 1935 the Imperial Japanese Navy decided to replace the earlier 40 mm Vickers pom-pom guns with a 25 mm Hotchkiss design. A party of Japanese officers and engineers traveled to France to evaluate the design in 1935, firing tests of these guns were conducted at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1935. The first few weapons were built in France under the designation “Type 94” and “Type 95”, a submarine-mountable version of the gun was also produced, which made extensive use of stainless steel. The double mount type was the first to service, with triple mounts following in 1941. The Type 96 25mm Gun is a simple air-cooled gas operated design, the barrel is a forging screwed into the breech mechanism. Additional support is provided to the end of the gun barrel by the finned cooling jacket. The barrel is changeable, but the required two men and special tools to complete, and took a trained crew approximately five minutes. By adjusting the gas valve setting it was possible to vary the rate of fire between 200 and 260 rounds per minute, with 220 rounds per minute being the standard setting. The Type 95 sight was used on ship-based multiple mounts, in the case where the mount has a powered drive linked to a director it was used as a backup. The Type 95 sight was designed with a maximum target speed of 600 kilometers per hour, however. To compensate for the problem a ring was added to the telescope to provide an additional offset for the speeds up to 900 kilometers per hour. The gun was used without a gun shield, although some multiple mounts on Yamato-class battleships were fitted with Ducol shields. Many ship based mounts also had splinter shields, in interviews conducted by the U. S. The Type 96 was most effective when used at ranges of 1,000 meters or less, according to US Naval Technical Mission to Japan report O-47-2, all magazines had to be loaded by hand as no specialized loading equipment was ever developed. Overall, it was comparable to the 20mm Oerlikon, though vastly inferior to the 40mm Bofors weapons used by the US in every respect except rate of fire. The single mount was free swinging, while double and triple mounts had hand-wheel traverse, Type 96 Model 2 - Used on warships in double and triple mountings. Type 96 Model 3 - Used on warships in single free-swinging mounts, Type 96 Model 4 - Used on submarines, in single, double and triple mounts
10.
Depth charge
–
A depth charge is an anti-submarine warfare weapon. It is intended to destroy a submarine by being dropped into the nearby and detonating, subjecting the target to a powerful. Most depth charges use high explosive charges and a set to detonate the charge. Depth charges can be dropped by ships, patrol aircraft, Depth charges were developed during World War I, and were one of the first effective methods of attacking a submarine underwater. They were widely used in World War I and World War II and they remained part of the anti-submarine arsenals of many navies during the Cold War. Depth charges have now largely replaced by anti-submarine homing torpedoes. A depth charge fitted with a warhead is known as a nuclear depth bomb. These were designed to be dropped from a plane or deployed by an anti-submarine missile from a surface ship, or another submarine. All nuclear anti-submarine weapons were withdrawn from service by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia and they were replaced by conventional weapons whose accuracy and range had improved greatly as ASW technology improved. The first attempt to fire charges against submerged targets was with aircraft bombs attached to lanyards which triggered them, a similar idea was a 16 lb guncotton charge in a lanyarded can. Two of these together became known as the depth charge Type A. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. A1913 Royal Navy Torpedo School report described a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the design work was carried out by Herbert Taylor at the RN Torpedo and Mine School, HMS Vernon. The first effective depth charge, the Type D, became available in January 1916 and it was a barrel-like casing containing a high explosive. There were initially two sizes—Type D, with a 300 lb charge for fast ships, and Type D* with a 120 lb charge for ships too slow to leave the area before the more powerful charge detonated. A hydrostatic pistol actuated by water pressure at a pre-selected depth detonated the charge, initial depth settings were 40 or 80 ft. Because production could not keep up with demand, anti-submarine vessels initially carried two depth charges, to be released from a chute at the stern of the ship
11.
Type 97 81 mm infantry mortar
–
The Type 9781 mm infantry mortar was a Japanese mortar used primary by Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. The Type 97 designation was given to this gun as it was accepted in the year 2597 of the Japanese calendar, Japanese infantry units often are equipped with 81-mm mortars. The Type 9781 mm mortar is very commonly used and is referred to by the Japanese as an Infantry Gun. which breaks down into 3 sections for transport, the markings which appear on the base of the barrel read 97 model small trench mortar. The modified version used by Imperial Japanese Navy with designation Type 3 mortar was used by land forces. The Type 97 is a bore, muzzle-loading weapon. It has a firing pin in the breech assembly. As many as six propellant increments can be attached to the fins of the shell for the purpose of increasing the range. The mortar and its calibre had its origin as almost all 81.4 mm,82 mm or 8 cm mortars in the French Brandt mle 2781.4 mm mortar. The improved version Brandt Mle 27/31 had become the basis for copies, near-copies, the Brandt mortars themselves were evolved from the British Stokes Mortar of different calibre. A captured Type 97 mortar, which has studied in detail, was marked Type 97 High-Angle Infantry Gun. The weapon was manufactured in 1942 in the Osaka Army Arsenal, although the Japanese weapon closely resembles the US 81-mm mortar, M1, there are several identifying features by which the two can be distinguished. The adjusting nut of the Japanese mortar is on the right bipod leg, the collimator sight for the Type 97 Japanese mortar is heavier and more complicated than that utilized on the US 81-mm mortar Ml. The Japanese sight examined was made entirely of steel, except for the brass bushings used for the elevating and cross-leveling screws, a US M4 sight may be fitted to the Japanese weapon by shimming the sight bracket slightly. The Type 97 mortar examined had an extension fitted to the sight and this extension probably was added to permit sighting of the weapon when it was deeply dug in or slightly in defilade. Elevation scale of the sight is graduated in 50-mil intervals from 700 to 1,600 mils, the collimator can be traversed in a full circle, and the azimuth scale is calibrated in 100-mil graduations in two sections of 3,200 mils each. As in the case of elevation, a micrometer drum permits azimuth readings to be made to the nearest mil. There is a lever for rapid traverse of the collimator. There are no open sights for rough laying of the piece, ammunition recovered for the Type 97 thus far is usually the Type 00 HE shell
12.
Anti-submarine warfare
–
Anti-submarine warfare is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface warships, aircraft, or other submarines to find, track and deter, damage or destroy enemy submarines. Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of sensor and weapon technology, training, sophisticated sonar equipment for first detecting, then classifying, locating and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW. To destroy submarines both the torpedo and mine are used, launched from air, surface and underwater platforms, other means of destruction have been used in the past but are now obsolete. ASW also involves protecting friendly ships, the first self-propelled torpedo was invented in 1863 and launched from surface craft. The first submarine with a torpedo was Nordenfelt I built in 1884-1885, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, the submarine was a significant threat. By the start of the First World War nearly 300 submarines were in service, some warships were fitted with an armoured belt as protection against torpedoes. There were, however, no means to detect submerged U-boats, the Royal Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps, these sank four or five U-boats in the First World War. A similar approach featured a string of 70 lb charges on a cable, fired electrically. Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb hand-thrown guncotton bombs, the Lance Bomb was developed, also, this featured a 35–40 lb cone-shaped steel drum on a 5 ft shaft, intended to be thrown at a submarine. Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench mortars, was tried, use of nets to ensnare U-boats was also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starfish, fitted with a spar torpedo. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. The best concept arose in a 1913 RN Torpedo School report, describing a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the mine was a potential hazard to the dropping ship. During the First World War, submarines were a major menace and they operated in the Baltic, North Sea, Black Sea and Mediterranean as well as the North Atlantic. Previously they had limited to relatively calm and protected waters. The vessels used to them were a range of small, fast surface ships using guns. They mainly relied on the fact a submarine of the day was often on the surface for a range of reasons, the first approach to protect warships was chainlink nets strung from the sides of battleships, as defense against torpedoes. Nets were also deployed across the mouth of a harbour or naval base to stop submarines entering or to stop torpedoes of the Whitehead type fired against ships, British warships were fitted with a ram with which to sink submarines, and U-15 was thus sunk in August 1914
13.
Length overall
–
Length overall, often abbreviated as is the maximum length of a vessels hull measured parallel to the waterline. This length is important while docking the ship and it is the most commonly used way of expressing the size of a ship, and is also used for calculating the cost of a marina berth. LOA is usually measured on the hull alone, for sailing ships, this may exclude the bowsprit and other fittings added to the hull. This is how some racing boats and tall ships use the term LOA, however, other sources may include bowsprits in LOA. Sparred length, Total length including bowsprit, Mooring length and LOA including bowsprit are other expressions that might indicate the length of a sailing ship. Often used to distinguish between the length of a vessel including projections from the length of the hull itself, the Length on Deck or LOD is often reported and this is especially useful for smaller sailing vessels, as their LOA can be significantly different from their LOD. In ISO8666 for small boats, there is a definition of LOH and this may be shorter than a vessels LOA, because it excludes other parts attached to the hull, such as bowsprits. Another measure of length is LWL which is useful in assessing a vessels performance. In some cases LWL can be shorter than LOA. Overall length in cartridges The National Register of Historic Vessels Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
14.
Beam (nautical)
–
The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
15.
Draft (hull)
–
Draft determines the minimum depth of water a ship or boat can safely navigate. The draft can also be used to determine the weight of the cargo on board by calculating the displacement of water. A table made by the shows the water displacement for each draft. The density of the water and the content of the bunkers has to be taken into account. The closely related term trim is defined as the difference between the forward and aft drafts, the draft aft is measured in the perpendicular of the stern. The draft forward is measured in the perpendicular of the bow, the scale may use traditional English units or metric units. If the English system is used, the bottom of each marking is the draft in feet, in metric marking schemes, the bottom of each draft mark is the draft in decimeters and each mark is one decimeter high. Larger ships try to maintain a water draft when they are light, in order to make a better sea crossing. In order to achieve this they use sailing ballasts to stabilize the ship, the water draft of a large ship has little direct link with its stability because stability depends solely on the respective positions of the metacenter of the hull and the center of gravity. It is also however, that a light ship has quite high stability which can lead to implying too much rolling of the ship. A fully laden ship can have either a strong or weak stability, the draft of ships can be increased when the ship is in motion in shallow water, a phenomenon known as squat. Draft is a significant factor limiting navigable waterways, especially for large vessels, of course this includes many shallow coastal waters and reefs, but also some major shipping lanes. Panamax class ships—the largest ships able to transit the Panama Canal—do have a limit but are usually limited by beam, or sometimes length overall. However, in the much wider Suez Canal, the factor for Suezmax ships is draft. Some supertankers are able to transit the Suez Canal when unladen or partially laden, canals are not the only draft-limited shipping lanes. A Malaccamax ship has the deepest draft able to transit the very busy, there are only a few ships of this size. A small draft allows pleasure boats to navigate through shallower water and this makes it possible for these boats to access smaller ports, to travel along rivers and even to beach the boat. A large draft ensures a level of stability in strong wind
16.
Displacement (ship)
–
The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is the ships weight. The name reflects the fact that it is measured indirectly, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, by Archimedes principle, this is also the weight of the ship. Displacement should not be confused with other measurements of volume or capacity typically used for vessels such as net tonnage, gross tonnage. The process of determining a vessels displacement begins with measuring its draft This is accomplished by means of its draft marks, a merchant vessel has three matching sets, one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ships displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0. 5%, the draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ships hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced, to calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater is more dense than water, so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations and it is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons and these bring the ship down to its load draft, colloquially known as the waterline. Full load displacement and loaded displacement have almost identical definitions, full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest allowable draft as established by classification societies. Warships have arbitrary full load condition established, deep load condition means full ammunition and stores, with most available fuel capacity used. Light displacement is defined as the weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, water, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, normal displacement is the ships displacement with all outfit, and two-thirds supply of stores, ammunition, etc. on board. Standard displacement, also known as Washington displacement, is a term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Naval architecture Hull Hydrodynamics Tonnage Dear, I. C. B, oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. George, William E. Stability & Trim for the Ships Officer, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A. Trim and Stability Information for Drydocking Calculations, conference on the Limitation of Armament,1922. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1922, proceedings of the United States Naval Institute
17.
Diesel engine
–
Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
18.
Drive shaft
–
As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia. The term drive shaft first appeared during the mid 19th century, in Stovers 1861 patent reissue for a planing and matching machine, the term is used to refer to the belt-driven shaft by which the machine is driven. The term is not used in his original patent, another early use of the term occurs in the 1861 patent reissue for the Watkins and Bryson horse-drawn mowing machine. Here, the term refers to the transmitting power from the machines wheels to the gear train that works the cutting mechanism. In the 1890s, the term began to be used in a closer to the modern sense. In 1899, Bukey used the term to describe the shaft transmitting power from the wheel to the machinery by a universal joint in his Horse-Power. In the same year, Clark described his Marine Velocipede using the term to refer to the shaft transmitting power through a universal joint to the propeller shaft. Crompton used the term to refer to the shaft between the transmission of his steam-powered Motor Vehicle of 1903 and the driven axle, an automobile may use a longitudinal shaft to deliver power from an engine/transmission to the other end of the vehicle before it goes to the wheels. A pair of short drive shafts is commonly used to power from a central differential, transmission. In front-engined, rear-drive vehicles, a drive shaft is also required to send power the length of the vehicle. Two forms dominate, The torque tube with a universal joint. This system became known as Système Panhard after the automobile company Panhard et Levassor patented it, most of these vehicles have a clutch and gearbox mounted directly on the engine, with a drive shaft leading to a final drive in the rear axle. When the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not rotate, some vehicles, seeking improved weight balance between front and rear, use a rear-mounted transaxle. This places the clutch and transmission at the rear of the car, in this case the drive shaft rotates continuously with the engine, even when the car is stationary and out of gear. A drive shaft connecting a rear differential to a wheel may be called a half-shaft. The name derives from the fact that two such shafts are required to one rear axle. Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather than a drive shaft, some used electrical generators and motors to transmit power to the wheels
19.
Horsepower
–
Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
20.
Nautical mile
–
A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
21.
Superfiring
–
This configuration meant that both forward or aft turrets could fire at any target within their sector, even when the target was in the same vertical plane as the turrets. The history of surface warships follow generic labels as battleships. The era of technical evolution occurred roughly from 1900 to 1945, part of the technical evolution was driven by the need to compress as much large-gun firepower into the smallest space possible. In early designs, the turrets were all located on the same plane firing to one side or the other. In firing ahead or to the rear, usually only the forward-most or rearmost turret could fire, an early concern was that the pressure and shock from the higher turret would damage the lower one when firing over the top. United States Navy tests using the monitor USS Florida as the testbed, proved that superfiring was safe, the result was the design for the first South Carolina-class battleship. The first ship with superfiring artillery, was the French battleship Henri IV, superfiring was not limited to only two turrets, for example the Atlanta-class of light cruiser, which were developed and built for service in World War II. These ships utilized a triple-overlap system both forward and astern, their armament of dual-mount 5/38 cal dual-purpose main armament having an unobstructed arc of fire
22.
Superstructure
–
A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline. This term is applied to various kinds of structures such as buildings, bridges. The word superstructure is a combination of the Latin prefix, super with the Latin stem word, in order to improve the response during earthquakes of buildings and bridges, the superstructure might be separated from its foundation by various civil engineering mechanisms or machinery. All together, these implement the system of protection called base isolation. As stated above, superstructure consists of the parts of the ship or a boat, including sailboats, fishing boats, passenger ships, and submarines and this does not usually include its masts or any armament turrets. Note that in times, turrets do not always carry naval artillery. The size of a watercrafts superstructure can have implications in the performance of ships and boats, since these structures can alter their structural rigidity, their displacements. These can be detrimental to any vessels performance if they are taken into consideration incorrectly, the height and the weight of superstructure on board a ship or a boat also affects the amount of freeboard that such a vessel requires along its sides, down to her waterline. In broad terms, the more and heavier superstructure that a ship possesses, on a bridge, the portion of the structure that is the span and directly receives the live load is referred to as the superstructure. In contrast, the abutment, piers, and other structures are called the substructure
23.
Japanese escort ship Etorofu
–
Etorofu was the lead ship of her class of fourteen ships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. The Etorofu class was a version of the preceding Shimushu class with a greater emphasis on anti-submarine warfare. The ships measured 77.72 meters overall, with a beam of 9.1 meters and they displaced 880 metric tons at standard load and 1,040 metric tons at deep load. The ships had two engines, each driving one propeller shaft, which were rated at a total of 4,200 brake horsepower for a speed of 19.7 knots. The ships had a range of 8,000 nautical miles at a speed of 16 knots, the main armament of the Etorofu class consisted of three Type 3 120-millimeter guns in single mounts, one superfiring pair aft and one mount forward of the superstructure. They were built with four Type 96 25-millimeter anti-aircraft guns in two mounts, but the total was increased to 15 guns by August 1943. 36 depth charges were stowed aboard initially, but this increased by August 1943 to 60 depth charges with a Type 97 81-millimeter trench mortar. They received Type 22 and Type 13 radars and Type 93 sonar in 1943–44, Etorofu was launched by Hitachi, Sakurajima, on 29 January 1943 and completed on 25 March. She served on repatriation duties until 1947 when she was turned over to the United States Navy on 5 August, chesneau, Roger, ed. Conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships 1922–1946. Jentschura, Hansgeorg, Jung, Dieter & Mickel, Peter, warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. Annapolis, Maryland, United States Naval Institute
24.
Ministry of the Navy (Japan)
–
The Navy Ministry of Japan was a cabinet-level ministry in the Empire of Japan charged with the administrative affairs of the Imperial Japanese Navy. It existed from 1872 to 1945, the Navy Ministry was created in April 1872, along with the Army Ministry, to replace the Ministry of the Military of the early Meiji government. Initially, the Navy Ministry was in charge of administration and operational command of the Imperial Japanese Navy. However, with the creation of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff in May 1893, the ministry was responsible for the naval budget, ship construction, weapons procurement, personnel, relations with the Diet and the cabinet and broad matters of naval policy. The General Staff directed the operations of the fleet and the preparation of war plans, the post of Navy Minister was politically powerful. Although a member of the Cabinet after the establishment of the system of government in 1885. Up until the 1920s, the Navy Ministry held the hand over the Navy General Staff in terms of political influence. However, the officers of the Navy General Staff found an opportunity at the Washington Naval Conference in 1921–22 to improve their situation. At this meeting, the United States and Britain wanted to establish a worldwide naval ratio, the Naval Ministry was willing to agree to this, seeking to maintain the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, but the Navy General Staff refused. The Imperial Japanese Navy became divided into mutually hostile Fleet Faction, ultimately, the treaty was signed by Japan, but terminated in 1934. After 1937, both the Navy Minister and the Chief of the Navy General Staff were members of the Imperial General Headquarters, katsu Kaishū Kawamura Sumiyoshi Enomoto Takeaki Nakamuta Kuranosuke Kabayama Sukenori Asada, Sadao. From Mahan to Pearl Harbor, The Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States, making Waves, Politics, Propaganda, And The Emergence Of The Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868–1922. Foreign Office Files for Japan and the Far East
25.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
26.
Aircraft carrier
–
An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
27.
Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi
–
Akagi was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy, named after Mount Akagi in present-day Gunma Prefecture. Though she was laid down as an Amagi-class battlecruiser, Akagi was converted to a carrier while still under construction to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. The ship was rebuilt from 1935 to 1938 with her original three flight decks consolidated into an enlarged flight deck and an island superstructure. This doctrine enabled Japan to attain its goals during the early stages of the Pacific War from December 1941 until mid-1942. Akagis aircraft served in the Second Sino-Japanese War in the late 1930s, upon the formation of the First Air Fleet or Kido Butai in early 1941, she became its flagship, and remained so for the duration of her service. With other fleet carriers, she took part in the Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the following month, her aircraft bombed Darwin, Australia, and assisted in the conquest of the Dutch East Indies. In March and April 1942, Akagis aircraft helped sink a British heavy cruiser, after a brief refit, Akagi and three other fleet carriers of the Kido Butai participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942. After bombarding American forces on the atoll, Akagi and the carriers were attacked by aircraft from Midway and the carriers Enterprise, Hornet. Dive bombers from Enterprise severely damaged Akagi, when it became obvious she could not be saved, she was scuttled by Japanese destroyers to prevent her from falling into enemy hands. The loss of Akagi and three other IJN carriers at Midway was a strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to the Allies ultimate victory in the Pacific. Akagi was laid down as an Amagi-class battlecruiser at Kure, Japan, the ship was named after Mount Akagi, following the Japanese ship-naming conventions for battlecruisers. Construction was halted, however, when Japan signed the Washington Naval Treaty on 6 February 1922, the IJN had decided, following the launch of its first aircraft carrier, Hōshō, to construct two larger, faster carriers for operations with major fleet units. The incomplete hulls of Amagi and Akagi were thus selected for completion as the two large carriers under the 1924 fleet construction program, ¥24.7 million was originally budgeted to complete Akagi as a battlecruiser and an estimated ¥8 million had been expended when construction stopped in February 1922. Shortly thereafter, the Diet approved an additional ¥90 million to complete Akagi and Amagi as carriers, construction of Akagi as an aircraft carrier began on 19 November 1923. Amagis hull was damaged beyond economically feasible repair in the Great Kantō earthquake of 1 September 1923 and was broken up and scrapped. Akagi, the remaining member of her class, was launched as a carrier on 22 April 1925 and commissioned at Kure Naval Arsenal on 25 March 1927. She was the carrier to enter service with the IJN, after Hōshō. Since Akagi was initially conceived as a battlecruiser, the prevailing ship naming conventions dictated that she be named after a mountain, Akagi came from Mount Akagi, a dormant volcano in the Kantō region
28.
Japanese aircraft carrier Kaga
–
Kaga was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy and was named after the former Kaga Province in present-day Ishikawa Prefecture. Kaga was rebuilt in 1933–35, increasing her top speed, improving her exhaust systems, the ship figured prominently in the development of the IJNs carrier striking force doctrine, which grouped carriers together to give greater mass and concentration to their air power. A revolutionary strategic concept at the time, the employment of the doctrine was crucial in enabling Japan to attain its strategic goals during the first six months of the Pacific War. Kagas aircraft first supported Japanese troops in China during the Shanghai Incident of 1932, with other carriers, she took part in the Pearl Harbor raid in December 1941 and the invasion of Rabaul in the Southwest Pacific in January 1942. The following month her aircraft participated in a combined carrier airstrike on Darwin, Australia and she missed the Indian Ocean raid in April as she had to return to Japan for permanent repairs after hitting a reef in February. Following repairs, Kaga rejoined the 1st Air Fleet for the Battle of Midway in June 1942, after bombarding American forces on Midway Atoll, Kaga and three other IJN carriers were attacked by American aircraft from Midway and the carriers Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown. Dive bombers from Enterprise severely damaged Kaga, when it became obvious she could not be saved, the loss of four large attack carriers, including Kaga at Midway, was a crucial setback for Japan, and contributed significantly to Japans ultimate defeat. In 1999, debris from Kaga including a section of the hull was located on the ocean floor at a depth in excess of 5,000 meters,350 miles northwest of Midway Island. The main part of the wreck has not been found. Kaga was laid down as a Tosa-class battleship, and was launched on 17 November 1921 at the Kawasaki Heavy Industries shipyard in Kobe, on 5 February 1922 both Tosa-class ships were canceled and scheduled to be scrapped under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. The Treaty authorized conversion of two battleship or battlecruiser hulls into aircraft carriers of up to 33,000 long tons standard displacement and she was officially commissioned on 31 March 1928, but this signified only the beginning of sea trials. She joined the Combined Fleet on 30 November 1929 as the IJNs third carrier to enter service, after Hōshō, Kaga was completed with a length of 238.5 meters overall. She had a beam of 31.67 meters and a draft at full load of 7.92 meters. She displaced 26,900 long tons at load, and 33,693 long tons at full load. Kaga, like Akagi, was completed with three superimposed flight decks, the only ever to be designed so. It is more likely that it was a case of convergent evolution to improve launch and recovery cycle flexibility by allowing simultaneous launch and recovery of aircraft. Kagas main flight deck was 171.2 meters long, her flight deck was only about 15 meters long and started in front of the bridge. Kagas main flight deck was completely flat until a tower was added during the modernization
29.
Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano
–
Shinano, was an aircraft carrier built by the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II, the largest such built up to that time. Hastily dispatched, she had a crew and serious design and construction flaws, lacked adequate pumps and fire-control systems. She was sunk en route,10 days after commissioning, on 29 November 1944, over a thousand sailors and civilians were rescued and 1,435 were lost, including her captain. She remains the largest warship sunk by a submarine.7 cm Type 89 guns used by her half-sisters. As with Shinanos half-sisters Yamato and Musashi, the new existence was kept a closely guarded secret. A tall fence was erected on three sides of the dock, and those working on the conversion were confined to the yard compound. Serious punishment—up to and including death—awaited any worker who mentioned the new ship, as a result, Shinano was the only major warship built in the 20th century to have avoided being officially photographed during its construction. In December 1941, construction on Shinanos hull was temporarily suspended to allow the IJN time to decide what to do with the ship, the IJN decided on the latter, albeit with a reduced work force which was expected to be able to launch the ship in one year. In the month following the loss of four fleet carriers at the June 1942 Battle of Midway. Her hull was only 45 percent complete by that time, with work complete up to the lower deck. The main deck, lower side armor, and upper side armor around the magazines had been completely installed. The navy decided that Shinano would become a heavily armored support carrier—carrying reserve aircraft, fuel, as completed, Shinano had a length of 265.8 meters overall, a beam of 36.3 meters and a draft of 10.3 meters. She displaced 65,800 metric tons at load,69,151 metric tons at normal load and 73,000 metric tons at full load. Shinano was the largest aircraft carrier yet built, a record she held until the 81 and she was designed for a crew of 2,400 officers and enlisted men. Shinanos machinery was identical to that of her half-sisters, the ships were fitted with four geared steam turbine sets with a total of 150,000 shaft horsepower, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by 12 Kampon water-tube boilers. The ships had a speed of 27 knots, but Shinano never conducted full-speed sea trials so her actual performance is unknown. She carried 9,047 metric tons of oil which gave her an estimated range of 10,000 nautical miles at 18 knots. Much of Shinanos hangar was left open for ventilation, although steel shutters could close off most of the hangar sides if necessary
30.
Light aircraft carrier
–
A light aircraft carrier, or light fleet carrier, is an aircraft carrier that is smaller than the standard carriers of a navy. The precise definition of the type varies by country, light carriers typically have a complement of aircraft only one-half to two-thirds the size of a fleet carrier. In World War II, the United States Navy produced a number of light carriers by converting cruiser hulls. The Independence-class ships, however, had the virtue of being available at a time when available carrier decks had been reduced to Enterprise and Saratoga in the Pacific, in addition, unlike escort carriers, they had enough speed to take part in fleet actions with the larger carriers. Late in the war, a follow on design to the Independence-class, two vessels in this class—Saipan and Wright—were completed after the wars end. After very brief lives as carriers, the Saipans were converted to command, the British 1942 design light fleet carrier was a scaled-down version of their Illustrious-class fleet carrier. The design could be built in a yard with little or no experience of warship construction, although built to merchant standards, the design incorporated better watertight subdivision. Expected to have a lifetime of three years, the last of the design was taken out of service in 2001. The first eight were built as the Colossus but revisions upgrading the design to larger and heavier aircraft led to the remainder being the Majestic class. In the post-war period, the Royal Navy operated a force of ten Colossus class carriers including the two maintenance carriers, by 1939 HMS Hermes was being considered as equivalent to a light aircraft carrier, due to her small size and lack of armour. Currently five light carriers are in service. The newest light carriers are the Italian Cavour and the Spanish Juan Carlos I, aircraft Carriers of the World,1914 to the Present. Watts, Anthony J. Japanese Warships of World War II
31.
Chitose-class aircraft carrier
–
The Chitose-class aircraft carriers were a class of two seaplane tenders, later converted to light aircraft carriers, of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty, the tonnage of Japans naval vessels was limited by class. The Chitose-class ships were built as seaplane tenders, designed to make the conversion to aircraft carriers relatively easy and they served as seaplane tenders during the early part of the Pacific War. After the Battle of Midway, they were converted into aircraft carriers. Both ships participated in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and both were sunk in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, Chitose underwent conversion at the Sasebo Naval Yard and was completed in New Years Day,1944. Her sister ship Chiyoda was completed two months earlier at the Yokosuka Naval Yard. Both ships were outfitted with a hangar and they were widened by an additional 6 feet 7 inches. The added flight deck was serviced by two lifts, Chitose and Chiyoda were sunk at the Battle of Cape Engano, which occurred during the Imperial Japanese Navys Sho-Go operation that produced the Battle of Leyte Gulf. In charge of the operation was Vice Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa, commander of the northern force. His ships were not expected to survive their diversionary employment, together with two other carriers in the group, they carried only 116 planes, much less than their normal capacity and far less than the aircraft of Halseys task forces. Despite their role as bait, the Japanese carriers sighted Halsey first and this accomplished nothing, and only a few planes returned to the carriers, leaving them with less than thirty. The Japanese ships tried hard to be conspicuous, and U. S. aircraft finally spotted them in mid-afternoon, Admiral Halsey, believing that his aviators had driven the other Japanese forces away, headed north to attack. At about 08,00 on the morning of 25 October, American carrier planes began a series of attacks, a second strike came in around 10,00 that damaged Chiyoda and slowed her down. She was later sunk by gunfire from four cruisers and nine destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral DuBose that had detached from Halseys Third Fleet to sail north. Lieutenant, Junior Grade Donald McCutcheon U. S. S. S, List of ships of the Second World War List of ship classes of the Second World War Brown, J. D. Carrier Operations in World War II, jentschura, Hansgeorg, Jung, Dieter, Mickel, Peter. Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945, annapolis, Maryland, United States Naval Institute. Aircraft Carriers, A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events, silverstone, Paul H. Directory of the Worlds Capital Ships
32.
Japanese cruiser Ibuki (1943)
–
The Japanese cruiser Ibuki was a heavy cruiser built for the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. The lead ship of her class, she was converted into an aircraft carrier before completion. The conversion was delayed and finally stopped in March 1945 in order to concentrate on building small submarines, Ibuki was scrapped in the Sasebo Naval Arsenal beginning in 1946. As originally designed the ship had a length of 200.6 meters overall, a beam of 20.2 meters, Ibuki displaced 12,220 metric tons at standard load and 14,828 metric tons at. She was fitted with four Kampon geared steam turbine sets with a total of 152,000 shaft horsepower, steam was provided by eight Kampon Ro Gō-type three-drum water-tube boilers intended to give the ship a maximum speed of 35 knots. Ibuki carried 2,163 metric tons of oil which gave her an estimated range of 6,300 nautical miles at 18 knots. The main armament of the Ibuki class was intended to be ten 50-caliber 20 cm 3rd Year Type No.2 guns mounted in twin turrets, the first two forward turrets were on the same level, but the third turret could superfire over the first two. The guns could depress to −5° and had an elevation of +55°. The secondary armament was to consist of eight 40-caliber 12.7 cm Type 89 anti-aircraft guns in twin mounts and they had a maximum range of 14,800 meters, and a maximum ceiling of 9,400 meters. The ships were intended to be equipped with four twin 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns abreast the funnel. They had a range of 7,500 meters. The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute due to the frequent need to change the fifteen-round magazines. Two twin 13.2 mm Type 93 machine gun mounts were supposed to be mounted on the bridge with 2,000 rounds per gun, the Ibuki-class ships were intended to be armed with four rotating quadruple 61 cm Type 92 torpedo tube mounts, two on each broadside. The ship carried 24 Type 93 torpedoes, commonly referred to in literature as the Long Lance,16 in the tubes. Quick-reloading gear was installed for every mount that allowed the reserve torpedoes to be loaded in three to five minutes in ideal conditions, early warning would have been provided by a Type 2, Mark 2, Model 1 air search radar mounted at the top of the foremast. A Type 93 passive hydrophone system would have fitted in the bow. The ships were designed to carry three aircraft on a platform between the funnel and the mainmast and these would have consisted of one three-seat Aichi E13A and two two-seat Yokosuka E14Y floatplanes. They would have been launched by a pair of aircraft catapults, the ships waterline armoured belt ran all the way down to the double bottom
33.
Escort carrier
–
They were typically half the length and a third the displacement of larger fleet carriers. While they were slower, carried fewer planes and were well armed and armored, escort carriers were cheaper and could be built quickly. Escort carriers could be completed in greater numbers as a stop-gap when fleet carriers were scarce, however, the lack of protection made escort carriers particularly vulnerable and several were sunk with great loss of life. The light carrier was a concept to escort carriers in most respects. Most often built on a ship hull, escort carriers were too slow to keep up with the main forces consisting of fleet carriers, battleships. Instead, they were used to escort convoys, defending them from threats such as submarines and planes. In the invasions of mainland Europe and Pacific islands, escort carriers provided air support to forces during amphibious operations. Escort carriers also served as aircraft transports for fleet carriers. In the Battle of the Atlantic, escort carriers were used to protect convoys against U-boats, initially escort carriers accompanied the merchant ships and helped to fend off attacks from aircraft and submarines. As numbers increased later in the war, escort carriers formed part of hunter-killer groups that sought out submarines instead of being attached to a particular convoy. In the Pacific theater, CVEs provided air support of troops in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. They lacked the speed and weapons to enemy fleets, relying on the protection of a Fast Carrier Task Force. However, at the Battle off Samar, one U. S. task force of escort carriers managed to defend itself against a much larger Japanese force of battleships. The Japanese met a furious defense of carrier aircraft, screening destroyers, of the 151 aircraft carriers built in the U. S. during World War II,122 were escort carriers. Though no examples survive to this day, the Casablanca class was the most numerous class of aircraft carrier, second was the Bogue class, with 45 launched. In the early 1920s, the Washington Naval Treaty imposed limits on the maximum size, later treaties largely kept these provisions. As a result, construction between the World Wars had been insufficient to meet needs for aircraft carriers as World War II expanded from Europe. The foregoing mission requirements limited use of fleet carriers′ unique offensive strike capability demonstrated at the Battle of Taranto, conversion of existing ships provided additional aircraft carriers until new construction became available
34.
Shimane Maru-class escort carrier
–
The Shimane Maru class was a class of two auxiliary escort carriers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Four additional conversions were reportedly considered but not carried out, although both ships were launched, only one was completed, and neither entered active service before being destroyed. The concept of the class was similar to British merchant aircraft carrier, the conversion consisted of fitting a full-length flight deck, a small hangar, and a single elevator. An island and catapults were not installed, the only other change was the rerouting of the boiler uptakes to the aft starboard side where they discharged in a typical downward-facing funnel. The ships had a length of 160.5 meters overall and 150 meters between perpendiculars and they had a beam of 20 meters at the waterline and a mean draft of 9.1 meters. They displaced 11,989 metric tons at standard load, the Shimane Maru-class ships were fitted with one geared steam turbine set with a total of 8,600 shaft horsepower. It drove one propeller using steam provided by two boilers. The ships had a speed of 18.5 knots. The flight deck was 154.99 meters long and had a width of 23.01 meters. The hangar, built on top of the deck, was served by a single elevator from the flight deck. It had a capacity of a dozen aircraft and she was completed on 28 February 1945, but was sunk 24 July 1945 by British aircraft at Shido Bay, Kagawa Prefecture at position 34°20′10″N 134°10′15″E. Her hulk was also mined, then scrapped at Naniwa in 1948 and her construction was 70% completed when she drifted onto a mine on 25 August 1945 and sank. Her hulk was scrapped at Kobe in 1948, daiju Maru - Laid down by Kawasaki on 18 December 1944, construction stopped in February 1945. Constructions were restarted and sold to Iino Lines K. K. on 19 October 1949, scrapped at Yokosuka in May 1964. Taisha Maru - Cancelled in 1944, aircraft Carriers of the World,1914 to the Present, An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Chesneau, Roger, ed. Conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships 1922-1946, Japanese Naval Vessels at the End of World War II. Jentschura, Hansgeorg, Jung, Dieter, Mickel, Peter, warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. Annapolis, Maryland, United States Naval Institute, aircraft Carriers, A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events
