1.
Wigan
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Wigan /ˈwɪɡən/ is a town in Greater Manchester, England. It stands on the River Douglas,7.9 miles south-west of Bolton,10 miles north of Warrington and 16 miles west-northwest of Manchester, Wigan is the largest settlement in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan and is its administrative centre. The town of Wigan had a population of 97,000 in 2011. Historically in Lancashire, Wigan during classical antiquity was in the territory of the Brigantes, the Brigantes were subjugated in the Roman conquest of Britain during the 1st century, and it is asserted that the Roman settlement of Coccium was established where Wigan lies. Wigan is believed to have incorporated as a borough in 1246 following the issue of a charter by King Henry III of England. At the end of the Middle Ages it was one of four boroughs in Lancashire established by Royal charters, the others were Lancaster, Liverpool, during the Industrial Revolution Wigan experienced dramatic economic expansion and a rapid rise in the population. Although porcelain manufacture and clock making had been major industries in the town, Wigan subsequently became known as a mill town. The first coal mine was established at Wigan in 1450 and at its peak there were 1,000 pit shafts within 5 miles of the town centre, mining was so extensive that one town councillor remarked that a coal mine in the backyard was not uncommon in Wigan. Coal mining ceased during the part of the 20th century. Wigan Pier, a wharf on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, was famous by the writer George Orwell. In his book, The Road to Wigan Pier, Orwell highlighted the poor working and living conditions of the inhabitants during the 1930s. Following the decline of activities in the region, Wigan Piers collection of warehouses and wharfs became a local heritage centre. On 24th November 2016, on his 80th birthday, a statue of Dave Whelan was unveiled outside the stadium. Wigan had a population of 99,391 in 2011 but its Urban Subdivision had a population of 103,608, the name Wigan has been dated to at least the 7th century and probably originally meant a village or settlement. It has also suggested that the name is Celtic, named after a person called Wigan. This may have linked with Tre to give an original name of Trewigan. The name of the town has been recorded variously as Wigan in 1199, Wygayn in 1240, the first people believed to have settled in the Wigan area were the Brigantes, a Celtic tribe who controlled most of northern Britain. In the 1st century, the area was conquered by the Romans, the late 2nd-century Antonine Itinerary mentions a Roman settlement called Coccium 17 miles from the Roman fort at Manchester and 20 miles from the fort at Ribchester
2.
Gloucestershire
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Gloucestershire is a county in South West England. The county comprises part of the Cotswold Hills, part of the fertile valley of the River Severn. The county town is the city of Gloucester, and other towns include Cheltenham, Cirencester, Stroud. Gloucestershire is a historic county mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in the 10th century, though the areas of Winchcombe, Gloucestershire originally included Bristol, then a small town. The local rural community moved to the city, and Bristols population growth accelerated during the industrial revolution. Bristol became a county in its own right, separate from Gloucestershire and it later became part of the administrative County of Avon from 1974 to 1996. Upon the abolition of Avon in 1996, the north of Bristol became a unitary authority area of South Gloucestershire and is now part of the ceremonial county of Gloucestershire. The official former postal county abbreviation was Glos, rather than the frequently used but erroneous Gloucs. or Glouc. In July 2007, Gloucestershire suffered the worst flooding in recorded British history, the RAF conducted the largest peace time domestic operation in its history to rescue over 120 residents from flood affected areas. The damage was estimated at over £2 billion, the county recovered rapidly from the disaster, investing in attracting tourists to visit the many sites and diverse range of shops in the area. This is a chart of trend of gross value added of Gloucestershire at current basic prices published by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Gloucestershire has mainly comprehensive schools with seven schools, two are in Stroud, one in Cheltenham and four in Gloucester. There are 42 state secondary schools, not including sixth form colleges, all but about two schools in each district have a sixth form, but the Forest of Dean only has two schools with sixth forms. All schools in South Gloucestershire have sixth forms, each has campuses at multiple locations throughout the county. Most of the old market towns have parish churches, at Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Bishops Cleeve near Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of the pre-Norman work they retain. These are, however, adjudged to be of English workmanship, other notable buildings include Calcot Barn in Calcot, a relic of Kingswood Abbey. Thornbury Castle is a Tudor country house, the pretensions of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, near Cheltenham is the 15th-century mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve, the mansion contains a tiled floor from Hailes Abbey
3.
Conservation status
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The conservation status of a group of organisms indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become extinct in the near future. Various systems of conservation status exist and are in use at international, multi-country, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Also included are species that have gone extinct since 500 AD, when discussing the IUCN Red List, the official term threatened is a grouping of three categories, critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category, Data deficient – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction Not evaluated – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora aims to ensure that trade in specimens of wild animals. Many countries require CITES permits when importing plants and animals listed on CITES, in the European Union, the Birds and Habitats Directives are the legal instruments that evaluate the conservation status within the EU of species and habitats. NatureServe conservation status focuses on Latin America, United States, Canada, and it has been developed by scientists from NatureServe, The Nature Conservancy, and the network of natural heritage programs and data centers. It is increasingly integrated with the IUCN Red List system and its categories for species include, presumed extinct, possibly extinct, critically imperiled, imperiled, vulnerable, apparently secure, and secure. The system also allows ambiguous or uncertain ranks including inexact numeric ranks, NatureServe adds a qualifier for captive or cultivated only, which has a similar meaning to the IUCN Red List extinct in the wild status. The Red Data Book of the Russian Federation is used within the Russian Federation, in Australia, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 describes lists of threatened species, ecological communities and threatening processes. The categories resemble those of the 1994 IUCN Red List Categories & Criteria, prior to the EPBC Act, a simpler classification system was used by the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992. Some state and territory governments also have their own systems for conservation status, in Belgium, the Flemish Research Institute for Nature and Forest publishes an online set of more than 150 nature indicators in Dutch. In Canada, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada is a group of experts that assesses and designates which wild species are in danger of disappearing from Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act, it is up to the federal government, in China, the State, provinces and some counties have determined their key protected wildlife species. There is the China red data book, in Finland, a large number of species are protected under the Nature Conservation Act, and through the EU Habitats Directive and EU Birds Directive. In Germany, the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation publishes red lists of endangered species, india has the Wild Life Protection Act,1972, Amended 2003 and the Biological Diversity Act,2002. In Japan, the Ministry of Environment publishes a Threatened Wildlife of Japan Red Data Book, in the Netherlands, the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality publishes a list of threatened species, and conservation is enforced by the Nature Conservation Act 1998. Species are also protected through the Wild Birds and Habitats Directives, in New Zealand, the Department of Conservation publishes the New Zealand Threat Classification System lists
4.
Least Concern
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A least concern species is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as evaluated but not qualified for any other category. As such they do not qualify as threatened, near threatened, species cannot be assigned the Least Concern category unless they have had their population status evaluated. That is, adequate information is needed to make a direct, or indirect, since 2001 the category has had the abbreviation LC, following the IUCN2001 Categories & Criteria. However, around 20% of least concern taxa in the IUCN database use the code LR/lc, prior to 2001 least concern was a subcategory of the Lower Risk category and assigned the code LR/lc or. While least concern is not considered a red listed category by the IUCN, the number of animal species listed in this category totals 14033. There are also 101 animal subspecies listed and 1500 plant taxa, there are also two animal subpopulations listed, the Australasian and Southern African subpopulations of spiny dogfish. No fungi or protista have the classification, though only four species in those kingdoms have been evaluated by the IUCN, humans qualify for this category, and in 2008 were formally assessed as such by the IUCN
5.
IUCN Red List
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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, founded in 1964, is the worlds most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the main authority on the conservation status of species. A series of Regional Red Lists are produced by countries or organizations, the IUCN Red List is set upon precise criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of the world, the aim is to convey the urgency of conservation issues to the public and policy makers, as well as help the international community to try to reduce species extinction. Major species assessors include BirdLife International, the Institute of Zoology, the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, collectively, assessments by these organizations and groups account for nearly half the species on the Red List. The IUCN aims to have the category of every species re-evaluated every five years if possible, the 1964 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants used the older pre-criteria Red List assessment system. Plants listed may not, therefore, appear in the current Red List, IUCN advise that is best to check both the online Red List and the 1997 plants Red List publication. The 2006 Red List, released on 4 May 2006 evaluated 40,168 species as a whole, plus an additional 2,160 subspecies, varieties, aquatic stocks, on 12 September 2007, the World Conservation Union released the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Russ Mittermeier, chief of Swiss-based IUCNs Primate Specialist Group, stated that 16,306 species are endangered with extinction,188 more than in 2006, the Red List includes the Sumatran orangutan in the Critically Endangered category and the Bornean orangutan in the Endangered category. The study shows at least 1,141 of the 5,487 mammals on Earth are known to be threatened with extinction, and 836 are listed as Data Deficient. The Red List of 2012 was released 19 July 2012 at Rio+20 Earth Summit, nearly 2,000 species were added, the IUCN assessed a total of 63,837 species which revealed 19,817 are threatened with extinction. With 3,947 described as endangered and 5,766 as endangered. At threat are 41% of amphibian species, 33% of reef-building corals, 30% of conifers, 25% of mammals, the IUCN Red List has listed 132 species of plants and animals from India as Critically Endangered. Extinct – No known individuals remaining, extinct in the wild – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its historic range. Critically endangered – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild, Endangered – High risk of extinction in the wild. Vulnerable – High risk of endangerment in the wild, near threatened – Likely to become endangered in the near future. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category, widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. Data deficient – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction, Not evaluated – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria
6.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
7.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
8.
Chordate
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Chordates are deuterostomes, as during the embryo development stage the anus forms before the mouth. They are also bilaterally symmetric coelomates, in the case of vertebrate chordates, the notochord is usually replaced by a vertebral column during development, and they may have body plans organized via segmentation. There are also additional extinct taxa, the Vertebrata are sometimes considered as a subgroup of the clade Craniata, consisting of chordates with a skull, the Craniata and Tunicata compose the clade Olfactores. Of the more than 65,000 living species of chordates, the worlds largest and fastest animals, the blue whale and peregrine falcon respectively, are chordates, as are humans. Fossil chordates are known from at least as early as the Cambrian explosion, Hemichordata, which includes the acorn worms, has been presented as a fourth chordate subphylum, but it now is usually treated as a separate phylum. The Hemichordata, along with the Echinodermata, form the Ambulacraria, the Chordata and Ambulacraria form the superphylum Deuterostomia, composed of the deuterostomes. Attempts to work out the relationships of the chordates have produced several hypotheses. All of the earliest chordate fossils have found in the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna. Because the fossil record of early chordates is poor, only molecular phylogenetics offers a prospect of dating their emergence. However, the use of molecular phylogenetics for dating evolutionary transitions is controversial and it has also proved difficult to produce a detailed classification within the living chordates. Attempts to produce family trees shows that many of the traditional classes are paraphyletic. While this has been known since the 19th century, an insistence on only monophyletic taxa has resulted in vertebrate classification being in a state of flux. Although the name Chordata is attributed to William Bateson, it was already in prevalent use by 1880, ernst Haeckel described a taxon comprising tunicates, cephalochordates, and vertebrates in 1866. Though he used the German vernacular form, it is allowed under the ICZN code because of its subsequent latinization, among the vertebrate sub-group of chordates the notochord develops into the spine, and in wholly aquatic species this helps the animal to swim by flexing its tail. In fish and other vertebrates, this develops into the spinal cord, the pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth. In fish, the slits are modified to form gills, a muscular tail that extends backwards behind the anus. This is a groove in the wall of the pharynx. In filter-feeding species it produces mucus to gather food particles, which helps in transporting food to the esophagus and it also stores iodine, and may be a precursor of the vertebrate thyroid gland
9.
Bird
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Birds, a subgroup of Reptiles, are the last living examples of Dinosaurs. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m ostrich. They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, at ten thousand. Birds are the closest living relatives of crocodilians, the fossil record indicates that birds evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs. True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago, Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling. Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper, in the broader group Avialae, have been found dating back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species, the digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved for swimming. Many species annually migrate great distances, Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and bird songs, and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous or, rarely, Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents, most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser, Birds prominently figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry, the first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use, Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda, Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria
10.
Passerine
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A passerine is any bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. A notable feature of passerines compared to other orders of Aves is the arrangement of their toes, sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders, with over 5,000 identified species. It has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the mammal orders and it contains more than 110 families, the second-most of any order of tetrapods. The passerines contain several groups of parasites such as the viduas, cuckoo-finches. Most passerines are omnivorous, while the shrikes are carnivorous, the order is divided into three suborders, Tyranni, Passeri, and the basal Acanthisitti. Oscines have the best control of their syrinx muscles among birds, producing a range of songs and other vocalizations. Most passerines are smaller than members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the thick-billed raven and the races of common raven. The superb lyrebird and some birds-of-paradise, due to long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall. The smallest passerine is the short-tailed pygmy tyrant, at 6.5 cm and 4.2 g, the foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backward, called anisodactyl arrangement. This arrangement enables the birds to perch upon vertical surfaces, such as trees. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some cotingas, the hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes. The passeriformes have this toe arrangement in common with hunting birds like eagles, the leg arrangement of passerine birds contains a special adaptation for perching. This enables passerines to sleep while perching without falling off and this is especially useful for passerine birds that develop nocturnal lifestyles. Most passerine birds develop 12 tail feathers, although the superb lyrebird has 16, certain species of passerines have stiff tail feathers, which help the birds balance themselves when perching upon vertical surfaces. Some passerines, specifically in the family Ploceidae, are known for their elaborate sexual ornaments. A well-known example is the long-tailed widowbird, the chicks of passerines are altricial, blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs. Hence, the chicks require extensive parental care, vinous-throated parrotbill has two egg colours, white and blue
11.
Finch
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The true finches are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Fringillidae. Finches have stout conical bills adapted for eating seeds and often have colourful plumage and they occupy a great range of habitats where they are usually resident and do not migrate. They have a worldwide distribution except for Australia and the polar regions, the scientific name Fringillidae comes from the Latin word fringilla for the common chaffinch, a member of the family which is common in Europe. The name was coined by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in 1820, the taxonomy of the finch family, in particular the cardueline finches, has a long and complicated history. The study of the relationship between the taxa has been confounded by the recurrence of similar morphologies due to the convergence of species occupying similar niches, in 1968 the American ornithologist Raymond Andrew Paynter Jr. Beginning in around 1990 a series of studies based on mitochondrial. Several groups of birds that had previously assigned to other families were found to be related to the finches. They are now placed in a separate subfamily Euphoniinae within the Fringillidae, the three largest genera, Carpodacus, Carduelis and Serinus were found to be polyphyletic. Each was split into monophyletic genera, the American rosefinches were moved from Carpodacus to Haemorhous. Carduelis was split by moving the greenfinches to Chloris and a large clade into Spinus leaving just three species in the original genus, thirty seven species were moved from Serinus to Crithagra leaving eight species in the original genus. Although Przewalskis rosefinch has ten primary flight feathers rather than the nine primaries of other finches and it is now assigned to a distinct family, Urocynchramidae, monotypic as to genus and species, and with no particularly close relatives among the Passeroidea. Fossil remains of true finches are rare, and those that are known can mostly be assigned to extant genera at least, like the other Passeroidea families, the true finches seem to be of roughly Middle Miocene origin, around 20 to 10 million years ago. An unidentifable finch fossil from the Messinian age, around 12 to 7.3 million years ago during the Late Miocene subepoch, has found at Polgárdi in Hungary. The smallest classical true finches are the Andean siskin at as little as 9.5 cm, all true finches have 9 primary remiges and 12 rectrices. The basic plumage colour is brownish, sometimes greenish, many have considerable amounts of black, bright yellow and red carotenoid pigments are commonplace in this family, and thus blue structural colours are rather rare, as the yellow pigments turn the blue color into green. Many, but by no means all true finches have strong sexual dichromatism, finches are typically inhabitants of well-wooded areas, but some can be found on mountains or even in deserts. The diet of Fringillidae nestlings includes an amount of small arthropods. True finches have a flight like most small passerines, alternating bouts of flapping with gliding on closed wings
12.
Carduelinae
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The cardueline finches are a subfamily, Carduelinae, one of three subfamilies of the finch family Fringillidae, the others being the Fringillinae and the Euphoniinae. The Hawaiian honeycreepers are now included in this subfamily, cardueline finches are specialised seed eaters, and unlike most passerine birds, they feed their young mostly on seeds, which are regurgitated. Besides this, they differ from the other finches in some details of their skull. They are adept at opening seeds and clinging to stems, unlike other birds, such as sparrows and buntings. Some members of this subfamily are further specialised to feed on a type of seed, such as cones. Carduelines forage in flocks throughout the year, rather than keeping territories, the name Carduelina for the subfamily was introduced by the Irish zoologist Nicholas Aylward Vigors in 1825. Carduelinae is derived from the Latin name carduelis and the binomial name Carduelis carduelis for a goldfinch, the Carduelinae subfamily contains 183 species divided into 49 genera. Of the 183 species,15 are now extinct, these are the Bonin grosbeak and 14 Hawaiian honeycreepers, in Elphick, Chris, Dunning, John B. Jr. Sibley, David Allen. The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and Behavior, cS1 maint, Uses editors parameter Newton, Ian
13.
Binomial nomenclature
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Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgata Linnaeus,1758, the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica, the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, in botany Amaranthus retroflexus L. – L. is the standard abbreviation used in botany for Linnaeus. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica, Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides, the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified. Prior to the adoption of the binomial system of naming species. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature and these names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description, such polynomial names may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerards herbal describes various kinds of spiderwort, The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort, is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels, the Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin, took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began using a one-word trivial name together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as an epithet or specific name
14.
Carl Linnaeus
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Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
15.
10th edition of Systema Naturae
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The 10th edition of Systema Naturae is a book written by Carl Linnaeus and published in two volumes in 1758 and 1759, which marks the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In it, Linnaeus introduced binomial nomenclature for animals, something he had already done for plants in his 1753 publication of Species Plantarum, before 1758, most biological catalogues had used polynomial names for the taxa included, including earlier editions of Systema Naturae. The first work to consistently apply binomial nomenclature across the kingdom was the 10th edition of Systema Naturae. Names published before that date are unavailable, even if they would otherwise satisfy the rules, during Linnaeus lifetime, Systema Naturae was under continuous revision. The Animal Kingdom, Animals enjoy sensation by means of an organization, animated by a medullary substance, perception by nerves. They have members for the different purposes of life, organs for their different senses and they all originate from an egg. Their external and internal structure, their anatomy, habits, instincts. The list has been broken down into the six classes Linnaeus described for animals, Mammalia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta. These classes were created by studying the internal anatomy, as seen in his key. Warm, red blood Viviparous, Mammalia Oviparous, Aves Heart with 1 auricle,1 ventricle, cold, red blood Lungs voluntary, Amphibia External gills, Pisces Heart with 1 auricle,0 ventricles. Linnaeus described mammals as, Animals that suckle their young by means of lactiferous teats, in external and internal structure they resemble man, most of them are quadrupeds, and with man, their natural enemy, inhabit the surface of the Earth. The largest, though fewest in number, inhabit the ocean and they are areal, vocal, swift and light, and destitute of external ears, lips, teeth, scrotum, womb, bladder, epiglottis, corpus callosum and its arch, and diaphragm. They breathe by means of gills, which are united by a bony arch, swim by means of radiate fins. Many of them are without a head, and most of them without feet. They are principally distinguished by their tentacles, by the Ancients they were not improperly called imperfect animals, as being destitute of ears, nose, head, eyes and legs, and are therefore totally distinct from Insects. In addition to repeating the species he had listed in his Species Plantarum. The species from Species Plantarum were numbered sequentially, while the new species were labelled with letters, new plant species described in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae include, The original 1758 Systema Naturae Linnaeus 1758 Classification of Animals on the Taxonomicon
16.
Tarn (department)
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Tarn is a French department located in the Occitanie region in the southwest of France named after the Tarn river. Its prefecture and largest city is Albi, the inhabitants of Tarn are known, in French, as Tarnais. Tarn is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790 and it was created from part of the former province of Languedoc, and comprised the dioceses of Albi and Castres. The new department had five districts, Albi, Castres, Lavaur, Gaillac, the capitals were, alternatively, Albi and Castres but, from 1790 to 1797, the capital was only Albi, in 1797, the capital was moved to Castres. In 1800, Albi became again the capital of the department and the arrondissements were created, in 1926, the arrondissements of Gaillac and Lavaur were eliminated. By the law of 28 Pluviôse Year 5, the departments of Hérault, Tarn is part of the Occitanie region and has an area of 5,757.9 km2. Tarns three principal ranges lying to the south-east are, the Mountains of Lacaune, the Sidobre, the stony and wind-blown slopes of the Mountains of Lacaune are used for pasture. The highest point of the range and of the department is the Puech Montgrand,1,267 m high, several other summits are not much short of this. The granite-strewn plateaux of the Sidobre, from 490 to 610 m high, separate the valley of the river Agout from that of its western tributary, the Montagne Noire, on the southwestern border of the department, derives its name from the forests on its northern slope. Its highest point is the Pic de Nore at 1,211 m high, the limestone and sandstone foot-hills are clothed with vines and fruit trees, and are broken by deep alluvial valleys of particular fertility. With the exception of a portion of the Montagne Noire, which drains into the river Aude. Tarn is part of the region of Occitanie and is managed by the General Council of the Tarn in Albi, there are 2 arrondissements,23 cantons and 323 communes in Tarn. Tarn has a population, in 2012, of 378,947, the arrondissement of Castres, with 192,432 inhabitants, is the arrondissement with more inhabitants. The arrondissement of Albi has 186,515 inhabitants
17.
Jispa
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Jispa is a village in Lahaul, in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. Jispa is located 20 km north of Keylong and 7 km south of Darcha, along the Manali-Leh Highway, there are approximately 20 villages between Jispa and Keylong. According to the 2001 census, of the towns 332 residents,235 were male and 97 were female, four belong to scheduled castes, and 149 belong to scheduled tribes. The village has a helipad, a post office, and a monastery, travellers often stop for the night here, the village has a hotel, a mountaineers hut, and a campground. Jispa also has a folk museum. Information and photos on Jispa and surrounds, and distances from Jispa to other centres
18.
Himachal Pradesh
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Himachal Pradesh is a state of India located in Northern India. It is bordered by Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Punjab and Chandigarh on the west, Haryana on the south-west, Uttarakhand on the south-east and by the Tibet Autonomous Region on the east. The name was coined from Sanskrit him snow and achal mountain, by Acharya Diwakar Datt Sharma, Himachal Pradesh is famous for its natural beauty, hill stations, and temples. Himachal Pradesh has been ranked fifteenth in the list of the highest per capita incomes of Indian states, many perennial rivers flow in the state, and numerous hydroelectric projects set up. Himachal produces surplus hydroelectricity and sells it to states such as Delhi, Punjab. Hydroelectric power projects, tourism, and agriculture form important parts of the states economy, the state has several valleys, and more than 90% of the population living in rural areas. Practically all houses have a toilet and 100% hygiene has been achieved in the state, the villages have good connectivity with roads, public health centres, and now with high-speed broadband. Shimla district has maximum urban population of 25%, according to a 2005 Transparency International survey, Himachal Pradesh was ranked the second-least corrupt state in the country, after Kerala. The history of the area that now constitutes Himachal Pradesh dates to the Indus valley civilisation that flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE, tribes such as the Koili, Hali, Dagi, Dhaugri, Dasa, Khasa, Kinnar, and Kirat inhabited the region from the prehistoric era. During the Vedic period, several small republics known as Janapada existed which were conquered by the Gupta Empire. After a brief period of supremacy by King Harshavardhana, the region was divided into several local powers headed by chieftains and these kingdoms enjoyed a large degree of independence and were invaded by Delhi Sultanate a number of times. Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 10th century, timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state and captured a number of forts and fought many battles. Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid tribute to the Mughals. The Gurkha people, a tribe, came to power in Nepal in the year 1768. They consolidated their power and began to expand their territory. Gradually, the Gorkhas annexed Sirmour and Shimla, under the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, the Gurkha laid siege to Kangra. They managed to defeat Sansar Chand Katoch, the ruler of Kangra, however, the Gurkha could not capture Kangra fort which came under Maharaja Ranjeet Singh in 1809. After the defeat, the Gurkha began to expand towards the south of the state, however, Raja Ram Singh, Raja of Siba State, captured the fort of Siba from the remnants of Lahore Darbar in Samvat 1846, during the First Anglo-Sikh War
19.
Family (biology)
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In biological classification, family is one of the eight major taxonomic ranks, it is classified between order and genus. A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks above the rank of genus. In vernacular usage, a family may be named one of its common members, for example, walnuts and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae. What does or does not belong to a family—or whether a family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists. There are no rules for describing or recognizing a family. Taxonomists often take different positions about descriptions of taxa, and there may be no broad consensus across the community for some time. Some described taxa are accepted broadly and quickly, but others only rarely, if at all, the naming of families is codified by various international codes. In zoological nomenclature, the names of animals end with the suffix -idae. The concept of rank at time was not yet settled, and in the preface to the Prodromus Magnol spoke of uniting his families into larger genera. Carolus Linnaeus used the word familia in his Philosophia botanica to denote groups of plants, trees, herbs, ferns, palms. He used this term only in the section of the book. In zoology, the family as an intermediate between order and genus was introduced by Pierre André Latreille in his Précis des caractères génériques des insectes. He used families in some but not in all his orders of insects, families can be used for evolutionary, palaeontological and generic studies because they are more stable than lower taxonomic levels such as genera and species
20.
Italian Renaissance
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The term Renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the 19th century, in the work of historians such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt. The French word renaissance means Rebirth, and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labeled the Dark Ages. Though today perhaps best known for Italian Renaissance art and architecture, the period saw major achievements in literature, music, philosophy, Italy became the recognized European leader in all these areas by the late 15th century, and to varying degrees retained this lead until about 1600. This was despite a turbulent and generally disastrous period in Italian politics, the European Renaissance began in Tuscany, and centred in the city of Florence. It later spread to Venice, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together, the Renaissance later had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some structures in the new allantico mode, then was largely rebuilt by humanist sixteenth-century popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance endured and spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance, the Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. Accounts of Renaissance literature usually begin with Petrarch and his friend, famous vernacular poets of the 15th century include the renaissance epic authors Luigi Pulci, Matteo Maria Boiardo, and Ludovico Ariosto. 15th century writers such as the poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek, the same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include Florence Cathedral, St. Peters Basilica in Rome, yet cultural contributions notwithstanding, some present-day historians also see the era as one of the beginning of economic regression for Italy. By the Late Middle Ages, Latium, the heartland of the Roman Empire. Rome was a city of ancient ruins, and the Papal States were loosely administered, and vulnerable to external interference such as that of France, and later Spain. The Papacy was affronted when the Avignon Papacy was created in southern France as a consequence of pressure from King Philip the Fair of France, in the south, Sicily had for some time been under foreign domination, by the Arabs and then the Normans. Sicily had prospered for 150 years during the Emirate of Sicily, in contrast Northern and Central Italy had become far more prosperous, and it has been calculated that the region was among the richest of Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, the main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onwards to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, moreover, the inland city-states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining, thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper
21.
Madonna (art)
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A Madonna is a representation of Mary, either alone or with her child Jesus. These images are central icons for both the Catholic and Orthodox churches, the word is from Italian ma donna, meaning my lady. Or descriptive of the posture, as in Hodegetria, Eleusa. The term Madonna in the sense of picture or statue of the Virgin Mary enters English usage in the 17th century, in an Eastern Orthodox context, such images are typically known as Theotokos. Madonna may be used of representations of Mary, with or without the infant Jesus, is the focus and central figure of the image. Other types of Marian imagery have a context, depicting scenes from the Life of the Virgin. The earliest depictions of Mary date still to Early Christianity, found in the Catacombs of Rome and these are in a narrative context. The Theotokos iconography as it developed in the 6th to 8th century rose to importance in the high medieval period both in the Eastern Orthodox and in the Latin spheres. Liturgy depicting Mary as powerful intercessor was brought from Greek into Latin tradition in the 8th century, the Greek title of Δεσποινα was adopted as Latin Domina Lady. The medieval Italian Ma Donna pronounced reflects Mea Domina, while Nostra Domina was adopted in French and these names signal both the increased importance of the cult of the virgin and the prominence of art in service to Marian devotion during the late medieval period. Madonna was meant more to people of the theological concept which is placing such a high value on purity or virginity. This is also represented by the color of her clothing, the color blue symbolized purity, virginity, and royalty. In this sense, a Madonna, or a Madonna with Child is used of works of art. There are several types of representation of the Madonna. One type of Madonna shows Mary alone, and standing, generally glorified and with a gesture of prayer and this type of image occurs in a number of ancient apsidal mosaics. Full-length standing images of the Madonna more frequently include the infant Jesus, the most famous Byzantine image, the Hodegetria was originally of this type, though most copies are at half-length. There are a number of paintings that depict the Madonna in this manner. The Madonna enthroned is a type of image that dates from the Byzantine period and was used widely in Medieval and these representations of the Madonna and Child often take the form of large altarpieces
22.
Conrad Gessner
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Conrad Gessner was a Swiss naturalist and bibliographer. He was well known as a botanist, physician and classical linguist and his five-volume Historia animalium is considered the beginning of modern zoology, and the flowering plant genus Gesneria and its family Gesneriaceae are named after him. A genus of moths is also named Gesneria after him and he is denoted by the author abbreviation Gesner when citing a botanical name. Gessner was born on March 26,1516 in Zürich, Switzerland, he was the son of Ursus Gessner, Gessners father realized he was clever, and sent him to live with a great uncle, who grew and collected medicinal herbs for a living. Here the boy became familiar with many plants and their medicinal purposes which led to a lifelong interest in natural history, Gessner first attended the Carolinum in Zürich, then he entered the Fraumünster seminary. In school, he impressed his teachers so much that a few of them helped him so he could further his education at universities such as Strassburg. One even acted as a father to him after the death of his father at the Battle of Kappel. After the death of his father he left Zürich and traveled to Strasbourg, here he broadened his knowledge of ancient languages by studying Hebrew at the Strasbourg Academy. In 1535, religious unrest drove him back to Zürich, where he made an imprudent marriage and his friends again came to his aid and enabled him to study at Basel. Throughout his life Gessner was interested in history, and collected specimens and descriptions of wildlife through travel and extensive correspondence with other friends. His approach to research consisted of four components, observation, dissection, travel to distant lands. This rising observational approach was new to Renaissance scholars because people usually relied completely upon Classical writers for their research and he died of the plague, the year after his ennoblement on December 13,1565. In 1537 his sponsors obtained for him the professorship of Greek at the newly founded academy of Lausanne, here he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies, especially botany. After three years of teaching, Gessner was able to travel to the medical university of Montpellier. He then settled down to practice medicine in Zürich, where he obtained the post of lecturer of Aristotelean physics at the Carolinum, the precursor of the University of Zürich. After 1554 he became the city physician and it is there, apart from a few journeys to foreign countries and he devoted himself to preparing works on many subjects of different sorts. Gesners great zoological work, Historiae animalium, is a 4, a fifth folio on snakes was issued in 1587. A German translation of the first 4 volumes titled Thierbuch was published in Zürich in 1563 and this book was considered to be the first modern zoological work
23.
Historia animalium (Gessner)
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Historia animalium, published at Zurich in 1551–58 and 1587, is an encyclopedic inventory of renaissance zoology by Conrad Gessner. Gessner was a doctor and professor at the Carolinum in Zürich. The Historia animalium is the first modern work that attempts to describe all the animals known. The five volumes of history of animals cover more than 4500 pages. There was extreme religious tension at the time Historia animalium came out, the Historia animalium was Gessners magnum opus, and was the most widely read of all the Renaissance natural histories. The work was so popular that Gessners abridgement, Thierbuch, was published in Zurich in 1563, and in England Edward Topsell translated and condensed it as a Historie of foure-footed beastes. Gessner’s monumental work attempts to build a connection between the ancient knowledge of the world, its title the same as Aristotles work on animals. He then adds his own observations, and those of his correspondents, gessner’s Historia animalium is based on classical sources. It is compiled from ancient and medieval texts, including the knowledge of ancient naturalists like Aristotle, Pliny the Elder. Gessner was known as the Swiss Pliny, for information he relied heavily on the Physiologus. The work included extensive information on mammals, birds, fish and it described in detail their daily habits and movements. It also included their uses in medicine and nutrition, Historia animalium showed the animals places in history, literature and art. Sections of each chapter detailed the animal and its attributes, in the tradition of the emblem book, Gessners work included facts in different languages such as the names of the animals. Volume 1 is on live-bearing four-footed animals, volume 2 is on egg-laying quadrupeds. Volume 4 is on fish and aquatic animals, volume 5 is on snakes and scorpions. The colored woodcut illustrations were the first real attempts to represent animals in their natural environment and it is the first book to illustrate fossils. Gessner acknowledges one of his main illustrators was Lucas Schan, an artist from Strasbourg and he likely used other illustrators as well as himself, the book is however famous for copying illustrations from other sources, including Durers Rhinoceros from a well-known woodcut. Gessners natural history was unusual for sixteenth century readers in providing illustrations, wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150-1750
24.
Species description
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A species description is a formal description of a newly discovered species, usually in the form of a scientific paper. Its purpose is to give a description of a new species of organism and explain how it differs from species which have been described previously. The species description often contains photographs or other illustrations of the type material, the publication in which the species is described gives the new species a formal scientific name. Today, some 1.9 million species have been described and named and it is customary for scientists to introduce all relevant new findings and research in a scientific manuscript, which is sent to other scientists for peer review. If accepted, it is published in a journal of the appropriate discipline or in a book. Descriptions and naming of a new species or other taxa follow the same process, a name of a new species becomes valid with the date of publication of its formal scientific description. A scientific species description must fulfill several formal criteria specified by the nomenclature codes, Species names are written in the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, but many species names are based on words from other languages, Latinized. Once the manuscript has been accepted for publication, the new name is officially created. Once a species name has been assigned and approved, it can not be changed except in the case of error. For example, a species of beetle was named by a German collector after Adolf Hitler in 1933 when he had become chancellor of Germany. It is not clear whether such a dedication would be considered acceptable or appropriate today, Species names have been chosen on many different bases. Most common is a naming for the external appearance, its origin. Examples would include a bat species named for the two stripes on its back, a named for its Bolivian origin, and an ant species dedicated to the actor Harrison Ford. A scientific name in honor of a person or persons is a known as a taxonomic patronym or patronymic, a number of humorous species names also exist. Literary examples include the genus name Borogovia, which is named after the borogove, a second example, Macrocarpaea apparata was named after the magical spell to apparate from the Harry Potter novels by J. K. Rowling, as it seemed to appear out of nowhere. For example, the genus Victoria was named in honour of Queen Victoria of Great Britain, more recently, a species of lemur was named after the actor John Cleese in recognition of his work to publicize the plight of lemurs in Madagascar. Non-profit ecological organizations may also allow benefactors to name new species in exchange for support for taxonomic research. A German non-profit organisation, BIOPAT - Patrons for Biodiversity has raised more than $450,000 for research, the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants discourages this practice somewhat, Recommendation 20A
25.
Systema Naturae
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Systema Naturae is one of the major works of the Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. The first edition was published in 1735, the tenth edition of this book is considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In 1766–1768 Linnaeus published the much enhanced 12th edition, the last under his authorship, another again enhanced work in the same style and entitled Systema Naturae was published by Johann Friedrich Gmelin between 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early 1900s zoologists commonly recognized this as the last edition belonging to this series and it was also officially regarded by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature in Opinion 296 as the 13th edition of Systema Naturae. Linnaeus published the first edition of Systema Naturae in the year 1735, as was customary for the scientific literature of its day, the book was published in Latin. In it, he outlined his ideas for the classification of the natural world, dividing it into the animal kingdom, the plant kingdom. Linnaeuss Systema Naturae lists only about 10,000 species of organisms, Linnaeus developed his classification of the plant kingdom in an attempt to describe and understand the natural world as a reflection of the logic of Gods creation. His sexual system, where species with the number of stamens were treated in the same group, was convenient. Linnaeus believed in Gods creation, and that there were no deeper relationships to be expressed and he is frequently quoted to have said. The classification of animals was more natural, for instance, humans were for the first time placed together with other primates, as Anthropomorpha. As a result of the popularity of the work, and the number of new specimens sent to him from around the world, Linnaeus kept publishing new and it grew from eleven very large pages in the first edition to 2,400 pages in the 12th edition. In this same edition, he introduced two-part names for animal species, the system eventually developed into modern Linnaean taxonomy, a hierarchically organized biological classification. After Linnaeus health declined in the early 1770s, publication of editions of Systema Naturae went in two directions, another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray issued the Regnum Vegetabile section separately in 1774 as the Systema Vegetabilium, rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire Systema appeared in parts between 1788-1793 and it was as the Systema Vegetabilium that Linnaeus work became widely known in England following translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society, as A System of Vegetables. In his Imperium Naturæ, Linnaeus established three kingdoms, namely Regnum Animale, Regnum Vegetabile and Regnum Lapideum. This approach, the Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms, survives today in the popular mind, notably in the form of parlour games, Is it animal. The classification was based on five levels, kingdom, class, order, genus, while species and genus was seen as God-given, the three higher levels were seen by Linnaeus as constructs. The concept behind the set ranks being applied to all groups was to make a system that was easy to remember and navigate, Linnaeuss work had a huge impact on science, it was indispensable as a foundation for biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes
26.
Mathurin Jacques Brisson
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Mathurin Jacques Brisson was a French zoologist and natural philosopher. The earlier part of his life was spent in the pursuit of natural history, his works in this field included Le Règne animal. As a young man, he was a disciple and assistant of R. A. F. Reaumur, for a period of time he was an instructor of physical sciences and natural history to the family of the monarch. He held the chair of physics at the College of Navarre, a significant work involving the specific weight of bodies was his Pesanteur Spécifique des Corps. In his investigations of electricity, Brisson was opposed to the theories of Priestley and he died at Croissy-sur-Seine near Paris. Regnum animale in classes IX distributum sive Synopsis methodica, ornithologia, sive Synopsis methodica sistens avium divisionem in ordines, sectiones, genera, species, ipsarumque varietates. Bauche, Paris, Leiden 1760–63, with engraved illustrations by François-Nicolas Martinet, supplementum Ornithologiæ sive Citationes, descriptionesque antea omissæ & species de novo adjectæ, ad suaquaque genera redactæ. Lettres de deux Espagnols sur les manufactures, observations sur les nouvelles découvertes aërostatiques. Traité élémentaire ou Principes de physique, trattato elementare ovvero Principi di fisica. Suplemento al Diccionario universal de física, Principes élémentaires de lhistoire naturelle et chymique des substances minérales. Anfangsgründe der Naturgeschichte und Chemie der Mineralien, instruction sur les nouveaux poids et mesures. Elements of the history and chymical analysis of mineral substances. Ritchie, Walker, Vernor & Hood, London 1800, tratado elemental ó principios de física. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Brisson. Dictionnaire raisonné de physique, 2nd éd, Planches - Linda Hall Library
27.
Citril finch
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The citril finch, also known as the Alpine citril finch, is a small songbird, a member of the true finch family Fringillidae. For a long time, this cardueline finch was placed in the genus Serinus and this bird is a resident breeder in the mountains of southwestern Europe from Spain to the Alps. Its northernmost breeding area is found in the Black Forest of southwestern Germany, individuals recorded further north are probably escaped from captivity, as most such records are from some time ago. The citril finch was described by the German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in 1764 under the binomial name Fringilla citrinella, the current genus name carduelis is the Latin word for the European goldfinch, and citrinella is the Italian word for a small yellow bird. It is a diminutive of the Latin citrinus meaning citrine or light greenish-yellow, the Corsican finch was at one time considered as a subspecies of the citril finch but is now treated a separate species. Molecular genetic studies have shown that the citril finch is closely related to the European goldfinch, the citril finch has an overall length of 12 cm and weighs around 12.5 g. It is greyish above, with a tinge to the back which also has black streaks. The underparts and the wing bars are yellow. It shares with its relatives a bright face mask which in species is also yellow. Sexes are similar, although females may be duller below. The song is a silvery twittering resembling that of the European goldfinch, the main call is a tee-ee quite similar to the Eurasian siskin. The citril finch differs from the Corsican finch C. corsicana in habitat selection, the citril finch nests mainly in conifers such as pines and spruces while the Corsican finch uses also lower bushes such as Tree Heath, juniper and bramble. Ranging more widely than its equally common eastern relative, the citril finch is classified as a Species of Least Concern by the IUCN, clement, Peter, Harris, Alan & Davis, John, Finches and Sparrows, an identification guide. ISBN 0-7136-8017-2 Förschler, Marc Imanuel & Kalko, Elisabeth K. V, breeding ecology and nest site selection in allopatric mainland Citril Finches Carduelis citrinella and insular Corsican Finches Carduelis corsicanus. Doi,10. 1007/s10336-006-0079-z Förschler, Marc Imanuel & Kalko, age-specific reproductive performance in Citril Finches Carduelis. HTML abstract Pasquet, E. & Thibault, J. -C, Genetic differences among mainland and insular forms of the Citril Finch Serinus citrinella. Doi,10. 1111/j. 1474-919X.1997. tb04691. x Sangster, George, Genetic distance as a test of species boundaries in the Citril Finch Serinus citrinella, a critique and taxonomic reinterpretation. Doi,10. 1111/j. 1474-919X.2000. tb04447. x Sangster, George, Knox, Alan G. Helbig, Andreas J. & Parkin, David T. Taxonomic recommendations for European birds
28.
Corsican finch
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The Corsican finch, also known as Corsican citril finch or Mediterranean citril finch is a bird in the finch family, Fringillidae. It was formerly regarded a subspecies of the finch, but it differs in morphology and vocalizations as well as mtDNA sequence. Formerly, both were placed in the genus Serinus, but they appear to be relatives of the European goldfinch. It is found in Corsica, Sardinia and on the Italian islands of Elba, Capraia and it has dark-streaked brown upperparts, and brighter yellow underparts than the citril finch. It has been obtained by Antonio Arnaiz-Villena et al, bollettino del Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali Torino. Clement, Peter, Alan Harris, John Davis, Finches and Sparrows, an identification guide. Dickinson EC, Pearson D, Remsen V, Roselaar K, Schodde R, The Howard, cramp, S. & Perrins, C. M. The Birds of the Western Palearctic, Vol.8, macrogeographic variations in food choice of mainland citril finches Carduelis citrinella and insular Corsican finches Carduelis corsicanus. Breeding ecology and nest site selection in allopatric mainland Citril Finches Carduelis citrinella, absence of insular density inflation in Corsican Finches Carduelis corsicanus. Geographical differentiation, acoustic adaptation and species boundaries in mainland citril finches, senar, J. C. Perret, P. Björklund, M. The species status of the Corsican Finch Carduelis corsicana assessed by three genetic markers with different rates of evolution, hagemeijer, Ward J. & Blair, Michael J. The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds, Genetic differences among mainland and insular forms of the Citril Finch Serinus citrinella. Sangster, G. Genetic distance as a test of species boundaries in the Citril Finch Serinus citrinella, sangster, George, Knox, Alan G. Helbig, Andreas J. Parkin, David T. Taxonomic recommendations for European birds. Van den Elzen, R. & Khoury, F. Systematik, phylogenetische Analyse und Biogeographie der Großgattung Serinus Koch,1816
29.
Geoffrey Chaucer
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Geoffrey Chaucer, known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages. He was the first poet to be buried in Poets Corner of Westminster Abbey, among his many works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde. He is best known today for The Canterbury Tales, Chaucers work was crucial in legitimizing the literary use of the Middle English vernacular at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin. Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London sometime around 1343, though the precise date and his father and grandfather were both London vintners, several previous generations had been merchants in Ipswich. In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffreys father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure. In the City Hustings Roll 110,5, Ric II, dated June 1380, Geoffrey Chaucer refers to himself as me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie. He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the Kings Works. In 1359, in the stages of the Hundred Years War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Elizabeths husband. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims, Edward paid £16 for his ransom, a considerable sum, and Chaucer was released. After this, Chaucers life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward IIIs queen, Philippa of Hainault, and a sister of Katherine Swynford and it is uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are most commonly cited. His son, Thomas Chaucer, had a career, as chief butler to four kings, envoy to France. Thomass daughter, Alice, married the Duke of Suffolk, thomass great-grandson, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed. Geoffreys other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun at Barking Abbey, Agnes, an attendant at Henry IVs coronation, Chaucers Treatise on the Astrolabe was written for Lewis. According to tradition, Chaucer studied law in the Inner Temple at this time and he became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a valet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety of tasks. His wife also received a pension for court employment and he travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet. In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, two other literary stars of the era were in attendance, Jean Froissart and Petrarch
30.
The Cook's Tale
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Geoffrey Chaucer presumably never finished The Cooks Tale and it breaks off after 58 lines, although some scholars argue that Chaucer deliberately left the tale unfinished. The story starts telling of an apprentice named Perkyn who is fond of drinking and dancing, Perkyn is released by his master and moves in with a friend who also loves to drink, and whose wife is a prostitute. The tale continues the general trend of the preceding tales—the Knights, the Millers. In 25 of The Canterbury Tales MSS the Cooks unfinished tale is followed by the anonymous Tale of Gamelyn, Skeat argued instead that Chaucer intended the tale for the Yeoman, who would presumably be more interested in a tale of country life. The Host later calls upon the Cook for another tale, but he is too drunk and, after he falls from his horse and is helped back up, the Manciple tells a tale. The Cook starts by cog on the Reeves tale and then, after a reference to Solomon, the host then invites the cook to tell his tale. Chaucer’s special manuscript words Read The Cooks Tale with interlinear translation Modern Translation of The Cooks Tale, the Tale of Gamelyn, From the Harleian Ms. No.7334 The Cooks Tale – a plain-English retelling for non-scholars
31.
Subspecies
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In biological classification, subspecies is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, or a taxonomic unit in that rank. A subspecies cannot be recognized independently, a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or at least two, in zoology, under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the subspecies is the only taxonomic rank below that of species that can receive a name. In botany and mycology, under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, in bacteriology and virology, under standard bacterial nomenclature and virus nomenclature, there are recommendations but not strict requirements for recognizing other important infraspecific ranks. A taxonomist decides whether to recognize a subspecies or not, the differences between subspecies are usually less distinct than the differences between species. In zoology, the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature accepts only one rank below that of species, other groupings, infrasubspecific entities do not have names regulated by the ICZN. Such forms have no official ICZN status, though they may be useful in describing altitudinal or geographical clines, pet breeds, transgenic animals, etc. While the scientific name of a species is a binomen, the name of a subspecies is a trinomen - a binomen followed by a subspecific name. A tigers binomen is Panthera tigris, so for a Sumatran tiger the trinomen is, for example, names published before 1992 in the rank of variety are taken to be names of subspecies. In botany, subspecies is one of many ranks below that of species, such as variety, subvariety, form, the subspecific name is preceded by subsp. or ssp. as Schoenoplectus californicus ssp. tatora. A botanical name consists of at most three parts, an infraspecific name includes the species binomial, and one infraspecific epithet, such as subspecies or variety. For example, Motacilla alba alba is the subspecies of the white wagtail. The subspecies name that repeats the name is referred to in botanical nomenclature as the subspecies autonym. When zoologists disagree over whether a population is a subspecies or a full species. A subspecies is a rank below species – the only recognized rank in the zoological code. Botanists and mycologists have the choice of ranks lower than subspecies, such as variety or form, in biological terms, rather than in relation to nomenclature, a polytypic species has two or more subspecies, races, or more generally speaking, populations that need a separate description. These are separate groups that are distinct from one another and do not generally interbreed. These subspecies, races, or populations, can be named as subspecies by zoologists, a monotypic species has no distinct population or races, or rather one race comprising the whole species. A taxonomist would not name a subspecies within such a species, monotypic species can occur in several ways, All members of the species are very similar and cannot be sensibly divided into biologically significant subcategories
32.
Ernst Hartert
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Ernst Johann Otto Hartert was a German ornithologist. He was employed by Lionel Walter Rothschild as ornithological curator of his museum at Tring from 1892 to 1929. Hartert published the quarterly museum periodical Novitates Zoologicae with Rothschild, and he wrote Die Vögel der paläarktishen Fauna and travelled in India, Africa and South America on behalf of his employer. In 1930, Hartert retired to Berlin, where he died, complete list of Hartert publications is contained in Rothschild obituary in the journal Ibis cited below. 1910–1922, Die Vögel der paläarktischen Fauna, Systematische Übersicht der in Europa, drei Bände 1920, Die Vögel Europas A species of lizard, Hemiphyllodactylus harterti, and 12 birds are named in his honor. Media related to Ernst Hartert at Wikimedia Commons
33.
Anton Reichenow
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Anton Reichenow was a German ornithologist and herpetologist. Reichenow was the son-in-law of Jean Cabanis, and worked at the Humboldt Museum from 1874 to 1921 and he was an expert on African birds, making a collecting expedition to West Africa in 1872 and 1873, and writing Die Vögel Afrikas. He was also an expert on parrots, describing all species known in his book Vogelbilder aus Fernen Zonen, Abbildungen und Beschreibungen der Papageien. He also wrote Die Vögel der Bismarckinseln and he was editor of the Journal für Ornithologie from 1894 to 1921. A number of birds are named after him, including Reichenows woodpecker and his son Eduard Reichenow was a famous protozoologist. Reichenow is known for his classification of birds into six groups, described as shortwings, swimmers, stiltbirds, skinbills, yoketoes and this system was not adopted by any other ornithologists, but is used in the standard decimal library cataloging system. Reichenow also worked in the field of herpetology. He is credited with describing a new genus of frogs, two new species of frogs, and two new species of lizards and he is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of skink, Lacertaspis reichenowi. Men and women commemorated in the names of birds. The Birds, Handbook of Systematic Ornithology, Volume 1 The Birds, Handbook of Systematic Ornithology. Volume 2 The Birds of German-East-Africa Die Vögel Afrikas, Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Atlas Conspectus Psittacorum
34.
Viktor von Tschusi zu Schmidhoffen
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Viktor von Tschusi zu Schmidhoffen was an Austrian ornithologist. Tschusi was born on 28 December 1847 in the Smíchov district of Prague and his father was a former officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army from a noble family of Tyrol, and Tschusi held the title of Reichsritter. Tschusis father, and his mother Josephine, inspired an early interest in natural history, Tschusi attended gymnasium school at a Jesuit college at Kalksburg, near Vienna. He began his studies under a private tutor when his family moved to Krems an der Donau. Tschusi learned to prepare specimens from a preparator at the Imperial Natural History Museum. From 1868 to 1870, he travelled extensively in Austria, Bohemia, northern Italy, northern Germany, Tschusi collected about 10,000 specimens over his life, which are now in the Imperial Natural History Museum, the Zoologische Staatssammlung München, and the Salzburg Ornithological Institute. He was a writer, the author of over 700 publications. Tschusi specialized in the avifauna of the Palaearctic, becoming an expert on the subject. Among his works are the Ornithologisches Jahrbuch, published annually from 1890 until World War I, Tschusi described a number of bird taxa, including the Madeiran wood pigeon. The European goldfinch subspecies Carduelis carduelis tschusii was named after him, Tschusi became a member of the Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft of Vienna in 1865, and a member of the Deutsche Ornithologen-Gesellschaft in 1867. He was additionally a Corresponding Fellow of the American Ornithologists Union from 1884, Tschusi married Natalie Kuhn von Kuhnenfeld in April 1871. After his marriage he purchased Villa Tannenhof near Hallein, where was to live for the rest of his life, at Villa Tannenhof he hosted many of the noted ornithologists of his time. Tschusis son Rudolf von Thanner was also an ornithologist, and became an expert on the birds of the Canary Islands, von Thanner lived in Tenerife from 1902 to 1922, and his relatives were still living in the Canaries in 1997. During World War I and the following it, Tschusi and his wife were reduced to poverty. His fortunes changed around his golden wedding anniversary in 1921, when he was granted a pension by the Austrian government, Tschusi died on 5 March 1924, at Tannenhof, where he had lived for 53 years
35.
Macaronesia
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Macaronesia is a collection of four archipelagos in the North Atlantic Ocean off the coast of the continents of Europe and Africa. Apart from the Azores, which are considered mainly as part of Europe, Macaronesian islands belong to three countries, Portugal, Spain, and Cape Verde. The name is derived from the Greek words for islands of the fortunate μακάρων νῆσοι makárōn nêsoi, the Portuguese archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira have a generally cooler climate and higher rainfall than the Canaries and Cape Verde. The islands have a unique biogeography, and are home to several distinct plant, the jumping spider genus Macaroeris is named after Macaronesia. None of the Macaronesian islands were part of a continent, so the native plants, laurel-leaved forests, called laurisilva, once covered most of the Azores, Madeira, and parts of the Canaries between 400–1200 m altitude. These forests resemble the ancient forests that covered the Mediterranean basin, the laurisilva has been reduced to small pockets. As a result, many of the biota of the islands are seriously endangered or extinct. Alien predators – domestic and feral cats – are one of the most serious threat to the endemic fauna, category, Flora of Macaronesia Fortunate Isles European Union, Report on biodiversity in Macaronesia Review on cats diet on Macaronesian islands
36.
Canary Islands
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The Canary Islands, also known as the Canaries, are an archipelago and autonomous community of Spain located on the Atlantic Ocean,100 kilometres west of Morocco. The Canaries are among the outermost regions of the European Union proper and it is also one of the eight regions with special consideration of historical nationality recognized as such by the Spanish Government. The main islands are Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera, the archipelago also includes a number of islands and islets, La Graciosa, Alegranza, Isla de Lobos, Montaña Clara, Roque del Oeste and Roque del Este. In ancient times, the chain was often referred to as the Fortunate Isles. The Canary Islands is the most southerly region of Spain and the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region, the islands have a subtropical climate, with long hot summers and moderately warm winters. The precipitation levels and the level of maritime moderation varies depending on location and elevation, green areas as well as desert exist on the archipelago. Due to their location above the inversion layer, the high mountains of these islands are ideal for astronomical observation. For this reason, two professional observatories, Teide Observatory on the island of Tenerife and Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma, have built on the islands. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since 1768, between the 1833 territorial division of Spain and 1927 Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927 a decree ordered that the capital of the Canary Islands be shared, the third largest city of the Canary Islands is San Cristóbal de La Laguna on Tenerife. This city is home to the Consejo Consultivo de Canarias. During the time of the Spanish Empire, the Canaries were the main stopover for Spanish galleons on their way to the Americas, who came south to catch the prevailing northeasterly trade winds. The name Islas Canarias is likely derived from the Latin name Canariae Insulae, meaning Islands of the Dogs, according to the historian Pliny the Elder, the Mauretanian king Juba II named the island Canaria because it contained vast multitudes of dogs of very large size. Another speculation is that the dogs were actually a species of monk seal, critically endangered. The dense population of seals may have been the characteristic that most struck the few ancient Romans who established contact with these islands by sea. Alternatively, it is said that the inhabitants of the island, Guanches, used to worship dogs, mummified them. The ancient Greeks also knew about a people, living far to the west, who are the dog-headed ones, who worshipped dogs on an island. Some hypothesize that the Canary Islands dog-worship and the ancient Egyptian cult of the god, Anubis are closely connected
37.
Madeira
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Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago situated in the north Atlantic Ocean, southwest of Portugal. Its total population was estimated in 2011 at 267,785, the capital of Madeira is Funchal, located on the main islands south coast. The archipelago is just under 400 kilometres north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, since 1976, the archipelago has been one of the two Autonomous regions of Portugal. It includes the islands of Madeira, Porto Santo, and the Desertas, the region has political and administrative autonomy through the Administrative Political Statue of the Autonomous Region of Madeira provided for in the Portuguese Constitution. Madeira was claimed by Portuguese sailors in the service of Prince Henry the Navigator in 1419, the archipelago is considered to be the first territorial discovery of the exploratory period of the Portuguese Age of Discovery, which extended from 1415 to 1542. Today, it is a popular resort, being visited every year by about one million tourists. The region is noted for its Madeira wine, gastronomy, historical and cultural value, its flora and fauna, landscapes which are classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and embroidery artisans. Its annual New Year celebrations feature the largest fireworks show in the world, Madeira is the second richest region of Portugal by GDP per capita, only surpassed by Lisbon. They are called the Isles of the Blessed, archeological evidence suggests that the islands may have been visited by the Vikings sometime between 900-1030. During the reign of King Edward III of England, lovers Robert Machim and they were driven off their course by a violent storm and their ship went aground along the coast of an island, that may have been Madeira. Later this legend was the basis of the naming of the city of Machico, knowledge of some Atlantic islands, such as Madeira, existed before their formal discovery and settlement, as the islands were shown on maps as early as 1339. The following year, an expedition, under the captaincy of Zarco, Vaz Teixeira. Subsequently, the new settlers observed a black cloud suspended to the southwest. Their investigation revealed it to be the island they called Madeira. The first Portuguese settlers began colonizing the islands around 1420 or 1425, grain production began to fall and the ensuing crisis forced Henry the Navigator to order other commercial crops to be planted so that the islands could be profitable. The planting of sugarcane, and later Sicilian sugar beet, allowed the introduction of the salt into Europe. These specialised plants, and their associated industrial technology, created one of the major revolutions on the islands, the expansion of sugar plantations in Madeira began in 1455, using advisers from Sicily and financed by Genoese capital. The accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish traders, who were keen to bypass Venetian monopolies, by 1480 Antwerp had some seventy ships engaged in the Madeira sugar trade, with the refining and distribution concentrated in Antwerp
38.
Ettore Arrigoni degli Oddi
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Count Ettore Arrigoni degli Oddi, was an Italian ornithologist. In 1926 following the introduction of a game law in for Italy in 1923 Oddi wrote a report on bird protection. He is best known as the author of Ornitologia Italiana, con 586 figure intercalate nel testo e 36 tavole colorate, ulrico Hoepli editore libraio della real casa. 1200 pages giving accounts of the 518 bird species and subspecies then recorded in Italy, the scientific nomenclature was up to date and vernacular names in Italian, French, German and English are provided for each species. A large number of names was added for the common birds. There is a detailed and differential description of species, and notes on distribution, breeding, eggs, habitat, song. There is also a systematic list, a list of species erroneously recorded species, the 500 text figures illustrate morphological detail and the 36 coloured plates depict most of the Italian species. Partial bibliography 1885 – Catalogo della raccolta ornitologica Arrigoni Degli Oddi, stabilimento Prosperini, Padova,33 pp.1886 – Interessanti osservazioni ornitologiche. 1886 – Osservazioni sul Germano reale,1887 – Passo straordinario di uccelli. 1889 – Notizie su alcune catture di uccelli nel 1888,1892 – La Branta leucopsis nel Veneto. 1893 – Un ibrido naturale di Anas boscas, Linnaeus e Mareca penelope preso nel Veneto, atti della Società Veneto - Trentina di Scienze Naturali ser. II1, 1-12. 1896 – Le ultime apparizioni dellActochelidon sandvicensis nel Veneziano,1897 – Note ornitologiche per lanno 1895. Di Scienze Naturali,36, 1-81897 – La recente cattura di un Fenicottero nel Veneziano, atti della Società italiana di Scienze Naturali,36, 1-31898 – Le recenti comparse del Puffinus kuhli nel veneziano. 1898 – Notes on some specimens of Anatidae in the late Count Ninnis collection. The Ibis,1900 – Il Budytes citreulus in Italia. 1900 – On the occurrence of Nordmanns Pratincole in Italy. The Ibis,1904 – Manuale di ornitologia italiana. 1908 – Le comparse del Pastor roseus nel Veneto nella primavera del 1908,1911 – Il passo nelle valli dell Estuario Veneto. Note sopra una raccolta di Uccelli dellArcipelago Toscano,1913 – LOca collo rosso nel Veneziano. 1914 – Notizie sulle recenti comparse del Beccofrusone,1914 – Sul passo degli uccelli nellautunno 1913
39.
Sergei Buturlin
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Sergei Aleksandrovich Buturlin,22 September 1872 in Montreux –22 January 1938 in Moscow was a Russian ornithologist. A scion of one of the oldest families of Russian nobility, until 1892 he collected in the Volga region, then in the Baltic region, from 1900 to 1902 on the islands of Kolguyev and Novaya Zemlya. Between 1904 and 1906 he took part in an expedition to the Kolyma River in Siberia, and in 1909 he visited the Altay Mountains, in 1906 Buturlin became a foreign member of the British Ornithologists Union, in 1907 he became a corresponding member of the American Ornithologists Union. He was a pioneer in Russia of the study of the diversity of species, on the breeding-habits of the rosy gull and the pectoral sandpiper. Систематические заметки о птицах Северного Кавказа, Что и как наблюдать в жизни птиц. Borodina, O. E. & T. A. Gromova, Kozlova, Mariia Mikhailovna & Mirzoëiìan, Eduard Nikolaevich, Сергей Александрович Бутурлин 1872-1938. ISBN 5-02-005199-3 Kozlova, Mariia Mikhailovna, Перо розовой чайки
40.
Nicholas Aylward Vigors
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Nicholas Aylward Vigors was an Irish zoologist and politician. He popularized the classification of birds on the basis of the quinarian system, Vigors was born at Old Leighlin, County Carlow. He studied at Trinity College, Oxford and he served in the army during the Peninsular War from 1809 to 1811. He then returned to Oxford, graduating in 1815 and he practiced as a barrister and became a Doctor of Civil Law in 1832. Vigors was a co-founder of the Zoological Society of London in 1826, in that year, he founded what became the Royal Entomological Society of London. He was a fellow of the Linnean Society and the Royal Society and he was the author of 40 papers, mostly on ornithology. He described 110 species of birds, enough to him among the top 30 bird authors historically. He provided the text for John Goulds A Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains, one bird that he described was Sabines snipe. This was treated as a common snipe by Barrett-Hamilton in 1895 and by Meinertzhagen in 1926, Vigors lent a skin for later editions of Thomas Bewicks History of British Birds. Vigors succeeded to his fathers estate in 1828 and he was MP for the borough of Carlow from 1832 until 1835. He briefly represented the constituency of County Carlow in 1835, Vigors had been elected in a by-election in June after the Conservative MPs originally returned at the United Kingdom general election,1835 were unseated on petition and a new writ issued. On 19 August 1835 Vigors and his mate, in the two member county constituency, were unseated on petition. The same two Conservatives who had previously been unseated were awarded the seats, on the death of one of them, Vigors won the subsequent by-election in 1837 and retained the seat until his own death. Dublin, M. H. Gill & son, wikisource Kavanagh, P. J. Nicholas Aylward Vigors, MP, 1786-1840. Parliamentary Election Results in Ireland, 1801-1922, edited by B. M, walker Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Nicholas Aylward Vigors BBC Your Paintings, Toucan by Vigors
41.
C. L. Gloger
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Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger was a German zoologist and ornithologist. Gloger was the first person to recognise the structural differences between swallows and swifts, and also the first to put up artificial bat boxes. He was the originator of what is now known as Glogers rule and he put forward this theory in his Das Abändern der Vögel durch Einfluss des Klimas. His other works include Gemeinnütziges Hand-und Hilfsbuch der Naturgeschichte, Das Abändern der Vögel durch Einfluss des Klimas Interspecific variation in primate coat colour supports Gloger’s rule, Kamilar and Bradley, J Biogeography,2011
42.
Walter Koelz
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Walter Norman Koelz was an American zoologist and museum collector. Walter Koelzs parents were immigrants from the Black Forest region of Germany, Walter Koelz studied zoology and received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Michigan in 1920. In 1925 he joined the McMillan Expedition to the American Arctic and he also studied whitefishes during his work at the University of Michigan at the Institute for Fisheries Research. He was offered a post with the Himalayan Research Institute of the Roerich Museum in 1930 and he visited Naggar in Kulu, in May 1930, to begin botanical explorations. He returned to Michigan in 1932, but his interest in Tibetan culture led to his appointment as a Research Fellow on the Charles L. Freer Fund in September 1932, in 1933 he returned to Indian Tibet to collect anthropology related material for the University of Michigan. In 1936 Dr. Koelz travelled once more to India to collect plants, for seven years from 1939 he explored Persia, Nepal, and parts of India including Assam and made a large collection of birds. In 1956 he was awarded the Meyer Memorial Award for outstanding contributions to the world of Agriculture and he found and brought back a disease-resistant wild melon from Calcutta that helped save the California melon crop one year. He had collected nearly 30,000 bird specimens for the University of Michigans zoology museum, Koelz often described new subspecies often on the sole basis of assuming that the population was isolated. Many of the subspecies of birds that he described from India are now invalid, of the fish Coregonus artedii which is found in lakes and consists of isolated populations he described no less than 24 subspecies. Koelz, W. Notes on the birds of the Londa neighbourhood, Koelz, W. Notes on a collection of birds from Madras Presidency. Koelz, W. Notes on the birds of Spiti, a Himalayan province of the Punjab, Koelz, W. Additions to the avifaunal list of Lahul. New birds from Asia, chiefly from India, Koelz, W. Notes on the birds of Zanskar and Purig, with appendices giving new records for Ladakh, Rupshu, and Kulu. New subspecies of birds from southwestern Asia, Koelz, W. Four new subspecies of birds from southwestern Asia. New birds from Iran, Afghanistan, and India, on the validity of Galerida malabarica propinqua Koelz. Seven new birds from the Punjab, Koelz, W. Notes on the winter birds of the lower Punjab. Kathleen McCleary, Obituary, Walter Koelz/environment column, sports Illustrated Journal of the 1931 expedition, Urusvati University of Michigan Walter Koelz at Find a Grave
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