1.
Catania
–
Catania is an Italian city on the east coast of Sicily facing the Ionian Sea. It is the capital of the Metropolitan City of Catania, one of the ten biggest cities in Italy, the population of the city proper is 315,601 while the population of the conurbation is estimated to be 767,003. The metropolitan city has 1,115,310 inhabitants, Catania has had a long and eventful history, having been founded in the 8th century BC. In 1434, the first university in Sicily was founded in the city, in the 14th century and into the Renaissance period, Catania was one of Italys most important cultural, artistic and political centres. The city has a culture and history, hosting many museums, restaurants, churches, parks. Catania is well known for its street food, Catania is located on the east coast of the island of Sicily, at the foot of Mount Etna. As observed by Strabo, the location of Catania at the foot of Mount Etna has been both a curse and a blessing, two subterranean rivers run under the city, the Amenano, which surfaces at one single point south of Piazza Duomo, and the Longane. The ancient indigenous population of the Sicels named their villages after geographical attributes of their location, the Sicilian word, katane, means grater, flaying knife, skinning place or a crude tool apt to pare. Other translations of the name are harsh lands, uneven ground, sharp stones, the latter etymologies are easily justifiable since, for many centuries following an eruption, the city has always been rebuilt within its black-lava landscape. Around 729 BC, the ancient village of Katane became the Chalcidian colony of Katánē where the population was rapidly Hellenized. The Naxian founders, coming from the adjacent coast, later used the name for their new settlement along the River Amenano, around 263 BC, the city was variously known as Catĭna and Catăna. The former has been used for its supposed assonance with catina. Catinus has two meanings, a gulf, a basin or a bay and a bowl, a vessel or a trough, around 900, when Catania was part of the emirate of Sicily, it was known in Arabic as Balad al-fīl and Madinat al-fīl. The former means The Village of the Elephant, while the latter means The City of the Elephant, the Elephant is the lava sculpture over the fountain in Piazza Duomo. Another Arab toponym was Qaṭāniyyah, allegedly from the Arabic word for the leguminous plants, pulses like lentils, beans, peas, broad beans, and lupins were chiefly cultivated in the plains around the city well before the arrival of Aghlabids. Afterwards, many Arabic agronomists developed these crops and the orchards in the area around the city. The toponym Wadi Musa, or Valley of Moses, was rarely used, Catania was founded as a Greek colony named Κατάνη, of Chalcidic origin, under the guidance of a leader named Euarchos. The exact date of its foundation is not recorded, but it appears from Thucydides that it came into existence slightly later than Leontini, the only event of its early history that is known about is the legislation of Charondas, The exact date of which is uncertain
Catania
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Catania Skyline
Catania
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u Liotru, symbol of Catania
Catania
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Giovanni Battista Vaccarini 's Duomo façade (1736) is an example of the city's
Sicilian Baroque architecture
Catania
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Piazza Duomo (Cathedral Square)
2.
Theoretical physicist
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Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena. The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory, in some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, a physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with empirical observations, the quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory similarly differs from a theory, in the sense that the word theory has a different meaning in mathematical terms. A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities, archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles, Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example, for instance, phenomenologists might employ empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding. Modelers often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features, some attempt to create approximate theories, called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated. Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new ones altogether. Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a system might be modeled, e. g. the notion, due to Riemann and others. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational physics, Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously known result, sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no incorrect ones. They are also likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method, Physical theories can be grouped into three categories, mainstream theories, proposed theories and fringe theories. Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham and Francis Bacon
Theoretical physicist
–
Visual representation of a Schwarzschild
wormhole. Wormholes have never been observed, but they are predicted to exist through
mathematical models and
scientific theory.
3.
Neutrino
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A neutrino is a fermion that interacts only via the weak subatomic force and gravity. The mass of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the known elementary particles. The neutrino is so named because it is neutral and because its rest mass is so small that it was originally thought to be zero. The weak force has a short range, gravity is extremely weak on the subatomic scale. Thus, neutrinos pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected. Weak interactions create neutrinos in one of three flavors, electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos, or tau neutrinos, in association with the corresponding charged lepton. Although neutrinos were long believed to be massless, it is now known there are three discrete neutrino masses with different tiny values, but they dont correspond uniquely to the three flavors. A neutrino created with a specific flavor is in a specific quantum superposition of all three mass states. Neutrinos oscillate between different flavors in flight, for example, an electron neutrino produced in a beta decay reaction may interact in a distant detector as a muon or tau neutrino. For each neutrino, there exists a corresponding antiparticle, called an antineutrino. They are distinguished from the neutrinos by having opposite signs of lepton number, the majority of neutrinos in the vicinity of the Earth are from nuclear reactions in the Sun. About 65 billion solar neutrinos per second pass through every square centimeter perpendicular to the direction of the Sun in the region of the Earth, neutrinos are also finding practical applications, such as tomography of the interior of the earth. The neutrino was postulated first by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain how beta decay could conserve energy, momentum and he considered that the new particle was emitted from the nucleus together with the electron or beta particle in the process of beta decay. James Chadwick discovered a more massive nuclear particle in 1932 and also named it a neutron. However, the journal Nature rejected Fermis paper, saying that the theory was too remote from reality. He submitted the paper to an Italian journal, which accepted it, however, by 1934 there was experimental evidence against Bohrs idea that energy conservation is invalid for beta decay. Such a limit is not expected if the conservation of energy is invalid, Pauli made use of the occasion to publicly emphasize that the still-undetected neutrino must be an actual particle. In 1942, Wang Ganchang first proposed the use of beta capture to experimentally detect neutrinos, in the 20 July 1956 issue of Science, Clyde Cowan, Frederick Reines, F. B
Neutrino
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The first use of a hydrogen
bubble chamber to detect neutrinos, on November 13, 1970. A neutrino hit a proton in a hydrogen atom. The collision occurred at the point where three tracks emanate on the right of the photograph.
Neutrino
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Clyde Cowan conducting the neutrino experiment c. 1956
Neutrino
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SN 1987A
4.
Palermo
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Palermo is a city of Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence, Palermo is located in the northwest of the island of Sicily, right by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The city was founded in 734 BC by the Phoenicians as Ziz, Palermo then became a possession of Carthage, before becoming part of the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire and eventually part of the Byzantine Empire, for over a thousand years. The Greeks named the city Panormus meaning complete port, from 831 to 1072 the city was under Arab rule during the Emirate of Sicily when the city first became a capital. The Arabs shifted the Greek name into Balarme, the root for Palermos present-day name, eventually Sicily would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860. The population of Palermo urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 855,285, in the central area, the city has a population of around 676,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Palermitani or, poetically, panormiti, the languages spoken by its inhabitants are the Italian language, Sicilian language and the Palermitano dialect. Palermo is Sicilys cultural, economic and touristic capital and it is a city rich in history, culture, art, music and food. Palermo is the main Sicilian industrial and commercial center, the industrial sectors include tourism, services, commerce. Palermo currently has an airport, and a significant underground economy. In fact, for cultural, artistic and economic reasons, Palermo was one of the largest cities in the Mediterranean and is now among the top tourist destinations in both Italy and Europe. It is the seat of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Arab-Norman Palermo. The city is going through careful redevelopment, preparing to become one of the major cities of the Euro-Mediterranean area. Roman Catholicism is highly important in Palermitano culture, the Patron Saint of Palermo is Santa Rosalia whose Feast Day is celebrated on 15 July. The area attracts significant numbers of each year and is widely known for its colourful fruit, vegetable and fish markets at the heart of Palermo, known as Vucciria, Ballarò. Palermo lies in a basin, formed by the Papireto, Kemonia, the basin was named the Conca dOro by the Arabs in the 9th century. The city is surrounded by a range which is named after the city itself. These mountains face the Tyrrhenian Sea, Palermo is home to a natural port and offers excellent views to the sea, especially from Monte Pellegrino
Palermo
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Clockwise from top: Quattro Canti in Maqueda Street, San Domenico Church, Pretoria Square and Santa Caterina Church, and view of downtown Palermo from Mount Pellegrino
Palermo
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View of Palermo from Monte Pellegrino.
Palermo
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Monte Pellegrino pictured at the end of the 19th century; the mountain is visible from everywhere in the city
Palermo
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Mesolithic cave art at
Addaura
5.
Naples
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Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
Naples
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Naples Napoli
Naples
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Ancient map of the Bay of Naples area from Vatican Museum
Naples
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A scene featuring the
siren Parthenope, the mythological founder of Naples.
Naples
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The
Gothic Battle of Mons Lactarius on
Vesuvius, painted by
Alexander Zick.
6.
Majorana fermion
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A Majorana fermion, also referred to as a Majorana particle, is a fermion that is its own antiparticle. They were hypothesized by Ettore Majorana in 1937, the term is sometimes used in opposition to a Dirac fermion, which describes fermions that are not their own antiparticles. With the exception of the neutrino, all of the Standard Model fermions are known to behave as Dirac fermions at low energy, the nature of the neutrino is not settled, it may be either Dirac or Majorana. In condensed matter physics, Majorana fermions exist as quasiparticle excitations in superconductors, the concept goes back to Majoranas suggestion in 1937 that neutral spin-1/2 particles can be described by a real wave equation, and would therefore be identical to their antiparticle. The difference between Majorana fermions and Dirac fermions can be expressed mathematically in terms of the creation and annihilation operators of second quantization, the creation operator γ j † creates a fermion in quantum state j, whereas the annihilation operator γ j annihilates it. For a Dirac fermion the operators γ j † and γ j are distinct, the ordinary fermionic annihilation and creation operators f and f † can be written in terms of two Majorana operators γ1 and γ2 by f = /2, f † = /2. In supersymmetry models, neutralinos — superpartners of gauge bosons and Higgs bosons — are Majorana, because particles and antiparticles have opposite conserved charges, Majorana fermions have zero charge. All of the elementary fermions of the Standard Model have gauge charges, however, the right-handed sterile neutrinos introduced to explain neutrino oscillation could have Majorana masses. The seesaw mechanism is appealing because it would explain why the observed neutrino masses are so small. However, if the neutrinos are Majorana then they violate the conservation of lepton number, experiments are underway to search for this type of decay. In theories based on symmetry, there is a deep connection between these processes. In the most accepted explanation of the smallness of neutrino mass, the seesaw mechanism, Majorana fermions cannot possess intrinsic electric or magnetic moments, only toroidal moments. Such minimal interaction with electromagnetic fields makes them candidates for cold dark matter. In superconducting materials, Majorana fermions can emerge as quasiparticles and this becomes possible because a quasiparticle in a superconductor is its own antiparticle. Majorana fermions in superconductors were observed since the first tunneling experiments and this name is more appropriate than Majorana fermion, because the statistics of these objects is no longer fermionic. The non-abelian statistics that Majorana bound states possess allows them to be used as a block for a topological quantum computer. A quantum vortex in certain superconductors or superfluids can trap midgap states, shockley states at the end points of superconducting wires or line defects are an alternative, purely electrical, source. An altogether different source uses the fractional quantum Hall effect as a substitute for the superconductor, in 2008, Fu and Kane provided a groundbreaking development by theoretically predicting that Majorana bound states can appear at the interface between topological insulators and superconductors
Majorana fermion
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Ettore Majorana hypothesised the existence of Majorana fermions in 1937
Majorana fermion
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Large Hadron Collider tunnel at
CERN
7.
Majorana Prize
–
The Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics is a quarterly peer-reviewed open access scientific journal that was established in 2003. It covers all aspects of theoretical physics, the editors-in-chief are Ammar Sakaji and Ignazio Licata and the printed version is published by Aracne Editrice. The journal is abstracted and indexed in Scopus, the journal annually awards the Majorana Prize, also known as the Majorana Medal, to recognize outstanding contributions to theoretical and mathematical physics. The prize is named for Italian physicist Ettore Majorana, a pioneer in neutrino physics and it is awarded in three categories, The Best Person in Physics The Best EJTP Special Issue Paper The Best EJTP Paper Official website Majorana Prize website
Majorana Prize
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Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics
Majorana Prize
–
Majorana Medal
8.
Galileo Galilei
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Galileo Galilei was an Italian polymath, astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician. He played a role in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass, Galileos championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of a stellar parallax. He was tried by the Inquisition, found vehemently suspect of heresy and he spent the rest of his life under house arrest. He has been called the father of observational astronomy, the father of modern physics, the father of scientific method, and the father of science. Galileo was born in Pisa, Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia, three of Galileos five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo, also became a noted lutenist and composer although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileos young adulthood, Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their fathers promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and these financial burdens may have contributed to Galileos early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence and he then was educated in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. It was common for mid-sixteenth century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents surname, hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name Galileo derives from the Latin Galilaeus, meaning of Galilee, the biblical roots of Galileos name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileos opponents, in it he made a point of quoting Acts 1,11, Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven. Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba and they had two daughters, Virginia and Livia, and a son, Vincenzo. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life, both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent and she died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life, Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri
Galileo Galilei
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Portrait of Galileo Galilei by
Giusto Sustermans
Galileo Galilei
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Galileo's beloved elder daughter, Virginia (
Sister Maria Celeste), was particularly devoted to her father. She is buried with him in his tomb in the
Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence.
Galileo Galilei
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Galileo Galilei. Portrait by
Leoni
Galileo Galilei
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Cristiano Banti 's 1857 painting Galileo facing the
Roman Inquisition
9.
Isaac Newton
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His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus. Newtons Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists view of the universe for the next three centuries. Newtons work on light was collected in his influential book Opticks. He also formulated a law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound. Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint and his father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a child, his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Newtons mother had three children from her second marriage. From the age of twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The Kings School, Grantham which taught Latin and Greek. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Henry Stokes, master at the Kings School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a bully, he became the top-ranked student. In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge and he started as a subsizar—paying his way by performing valets duties—until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M. A. He set down in his notebook a series of Quaestiones about mechanical philosophy as he found it, in 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his B. A. degree in August 1665, in April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity. Fellows were required to become ordained priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years, however, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II. A and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672. Newtons work has been said to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied and his work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newtons mathematical papers
Isaac Newton
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Portrait of Isaac Newton in 1689 (age 46) by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
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Newton in a 1702 portrait by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
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Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)
Isaac Newton
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Replica of Newton's second
Reflecting telescope that he presented to the
Royal Society in 1672
10.
Enrico Fermi
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Enrico Fermi was an Italian physicist, who created the worlds first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1. He has been called the architect of the age and the architect of the atomic bomb. He was one of the few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally and he made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermis first major contribution was to statistical mechanics, today, particles that obey the exclusion principle are called fermions. Later Pauli postulated the existence of an invisible particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay. Fermi took up this idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle and his theory, later referred to as Fermis interaction and still later as weak interaction, described one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his Jewish wife Laura Capon and he emigrated to the United States where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Fermi led the team designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942. He was on hand when the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, went critical in 1943, at Los Alamos he headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Tellers thermonuclear Super bomb. He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, after the war, Fermi served under J. Robert Oppenheimer on the General Advisory Committee, which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters and policy. Following the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949 and he was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimers behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of the latters security clearance. Enrico Fermi was born in Rome, Italy, on 29 September 1901 and he was the third child of Alberto Fermi, a division head in the Ministry of Railways, and Ida de Gattis, an elementary school teacher. His only sister, Maria, was two years older than he was, and his brother Giulio was a year older, after the two boys were sent to a rural community to be wet nursed, Enrico rejoined his family in Rome when he was two and a half. Although he was baptised a Roman Catholic in accordance with his grandparents wishes, his family was not particularly religious, as a young boy he shared the same interests as his brother Giulio, building electric motors and playing with electrical and mechanical toys. Giulio died during the administration of an anesthetic for an operation on a throat abscess in 1915, one of Fermis first sources for his study of physics was a book he found at the local market at Campo de Fiori in Rome. Published in 1840, the 900-page Elementorum physicae mathematicae, was written in Latin by Jesuit Father Andrea Caraffa and it covered mathematics, classical mechanics, astronomy, optics, and acoustics, insofar as these disciplines were understood when the book was written. Fermis interest in physics was encouraged by his fathers colleague Adolfo Amidei, who gave him several books on physics and mathematics. Fermi graduated from school in July 1918 and, at Amideis urging
Enrico Fermi
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Enrico Fermi (1901–1954)
Enrico Fermi
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Enrico Fermi as a student in Pisa
Enrico Fermi
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Fermi and his students (the
Via Panisperna boys) in the courtyard of Rome University's Physics Institute in Via Panisperna, about 1934. From Left to right:
Oscar D'Agostino,
Emilio Segrè,
Edoardo Amaldi,
Franco Rasetti and Fermi
Enrico Fermi
–
Laura and Enrico Fermi at the Institute for Nuclear Studies, Los Alamos, 1954
11.
Sicily
–
Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous Region of Italy, along with surrounding minor islands, Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula, from which it is separated by the narrow Strait of Messina. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, the tallest active volcano in Europe, the island has a typical Mediterranean climate. The earliest archaeological evidence of activity on the island dates from as early as 12,000 BC. It became part of Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of the Thousand, a revolt led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region after the Italian constitutional referendum of 1946. Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine. It is also home to important archaeological and ancient sites, such as the Necropolis of Pantalica, the Valley of the Temples, Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria. To the east, it is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, about 3 km wide in the north, and about 16 km wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km long measured as a line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km. The total area of the island is 25,711 km2, the terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the ranges of Madonie,2,000 m, Nebrodi,1,800 m. The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast, in the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains,1,000 m. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and still casts black ash over the island with its ever-present eruptions and it currently stands 3,329 metres high, though this varies with summit eruptions, the mountain is 21 m lower now than it was in 1981. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus, Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, to the northeast of mainland Sicily form a volcanic complex, the three volcanoes of Vulcano, Vulcanello and Lipari are also currently active, although the latter is usually dormant
Sicily
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Mount Etna rising over suburbs of Catania
Sicily
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Sicily Sicilia
Sicily
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Sicilian landscape
Sicily
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Location of the
Salso
12.
University of Rome La Sapienza
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The Sapienza University of Rome, also called simply Sapienza or the University of Rome, is a collegiate research university located in Rome, Italy. Formally known as Università degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza, it is the largest European university by enrollments and one of the oldest in history, the University is also the most prestigious Italian university and also the best ranked in Southern Europe. The biggest part of the Italian ruling class studied at this University and he introduced a new tax on wine in order to raise funds for the university, the money was used to buy a palace which later housed the SantIvo alla Sapienza church. However, the Universitys days of splendour came to an end during the sack of Rome in 1527, when the studium was closed and the professors dispersed, Pope Paul III restored the university shortly after his ascension to the pontificate in 1534. In the 1650s the university known as Sapienza, meaning wisdom. University students were newly animated during the 19th-century Italian revival, in 1870, La Sapienza stopped being the papal university and became the university of the capital of Italy. In 1935 the new university campus, planned by Marcello Piacentini, was completed, Sapienza University has many campuses in Rome but its main campus is the Città Universitaria, which covers 439,000 m2 near the Roma Tiburtina Station. The university has satellite campuses outside Rome, the main of which is in Latina. In 2011 a project was launched to build a campus residence halls near Pietralata station. The Department of Philosophy is located in this building, since the 2011 reform, Sapienza University of Rome has eleven faculties and 65 departments. Today Sapienza, with 140,000 students and 8,000 among academic and technical, the university has significant research programmes in the fields of engineering, natural sciences, biomedical sciences and humanities. It offers 10 Masters Programmes taught entirely in English, as of the 2016 Academic Ranking of World Universities, Sapienza is positioned within the 151-200 group of universities and among the top 3% of universities in the world. In 2015, the Center for World University Rankings ranked the Sapienza University of Rome as the 112th in the world, in order to cope with the large demand for admission to the university courses, some faculties hold a series of entrance examinations. The entrance test often decides which candidates will have access to the undergraduate course, for some faculties, the entrance test is only a means through which the administration acknowledges the students level of preparation. Students that do not pass the test can still enroll in their chosen degree courses but have to pass an additional exam during their first year, the title of the speech would have been The Truth Makes Us Good and Goodness is Truth. Some students and professors protested in reaction to a 1990 speech that Pope Benedict XVI gave in which he, in their opinion, endorsed the actions of the church against Galileo in 1633
University of Rome La Sapienza
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Palazzo della Sapienza, former home of the University until 1935.
University of Rome La Sapienza
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Sapienza University of Rome
University of Rome La Sapienza
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Church of
Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza, originally the chapel and seat of the university library (until 1935).
University of Rome La Sapienza
–
The new campus of Rome University, built in 1935 by
Marcello Piacentini, in a 1938 picture.
13.
Via Panisperna boys
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The Via Panisperna boys were a group of young scientists led by Enrico Fermi. In Rome in 1934, they made the discovery of slow neutrons which later made possible the nuclear reactor. The nickname of the group comes from the address of the Physics Institute, the Via Panisperna, a street of Rione Monti in the city center, got its name from a nearby monastery, San Lorenzo in Panisperna. The other members of the group were Edoardo Amaldi, Oscar DAgostino, Ettore Majorana, Bruno Pontecorvo, Franco Rasetti, all of them were physicists, except for DAgostino who was a chemist. The group grew under the supervision of the physicist, minister, Corbino recognized the qualities of Enrico Fermi and led the commission who appointed him in 1926 as professor of one of the three first Chairs of Theoretical Physics in Italy. From 1929, Fermi and Corbino dedicated themselves to the transformation of the institute into a research centre. The first version of their research laboratory was mainly dedicated to atomic and molecular spectroscopy, on the theoretical side, the work of Ettore Majorana and Fermi enabled the understanding of the structure of the atomic nucleus and the forces acting in it, known as the Majorana Forces. In 1933 and 1934 they published the theory of beta decay. In 1938, because of the climate in Europe, and in particular in Italy the group dispersed. The head of the group, Prof. Fermi, was forced to emigrate, since the passing of the Fascist racial laws were damaging his wife, who was Jewish. In the post-war reconstruction of Italian physics, Amaldi contributed significantly to the foundation of CERN, the movie director Gianni Amelio has told their story in a TV-movie which became a film, I ragazzi di via Panisperna. The building in Via Panisperna, lying on the Viminale hill, is included in the complex of the Ministry of the Interior. The edifice is planned to host a centre for research and a museum of physics named after Enrico Fermi, Enrico Fermi and the Via Panisperna Boys from the Museum of Physics of La Sapienza University in Rome
Via Panisperna boys
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Enrico Fermi and the Via Panisperna boys in the courtyard of Rome University's Physics Institute in Via Panisperna, about 1934. From Left to right:
Oscar D'Agostino,
Emilio Segrè,
Edoardo Amaldi,
Franco Rasetti and Enrico Fermi
14.
Quirino Majorana
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Quirino Majorana was an Italian experimental physicist who investigated a wide range of phenomena during his long career as professor of physics at the Universities of Rome, Turin, and Bologna, Italy. He performed a series of very sensitive gravity shielding experiments from 1918 to 1922. Majoranas experiments determined that mercury or lead around a lead sphere acted as a screen. No attempts have been made to reproduce his results using the experimental techniques. Other researchers have concluded from other data that if gravitational absorption does exist it must be at least five orders of magnitude smaller than Majoranas experiments suggest, Majorana also confirmed Isaac Newton’s law of universal gravitation to high precision. His later work at Bologna was influenced by correspondence with his nephew Ettore Majorana, quirino Majorana, Su di un fenomeno fotoelettrico constabile con gli audion, Rendiconti Accademia dei Lincei, V7, pp. 801–806. Quirino Majorana, Azione della luce su sottili lamine metalliche, La Ricerca Scientifica National Research Council, galvani e la scienza moderna, Sapere, pp. 261–265. Quirino Majorana, Ulteriori ricerche sullazione della luce su sottili lamine metallische, Il Nuovo Cimento, V15, pp. 573–593
Quirino Majorana
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Quirino Majorana
15.
Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
Engineering
–
The
steam engine, a major driver in the
Industrial Revolution, underscores the importance of engineering in modern history. This
beam engine is on display in the
Technical University of Madrid.
Engineering
–
Relief map of the
Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by
Vauban, the foremost military engineer of his age.
Engineering
–
The Ancient Romans built
aqueducts to bring a steady supply of clean fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.
Engineering
–
The
International Space Station represents a modern engineering challenge from many disciplines.
16.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
Physics
–
Further information:
Outline of physics
Physics
–
Ancient
Egyptian astronomy is evident in monuments like the
ceiling of Senemut's tomb from the
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
Physics
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Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), whose
laws of motion and
universal gravitation were major milestones in classical physics
Physics
–
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), whose work on the
photoelectric effect and the
theory of relativity led to a revolution in 20th century physics
17.
Llewellyn Thomas
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Llewellyn Hilleth Thomas was a British physicist and applied mathematician. The Thomas–Fermi model, a model of the atom subsequently developed by Dirac and Weizsäcker. Thomas collapse - effect in physics, which corresponds to infinite value of the three body binding energy for zero-range potentials. His name is attached to an efficient Gaussian elimination method for tridiagonal matrices—the Thomas algorithm. Born in London, he studied at Cambridge University, receiving his BA, PhD, in 1929 he obtained a job as a professor of physics at the Ohio State University, where he stayed until 1943. He married Naomi Estelle Frech in 1933, in 1935 he was the masters thesis advisor for Leonard Schiff, whose thesis was published with Thomas as coauthor. From 1943 until 1945 Thomas worked on ballistics at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland, in 1946 he became a member of the staff of the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at Columbia University, remaining there until 1968. In 1958 he was elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences, in 1963, Thomas was appointed as IBMs First Fellow in the Watson Research Center. He was appointed professor at North Carolina State University in 1968, in 1982 he received the Davisson-Germer Prize. He died in Raleigh, North Carolina, guide to the Llewellyn Hilleth Thomas Papers at the North Carolina State University NA-Digest on the attribution of the Thomas Algorithms name
Llewellyn Thomas
–
Copenhagen 1926
18.
Gadolinium
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Gadolinium is a chemical element with symbol Gd and atomic number 64. Gadolinium is a silvery-white, malleable, and ductile rare earth metal and it is found in nature only in oxidized form, and even when separated, it usually has impurities of the other rare earths. Gadolinium was discovered in 1880 by Jean Charles de Marignac, who detected its oxide by using spectroscopy and it is named after the mineral gadolinite, which is one of the minerals in which gadolinium is found, itself named for the chemist Johan Gadolin. Pure gadolinium was first isolated by the chemist Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in about 1886, Gadolinium as a metal or a salt absorbs neutrons, and it is, therefore, used sometimes for shielding in neutron radiography, and also in nuclear reactors. Like most of the rare earths, gadolinium forms trivalent ions with fluorescent properties, the kinds of gadolinium ions occurring in water-soluble salts are toxic to mammals. However, chelated gadolinium compounds are far less toxic because they carry gadolinium through the kidneys, Gadolinium is a silvery-white malleable and ductile rare earth metal. It crystallizes in hexagonal, in the close-packed α-form at room temperature, but, when heated to temperatures above 1235 °C, it transforms into its β-form, the isotope gadolinium-157 has the highest thermal neutron capture cross-section among any stable nuclide, about 259,000 barns. Only xenon-135 has a capture cross section, about 2.0 million barns. Gadolinium is believed to be ferromagnetic at temperatures below 20 °C, there is evidence that gadolinium is a helical antiferromagnetic, rather than a ferromagnetic, below 20 °C. Gadolinium demonstrates a magnetocaloric effect whereby its temperature increases when it enters a magnetic field, the temperature is lowered to 5 °C for the gadolinium alloy Gd85Er15, and this effect is considerably stronger for the alloy Gd5, but at a much lower temperature. A significant magnetocaloric effect is observed at higher temperatures, up to about 300 kelvin, in the compounds Gd54, individual gadolinium atoms can be isolated by encapsulating them into fullerene molecules, where they can be visualized with transmission electron microscope. Individual Gd atoms and small Gd clusters can be incorporated into carbon nanotubes, Gadolinium combines with most elements to form Gd derivatives. It also combines with nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon, unlike the other rare earth elements, metallic gadolinium is relatively stable in dry air. However, it quickly in moist air, forming a loosely-adhering gadolinium oxide. 4 Gd +3 O2 →2 Gd2O3 Gadolinium is a reducing agent. All are white except for the iodide, which is yellow, most commonly encountered of the halides is gadolinium chloride. The oxide dissolves in acids to give the salts, such as gadolinium nitrate, Gadolinium, like most lanthanide ions, forms complexes with high coordination numbers. This tendency is illustrated by the use of the chelating agent DOTA, salts of − are useful in magnetic resonance imaging
Gadolinium
–
Gadolinium, 64 Gd
Gadolinium
–
Gadolinite
19.
Uranium
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Uranium is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons, Uranium is weakly radioactive because all its isotopes are unstable. The most common isotopes in natural uranium are uranium-238 and uranium-235, Uranium has the highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead, and it occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite. In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238, uranium-235, Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle. The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4.47 billion years, many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties. Uranium-235 is the naturally occurring fissile isotope, which makes it widely used in nuclear power plants. However, because of the amounts found in nature, uranium needs to undergo enrichment so that enough uranium-235 is present. Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons, and is fertile, meaning it can be transmuted to fissile plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor, another fissile isotope, uranium-233, can be produced from natural thorium and is also important in nuclear technology. In sufficient concentration, these maintain a sustained nuclear chain reaction. This generates the heat in nuclear reactors, and produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating, Uranium is used as a colorant in uranium glass, producing lemon yellow to green colors. Uranium glass fluoresces green in ultraviolet light and it was also used for tinting and shading in early photography. The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of weapons that used uranium metal. The security of those weapons and their fissile material following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 is a concern for public health. When refined, uranium is a white, weakly radioactive metal
Uranium
–
Uranium, 92 U
Uranium
–
Depleted uranium is used by various militaries as high-density penetrators
Uranium
–
The most visible civilian use of uranium is as the thermal power source used in
nuclear power plants
Uranium
–
Uranium glass glowing under
UV light
20.
Caesium
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Caesium or cesium is a chemical element with symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a point of 28.5 °C. Caesium is a metal and has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium. The metal is extremely reactive and pyrophoric, reacting with water even at −116 °C, Caesium is one of the most reactive elements of all, even more reactive than fluorine, the most reactive nonmetal. It is the least electronegative element, with a value of 0.79 on the Pauling scale and it has only one stable isotope, caesium-133. Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite, while the radioisotopes, especially caesium-137, the German chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in 1860 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy. The first small-scale applications for caesium were as a getter in vacuum tubes, since then, caesium has been widely used in highly accurate atomic clocks. The radioactive isotope caesium-137 has a half-life of about 30 years and is used in applications, industrial gauges. Although the element is only toxic, the metal is a hazardous material. It is a ductile, pale metal, which darkens in the presence of trace amounts of oxygen. When in the presence of oil, it loses its metallic lustre and takes on a duller. It has a point of 28.4 °C, making it one of the few elemental metals that are liquid near room temperature. Mercury is the elemental metal with a known melting point lower than caesium. In addition, the metal has a low boiling point,641 °C. Its compounds burn with a blue or violet colour, Caesium forms alloys with the other alkali metals, gold, and mercury. At temperatures below 650 °C, it does not alloy with cobalt, iron, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, tantalum and it forms well-defined intermetallic compounds with antimony, gallium, indium, and thorium, which are photosensitive. It mixes with all the alkali metals, the alloy with a molar distribution of 41% caesium, 47% potassium. A few amalgams have been studied, CsHg 2 is black with a metallic lustre, while CsHg is golden-coloured
Caesium
–
Caesium, 55 Cs
Caesium
–
High-purity caesium-133 preserved under argon
Caesium
–
Secure caesium sample for teaching
Caesium
–
Monoatomic caesium halide wires grown inside double-wall
carbon nanotubes (
TEM image).
21.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
Princeton University
–
A commemorative 3-cent stamp from 1953 celebrating the bicentennial of
Nassau Hall
Princeton University
–
Seal of Princeton University
Princeton University
–
John Witherspoon, President of the College (1768-94), signer of the
Declaration of Independence
Princeton University
–
A Birds-eye view of campus in 1906
22.
Pierre Auger
–
Pierre Victor Auger was a French physicist, born in Paris. He worked in the fields of physics, nuclear physics. Pierres father was chemistry professor Victor Auger, Pierre Auger was a student at the École normale supérieure in Paris from 1919 to 1922, the year when he passed the agrégation of physics. He then joined the chemistry laboratory of the faculté des sciences of the University of Paris under the direction of Jean Perrin to work there on the photoelectric effect. In 1926 he obtained his doctorate in physics from the University of Paris, in 1927, he was named assistant to the faculté des sciences of Paris and, at the same time, adjoint chief of service to lInstitut de biologie physico-chimique. Chief of work to faculty in 1934 and general secretary of the tables of the constants in 1936. He was charged with, until 1940, the course on the bases of the quantum theory within the chair of theoretical physics and astrophysics. He was also adjoint director of the laboratory of physical chemistry and he then occupied the chair of quantum physics and relativity of the faculté des sciences of Paris. At the end of World War II, he was named director of education from 1945 to 1948. The process where Auger electrons are emitted from atoms is used in Auger electron spectroscopy to study the elements on the surface of materials and this method was named after him, despite the fact that Lise Meitner discovered the process a few years before in 1922. In his work with cosmic rays, he found that the cosmic radiation events were coincident in time meaning that they were associated with a single event and he was ESROs first Director General and one of the forefathers for the CERN foundation. He was president of the Centre International de calcul, from 1948 to 1959, he directed at UNESCO the department of mathematical and natural sciences. He was elected a member of the Académie des sciences in 1977, the worlds largest cosmic ray detector, the Pierre Auger Observatory, is named after him. Pierre Auger, The Pioneering Work Pierre Auger Observatory Entretien du 23 avril 1986 avec Pierre Auger
Pierre Auger
–
Pierre Victor Auger
23.
I.I. Rabi
–
Isidor Isaac Rabi was an American physicist and Nobel laureate, recognized in 1944 for his discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance, which is used in magnetic resonance imaging. He was also one of the first scientists in the US to work on the cavity magnetron, which is used in microwave radar and microwave ovens. Born into a traditional Jewish family in Rymanów, Galicia, in what was part of Austria-Hungary. He entered Cornell University as an engineering student in 1916. Later, he interested in physics. He continued his studies at Columbia University, where he was awarded his doctorate for a thesis on the susceptibility of certain crystals. In 1927, he headed for Europe, where he met, in 1929 Rabi returned to the United States, where Columbia offered him a faculty position. In collaboration with Gregory Breit, he developed the Breit-Rabi equation and his techniques for using nuclear magnetic resonance to discern the magnetic moment and nuclear spin of atoms earned him a Nobel Prize for Physics in 1944. Nuclear magnetic resonance became an important tool for nuclear physics and chemistry, the subsequent development of magnetic resonance imaging from it has made it important to medicine as well. During World War II he worked on radar at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Radiation Laboratory, after the war, he served on the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission, and was chairman from 1952 to 1956. He also served on the Science Advisory Committees of the Office of Defense Mobilization and the Armys Ballistic Research Laboratory, and was Science Advisor to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. He was involved with the establishment of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1946, when Columbia created the rank of University Professor in 1964, Rabi was the first to receive such a chair. A special chair was named after him in 1985 and he retired from teaching in 1967 but remained active in the department and held the title of University Professor Emeritus and Special Lecturer until his death. Israel Isaac Rabi was born on 29 July 1898 into a Polish-Jewish Orthodox family in Rymanów, Galicia, soon after he was born, his father, David Rabi, emigrated to the United States. The younger Rabi and his mother, Sheindel, joined David there a few later. At home the family spoke Yiddish, when Rabi was enrolled in school, Sheindel said his name was Izzy, and a school official, thinking it was short for Isidor, put that down as his name. Henceforth, that became his official name, later, in response to anti-Semitism, he started writing his name as Isidor Isaac Rabi, and was known professionally as I. I. To most of his friends and family, including his sister Gertrude, who was born in 1903, he was simply as Rabi
I.I. Rabi
–
Isidor Isaac Rabi
I.I. Rabi
–
Signature
I.I. Rabi
–
Atomic physicists
Ernest O. Lawrence (left),
Enrico Fermi (center), and Isidor Rabi
I.I. Rabi
–
Original cavity magnetron developed by
John Randall and
Harry Boot at Birmingham University
24.
Lorentz group
–
In physics and mathematics, the Lorentz group is the group of all Lorentz transformations of Minkowski spacetime, the classical and quantum setting for all physical phenomena. The Lorentz group is named for the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz, in general relativity physics is that of special relativity in small enough regions of spacetime. The Lorentz group is a subgroup of the Poincaré group—the group of all isometries of Minkowski spacetime, Lorentz transformations are, precisely, isometries that leave the origin fixed. Thus, the Lorentz group is a subgroup of the isometry group of Minkowski spacetime. For this reason, the Lorentz group is called the homogeneous Lorentz group while the Poincaré group is sometimes called the inhomogeneous Lorentz group. Lorentz transformations are examples of linear transformations, general isometries of Minkowski spacetime are affine transformations. Mathematically, the Lorentz group may be described as the orthogonal group O. This quadratic form is, when put on matrix form, interpreted in physics as the tensor of Minkowski spacetime. The Lorentz group is a six-dimensional noncompact non-abelian real Lie group that is not connected, the four connected components are not simply connected, but rather doubly connected. The identity component of the Lorentz group is itself a group, and is called the restricted Lorentz group. The restricted Lorentz group consists of those Lorentz transformations that preserve the orientation of space, the restricted Lorentz group has often been presented through a facility of biquaternion algebra. The restricted Lorentz group arises in other ways in pure mathematics, for example, it arises as the point symmetry group of a certain ordinary differential equation. This fact also has physical significance, because it is a Lie group, the Lorentz group O is both a group and admits a topological description as a smooth manifold. As a manifold, it has four connected components, intuitively, this means that it consists of four topologically separated pieces. The subgroup of transformations is often denoted O+. Those that preserve orientation are called proper, and as linear transformations they have determinant +1, the subgroup of proper Lorentz transformations is denoted SO. The subgroup of all Lorentz transformations preserving both orientation and direction of time is called the proper, orthochronous Lorentz group or restricted Lorentz group, and is denoted by SO+. The set of the four connected components can be given a structure as the quotient group O/SO+
Lorentz group
–
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853–1928), after whom the Lorentz group is named.
25.
Gamma ray
–
Gamma ray, denoted by the lower-case Greek letter gamma, is penetrating electromagnetic radiation of a kind arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of photons in the highest observed range of photon energy, paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900 while studying radiation emitted by radium. In 1903, Ernest Rutherford named this radiation gamma rays, Rutherford had previously discovered two other types of radioactive decay, which he named alpha and beta rays. Gamma rays are able to ionize atoms, and are thus biologically hazardous. The decay of a nucleus from a high energy state to a lower energy state. Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth are observed in the decay of radionuclides. There are rare terrestrial natural sources, such as lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, However, a large fraction of such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earths atmosphere and can only be detected by spacecraft. Gamma rays typically have frequencies above 10 exahertz, and therefore have energies above 100 keV and wavelengths less than 10 picometers, However, this is not a strict definition, but rather only a rule-of-thumb description for natural processes. Electromagnetic radiation from radioactive decay of nuclei is referred to as gamma rays no matter its energy. This radiation commonly has energy of a few hundred keV, in astronomy, gamma rays are defined by their energy, and no production process needs to be specified. The energies of gamma rays from astronomical sources range to over 10 TeV, a notable example is the extremely powerful bursts of high-energy radiation referred to as long duration gamma-ray bursts, of energies higher than can be produced by radioactive decay. These bursts of gamma rays are thought to be due to the collapse of stars called hypernovae, the first gamma ray source to be discovered historically was the radioactive decay process called gamma decay. In this type of decay, a nucleus emits a gamma ray almost immediately upon formation. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, However, Villard did not consider naming them as a different fundamental type. Rutherford also noted that gamma rays were not deflected by a field, another property making them unlike alpha. Gamma rays were first thought to be particles with mass, like alpha, Rutherford initially believed that they might be extremely fast beta particles, but their failure to be deflected by a magnetic field indicated that they had no charge. In 1914, gamma rays were observed to be reflected from crystal surfaces, Rutherford and his coworker Edward Andrade measured the wavelengths of gamma rays from radium, and found that they were similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequency. This was eventually recognized as giving them more energy per photon
Gamma ray
–
Gamma rays are emitted during
nuclear fission in nuclear explosions.
Gamma ray
–
Illustration of an emission of a gamma ray (γ) from an atomic nucleus
Gamma ray
Gamma ray
–
A
hypernova. Artist's illustration showing the life of a
massive star as
nuclear fusion converts lighter elements into heavier ones. When fusion no longer generates enough pressure to counteract gravity, the star rapidly collapses to form a
black hole. Theoretically, energy may be released during the collapse along the axis of rotation to form a long duration
gamma-ray burst.
26.
Proton
–
A proton is a subatomic particle, symbol p or p+, with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge and mass slightly less than that of a neutron. Protons and neutrons, each with masses of one atomic mass unit, are collectively referred to as nucleons. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of every atom, the number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the atomic number. Since each element has a number of protons, each element has its own unique atomic number. The word proton is Greek for first, and this name was given to the nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1920. In previous years, Rutherford had discovered that the nucleus could be extracted from the nuclei of nitrogen by atomic collisions. Protons were therefore a candidate to be a particle, and hence a building block of nitrogen. In the modern Standard Model of particle physics, protons are hadrons, and like neutrons, although protons were originally considered fundamental or elementary particles, they are now known to be composed of three valence quarks, two up quarks and one down quark. The rest masses of quarks contribute only about 1% of a protons mass, the remainder of a protons mass is due to quantum chromodynamics binding energy, which includes the kinetic energy of the quarks and the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together. At sufficiently low temperatures, free protons will bind to electrons, however, the character of such bound protons does not change, and they remain protons. A fast proton moving through matter will slow by interactions with electrons and nuclei, the result is a protonated atom, which is a chemical compound of hydrogen. In vacuum, when electrons are present, a sufficiently slow proton may pick up a single free electron, becoming a neutral hydrogen atom. Such free hydrogen atoms tend to react chemically with other types of atoms at sufficiently low energies. When free hydrogen atoms react with other, they form neutral hydrogen molecules. Protons are spin-½ fermions and are composed of three quarks, making them baryons. Protons have an exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm. Protons and neutrons are both nucleons, which may be together by the nuclear force to form atomic nuclei. The nucleus of the most common isotope of the atom is a lone proton
Proton
–
Ernest Rutherford at the first
Solvay Conference, 1911
Proton
–
The quark structure of the proton. The
color assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present. Forces between quarks are mediated by
gluons.
27.
Neutron
–
The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol n or n0, with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons, each with approximately one atomic mass unit, constitute the nucleus of an atom. Their properties and interactions are described by nuclear physics, the nucleus consists of Z protons, where Z is called the atomic number, and N neutrons, where N is the neutron number. The atomic number defines the properties of the atom. The terms isotope and nuclide are often used synonymously, but they are chemical and nuclear concepts, the atomic mass number, symbol A, equals Z+N. For example, carbon has atomic number 6, and its abundant carbon-12 isotope has 6 neutrons, some elements occur in nature with only one stable isotope, such as fluorine. Other elements occur with many stable isotopes, such as tin with ten stable isotopes, even though it is not a chemical element, the neutron is included in the table of nuclides. Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together through the nuclear force, neutrons are produced copiously in nuclear fission and fusion. They are a contributor to the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements within stars through fission, fusion. The neutron is essential to the production of nuclear power, in the decade after the neutron was discovered in 1932, neutrons were used to induce many different types of nuclear transmutations. These events and findings led to the first self-sustaining nuclear reactor, free neutrons, or individual neutrons free of the nucleus, are effectively a form of ionizing radiation, and as such, are a biological hazard, depending upon dose. A small natural background flux of free neutrons exists on Earth, caused by cosmic ray showers. Dedicated neutron sources like neutron generators, research reactors and spallation sources produce free neutrons for use in irradiation, neutrons and protons are both nucleons, which are attracted and bound together by the nuclear force to form atomic nuclei. The nucleus of the most common isotope of the atom is a lone proton. The nuclei of the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium contain one proton bound to one. All other types of nuclei are composed of two or more protons and various numbers of neutrons. The most common nuclide of the chemical element lead, 208Pb has 82 protons and 126 neutrons. The free neutron has a mass of about 1. 675×10−27 kg, the neutron has a mean square radius of about 0. 8×10−15 m, or 0.8 fm, and it is a spin-½ fermion
Neutron
–
Institut Laue–Langevin (ILL) in Grenoble, France – a major neutron research facility.
Neutron
–
The
quark structure of the neutron. The color assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present. Forces between quarks are mediated by
gluons.
Neutron
–
Cold neutron source providing neutrons at about the temperature of liquid hydrogen
28.
Fermi
–
Enrico Fermi was an Italian physicist, who created the worlds first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1. He has been called the architect of the age and the architect of the atomic bomb. He was one of the few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally and he made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermis first major contribution was to statistical mechanics, today, particles that obey the exclusion principle are called fermions. Later Pauli postulated the existence of an invisible particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay. Fermi took up this idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle and his theory, later referred to as Fermis interaction and still later as weak interaction, described one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his Jewish wife Laura Capon and he emigrated to the United States where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Fermi led the team designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942. He was on hand when the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, went critical in 1943, at Los Alamos he headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Tellers thermonuclear Super bomb. He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, after the war, Fermi served under J. Robert Oppenheimer on the General Advisory Committee, which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters and policy. Following the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949 and he was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimers behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of the latters security clearance. Enrico Fermi was born in Rome, Italy, on 29 September 1901 and he was the third child of Alberto Fermi, a division head in the Ministry of Railways, and Ida de Gattis, an elementary school teacher. His only sister, Maria, was two years older than he was, and his brother Giulio was a year older, after the two boys were sent to a rural community to be wet nursed, Enrico rejoined his family in Rome when he was two and a half. Although he was baptised a Roman Catholic in accordance with his grandparents wishes, his family was not particularly religious, as a young boy he shared the same interests as his brother Giulio, building electric motors and playing with electrical and mechanical toys. Giulio died during the administration of an anesthetic for an operation on a throat abscess in 1915, one of Fermis first sources for his study of physics was a book he found at the local market at Campo de Fiori in Rome. Published in 1840, the 900-page Elementorum physicae mathematicae, was written in Latin by Jesuit Father Andrea Caraffa and it covered mathematics, classical mechanics, astronomy, optics, and acoustics, insofar as these disciplines were understood when the book was written. Fermis interest in physics was encouraged by his fathers colleague Adolfo Amidei, who gave him several books on physics and mathematics. Fermi graduated from school in July 1918 and, at Amideis urging
Fermi
–
Enrico Fermi (1901–1954)
Fermi
–
Enrico Fermi as a student in Pisa
Fermi
–
Fermi and his students (the
Via Panisperna boys) in the courtyard of Rome University's Physics Institute in Via Panisperna, about 1934. From Left to right:
Oscar D'Agostino,
Emilio Segrè,
Edoardo Amaldi,
Franco Rasetti and Fermi
Fermi
–
Laura and Enrico Fermi at the Institute for Nuclear Studies, Los Alamos, 1954
29.
James Chadwick
–
Sir James Chadwick, CH, FRS was an English physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932. In 1941, he wrote the draft of the MAUD Report. He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during the Second World War and he was knighted in England in 1945 for his achievements in physics. Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford, at Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913. The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 and he elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin. Using Geigers recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, still in Germany when the First World War broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp. Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass and he anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer. During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build a bomb, while his Liverpool lab. When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he part of the British Mission. He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R. Groves, for his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945. In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test, after this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, Chadwick became the Master of Gonville, James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant. He was named James after his paternal grandfather, in 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents. Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester and he now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert, a sister had died in infancy. At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them, Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908. He meant to study maths, but enrolled in physics by mistake, like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles to the university and back each day. At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics, the idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 gram of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie. Rutherfords suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, the results became Chadwicks first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912
James Chadwick
–
Sir James Chadwick
James Chadwick
–
The Cavendish Laboratory was the home of some of the great discoveries in physics. It was founded in 1874 by the
Duke of Devonshire (Cavendish was his family name), and its first professor was
James Clerk Maxwell.
James Chadwick
–
Sir Ernest Rutherford's laboratory
James Chadwick
–
"
Red brick "
Victoria Building at the
University of Liverpool
30.
Nobel Prize
–
The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
Nobel Prize
–
Alfred Nobel had the unpleasant surprise of reading his own obituary, which was titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper.
Nobel Prize
–
The Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize
–
Alfred Nobel's
will stated that 94% of his total assets should be used to establish the Nobel Prizes.
Nobel Prize
–
Wilhelm Röntgen received the first Physics Prize for his discovery of X-rays.
. doi:10.1002/andp.200810296.
