1.
Eugenics
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Eugenics is a set of beliefs and practices that aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population. The exact definition of eugenics has been a matter of debate since the term was coined, frederick Osborns 1937 journal article Development of a Eugenic Philosophy framed it as a social philosophy—that is, a philosophy with implications for social order. That definition is not universally accepted, osborn advocated for higher rates of sexual reproduction among people with desired traits, or reduced rates of sexual reproduction and sterilization of people with less-desired or undesired traits. Alternatively, gene selection rather than people selection has recently been made possible through advances in genome editing, in this period, eugenic ideas were espoused across the political spectrum. Consequently, many countries adopted eugenic policies with the intent to improve the quality of stock of their countries. S. Furthermore, negative eugenics in particular is considered by many to be a violation of human rights. Another criticism is that eugenic policies eventually lead to a loss of genetic diversity, the concept of positive eugenics to produce better human beings has existed at least since Plato suggested selective mating to produce a guardian class. The idea of eugenics to decrease the birth of inferior human beings has existed at least since William Goodell advocated the castration. Galton had read his half-cousin Charles Darwins theory of evolution, which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities were hereditary traits, though Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory. In 1883, one year after Darwins death, Galton gave his research a name, with the introduction of genetics, eugenics relied on an ideology of genetic determinism in which human character was due to genes, unaffected by education or living conditions. Many of the early geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism, throughout its recent history, eugenics has remained controversial. Eugenics became a discipline at many colleges and universities and received funding from many sources. Both sought support from leading clergymen and modified their message to meet religious ideals, in 1909 the Anglican clergymen William Inge and James Peile both wrote for the British Eugenics Education Society. Inge was a speaker at the 1921 International Eugenics Conference. Three International Eugenics Conferences presented a global venue for eugenists with meetings in 1912 in London, Eugenic policies were first implemented in the early 1900s in the United States. It also took root in France, Germany, and Great Britain, later, in the 1920s and 30s, the eugenic policy of sterilizing certain mental patients was implemented in other countries including Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Japan and Sweden. In addition to being practiced in a number of countries, eugenics was internationally organized through the International Federation of Eugenics Organizations, politically, the movement advocated measures such as sterilization laws. In its moral dimension, eugenics rejected the doctrine that all beings are born equal
2.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
3.
Natural environment
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The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some part of Earth and this environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a system in the desert. Though many animals build things to provide an environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams. People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum, more precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, in a field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil. Natural environment is used as a synonym for habitat. For instance, when we say that the environment of giraffes is the savanna. Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air, and life respectively. Some scientists include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, Earth science, is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology, the Earths crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools, beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes. An ocean is a body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earths surface is covered by ocean, a body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans. More than half of area is over 3,000 meters deep
4.
Parasitism
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In biology/ecology, parasitism is a non-mutual relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite referred primarily to organisms visible to the naked eye, Parasites can be microparasites, which are typically smaller, such as protozoa, viruses, and bacteria. Examples of parasites include the plants mistletoe and cuscuta, and animals such as hookworms, unlike predators, parasites typically do not kill their host, are generally much smaller than their host, and will often live in or on their host for an extended period. Both are special cases of consumer-resource interactions, Parasites show a high degree of specialization, and reproduce at a faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples of parasitism include interactions between vertebrate hosts and tapeworms, flukes, the Plasmodium species, and fleas, parasitism differs from the parasitoid relationship in that parasitoids generally kill their hosts. Parasites reduce host biological fitness by general or specialized pathology, such as parasitic castration and impairment of secondary sex characteristics, Parasites increase their own fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival, e. g. food, water, heat, habitat, and transmission. Although parasitism applies unambiguously to many cases, it is part of a continuum of types of interactions between species, rather than an exclusive category, in many cases, it is difficult to demonstrate harm to the host. In others, there may be no apparent specialization on the part of the parasite, coined in English in 1611, the word parasitism comes from the Greek παρά + σιτισμός feeding, fattening. Parasites are classified based on their interactions with their hosts and on their life cycles, an obligate parasite is totally dependent on the host to complete its life cycle, while a facultative parasite is not. A direct parasite has one host while an indirect parasite has multiple hosts. For indirect parasites, there always be a definitive host. Parasites that live on the outside of the host, either on the skin or the outgrowths of the skin, are called ectoparasites and those that live inside the host are called endoparasites. Endoparasites can exist in one of two forms, intercellular parasites or intracellular parasites, intracellular parasites, such as protozoa, bacteria or viruses, tend to rely on a third organism, which is generally known as the carrier or vector. The vector does the job of transmitting them to the host, an example of this interaction is the transmission of malaria, caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodium, to humans by the bite of an anopheline mosquito. Those parasites living in a position, being half-ectoparasites and half-endoparasites, are called mesoparasites. An epiparasite is one that feeds on another parasite and this relationship is also sometimes referred to as hyperparasitism, exemplified by a protozoan living in the digestive tract of a flea living on a dog. Social parasites take advantage of interactions between members of social organisms such as ants, termites, and bumblebees, an extreme example of social parasitism is the ant species of Tetramorium inquilinum of the Alps, which spend their whole lives on the back of Tetramorium host ants. With tiny and deprecated bodies they have evolved for one single task, if they fall off, they most likely would not have the strength to climb back on top of another ant, and eventually they will die
5.
Environmentalism
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While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecologism combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism. ‘Ecologism’ is more used in continental European languages while ‘environmentalism’ is more commonly used in English. For this reason, concepts such as an ethic, environmental ethics, biodiversity, ecology. The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and there are different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are represented by the color green. Environmentalism denotes a movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism. The word was first coined in 1922, an environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy or individual behavior. In various ways, environmentalists and environmental organizations seek to give the world a stronger voice in human affairs. In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, in its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights. A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, for example, in Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem. The fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Earlier in the Middle East, the Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s commanded his army to Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, at the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes. The origins of the movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution, typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs and it was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke, financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives, or for those who preferred, to burn coke instead which produces minimal smoke. Smoke control areas were introduced in some towns and cities in which only smokeless fuels could be burnt, the act formed an important impetus to modern environmentalism, and caused a rethinking of the dangers of environmental degradation to peoples quality of life
6.
Employment
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Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure
7.
Home economics
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Home economics or domestic science, now known as family and consumer sciences, is the profession and field of study that deals with the economics and management of the home and community. The field deals with the relationship between individuals, families, and communities, and the environment in which they live. As a subject of study, FCS is taught in schools, colleges and universities, vocational schools. It prepares students for homemaking or professional careers, or to assist in preparing to fulfill real-life responsibilities at home, as an academic profession, it includes educators in the field and human services professionals. Other topics such as education, and fire prevention may also be covered. Family and consumer science was known in the United States as home economics. The field is known by other names, including human sciences, home science. One of the first to champion the economics of running a home was Catherine Beecher, sister to Harriet Beecher Stowe, Catherine and Harriet both were leaders in mid-19th century North America in talking about domestic science. They came from a religious family that valued education especially for women. Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois, Minnesota and Michigan were early leaders offering programs for women, there were women graduates of these institutions several years before the Lake Placid Conferences which gave birth to the home economics movement. The home economics movement started with Ellen Swallow Richards, who was the first woman to attend Massachusetts Institute of Technology, through her chemistry research, she became an expert in water quality and later began to focus on applying scientific principles to domestic situations. She shunned an invitation to participate in the Women’s Building as she said none of her research was just women’s work and they met at pristine Lake Placid, New York at the invitation of Melvil Dewey. Over the course of the next 10 years, these educators worked tirelessly to elevate the discipline, Richards wanted to call this oekology or the science of right living. Euthenics, the science of environment, was also a name of her choice. Richards then founded the American Home Economics Association in 1909, in the 1910s the AHEA won passage of two crucial pieces of legislation that allowed home economists to establish formal niches for research and teaching within institutions of higher education. This legislation contributed to the creation of the Office of Home Economics, Home economics emerged at the turn of the twentieth century as a movement to train women to be more efficient household managers. At the same moment, American families began to consume many more goods, in the 19th century, home economics classes were intended to ready young women for their duties in the home in healthy environments. Classes were first offered in the United States, Canada, Germany and Great Britain, followed by Latin America, Asia, International organizations such as those associated with the United Nations have been involved in starting home economics programs around the world
8.
Sanitation
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These hazards may be physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause problems include human and animal excreta, solid wastes, domestic wastewater, industrial wastes. Hygienic means of prevention may involve engineering solutions, simple technologies, or even simply by behavior changes in personal hygiene practices, providing sanitation to people requires a systems approach, rather than only focusing on the toilet or wastewater treatment plant itself. The experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, treatment, the main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. The World Health Organization defines the term sanitation as follows, Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the disposal of human urine. The word sanitation also refers to the maintenance of conditions, through services such as garbage collection. There are some variations on the definition of sanitation in use. For example, for many organisations, hygiene promotion is seen as an part of sanitation. Despite the fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often use side by side as sanitation and wastewater management, Sanitation should be regarded with a systems approach in mind which includes collection/containment, conveyance/transport, treatment, disposal or reuse. Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to break the transmission cycle. This aspect is visualised with the F-diagram where all routes of fecal-oral disease transmission begin with the letter F, feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids. Container-based sanitation is usually provided as a service involving provision of types of portable toilets. In most cases, CBS is based on the use of urine-diverting dry toilets, the term dry sanitation is somewhat misleading as sanitation includes hand-washing and can never be dry. A more precise term would be dry excreta management, when people speak of dry sanitation they usually mean sanitation systems with dry toilets with urine diversion, in particular the urine-diverting dry toilet. Put in other words, Ecosan systems safely recycle excreta resources to crop production in such a way that the use of resources is minimised. Ecosan is also called resource-oriented sanitation, environmental sanitation encompasses the control of environmental factors that are connected to disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise, improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply
9.
House
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Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space, most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. A house may have a dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into another room. Some large houses in North America have a recreation room, in traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock may share part of the house with humans. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household, most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals. Some houses only have a space for one family or similar-sized group. A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment, a house may have a backyard or frontyard, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat. The English word house derives directly from the Old English Hus meaning dwelling, shelter, home, house, the house itself gave rise to the letter B through an early Proto-Semitic hieroglyphic symbol depicting a house. The symbol was called bayt, bet or beth in various related languages, and became beta, ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as design, has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui can also mean the aura in or around a dwelling, making it comparable to the real-estate sales concept of indoor-outdoor flow, the square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The square metres figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the enclosing the home. The number of floors or levels making up the house can affect the square footage of a home, many houses have several large rooms with specialized functions and several very small rooms for other various reasons. These may include an area, a sleeping area, and separate or combined washing. Some larger properties may also feature such as a spa room, indoor pool, indoor basketball court. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock often share part of the house with human beings, most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. Little is known about the earliest origin of the house and its interior, roman architect Vitruvius theories have claimed the first form of architecture as a frame of timber branches finished in mud, also known as the primitive hut. Philip Tabor later states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today, as far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home of the home is the Netherlands
10.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
11.
Flynn effect
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The Flynn effect is the substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores measured in many parts of the world from roughly 1930 to the present day. When IQ tests are revised, they are again standardized using a new sample of test-takers, again, the average result is set to 100. However, when the new test subjects take the older tests, Test score increases have been continuous and approximately linear from the earliest years of testing to the present. For the Ravens Progressive Matrices test, subjects born over a 100-year period were compared in Des Moines, United States, improvements were remarkably consistent across the whole period, in both countries. This effect of an apparent increase in IQ has also observed in various other parts of the world. There are numerous proposed explanations of the Flynn effect, as well as some skepticism about its implications, similar improvements have been reported for other cognitions such as semantic and episodic memory. The Flynn effect is named for James R. Flynn, who did much to document it, the term itself was coined by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, authors of The Bell Curve. For example, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, originally developed in 1949, was updated in 1974, in 1991,2003, the revised versions are standardized based on the performance of test-takers in standardization samples. A standard score of IQ100 is defined as the performance of the standardization sample. Thus one way to see changes in norms over time is to conduct a study in which the same test-takers take both an old and new version of the same test, doing so confirms IQ gains over time. Some IQ tests, for example used for military draftees in NATO countries in Europe, report raw scores. The average rate of increase seems to be about three IQ points per decade in the United States, as scaled by the Wechsler tests, the increase has been continuous and roughly linear from the earliest days of testing to the present. Though the effect is most associated with IQ increases, an effect has been found with increases in attention. Ulric Neisser estimated that using the IQ values of 1997 the average IQ of the United States in 1932, Neisser states that Hardly any of them would have scored very superior, but nearly one-quarter would have appeared to be deficient. He also wrote that Test scores are certainly going up all over the world, trahan et al. found that the effect was about 2.93 points per decade, based on both Stanford–Binet and Wechsler tests, they also found no evidence the effect was diminishing. On many tests this occurs at all levels of ability, some studies have found the gains of the Flynn effect to be particularly concentrated at the lower end of the distribution. Teasdale and Owen, for example, found the effect reduced the number of low-end scores, resulting in an increased number of moderately high scores. In another study, two samples of Spanish children were assessed with a 30-year gap
12.
Ellen Swallow Richards
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Ellen Henrietta Swallow Richards was an industrial and environmental chemist in the United States during the 19th century. Her pioneering work in engineering, and experimental research in domestic science. She was the founder of the home economics movement characterized by the application of science to the home, Richards graduated from Westford Academy in 1862. She was the first woman admitted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and she graduated in 1873 and later became its first female instructor. Richards was a pragmatic feminist, as well as a founding ecofeminist, Richards was born in Dunstable, Massachusetts. She was the child of Peter Swallow and Fanny Gould Taylor. Swallow was home-schooled in her early years, in 1859 the family moved to Westford and she attended Westford Academy. Studies at the academy included mathematics, composition, and Latin, swallows Latin proficiency allowed her to study French and German, a rare language north of New York. Because of her skills she was much in demand as a tutor. In March 1862, she left the academy, two months later, in May, she developed the measles which set her back physically and interrupted her preparations to begin teaching. In the spring of 1863 the family moved to Littleton, Massachusetts, in June 1864, Swallow, now twenty-one, took a teaching position. She did not teach again in 1865 but spent that year tending the family store, during the winter of 1865–66, Swallow studied and attended lectures in Worcester. In September 1868 she entered Vassar College classified as a special student, somewhat over a year later she was admitted to the senior class, graduating in 1870 with a bachelors degree. She then earned a Master of Arts degree with a thesis on the analysis of iron ore. In 1870, she wrote to Merrick and Gray, commercial chemists in Boston and they replied that they were not in a position to take pupils, and that her best course was to try to enter the Institute of Technology of Boston as a student. On December 10,1870, after discussion and a vote. In 1873, Swallow received a Bachelor of Science degree from MIT for her thesis, Richards served on the board of trustees of Vassar College for many years and was granted an honorary doctor of science degree in 1910. On June 4,1875, Miss Swallow married Robert H. Richards, chairman of the Mine Engineering Department at MIT and they took up residence in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts
13.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
14.
Demosthenes
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Demosthenes was a Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide an insight into the politics, Demosthenes learned rhetoric by studying the speeches of previous great orators. He delivered his first judicial speeches at the age of 20, for a time, Demosthenes made his living as a professional speech-writer and a lawyer, writing speeches for use in private legal suits. Demosthenes grew interested in politics during his time as a logographer and he went on to devote his most productive years to opposing Macedons expansion. He idealized his city and strove throughout his life to restore Athens supremacy, after Philips death, Demosthenes played a leading part in his citys uprising against the new king of Macedonia, Alexander the Great. However, his efforts failed and the revolt was met with a harsh Macedonian reaction, to prevent a similar revolt against his own rule, Alexanders successor in this region, Antipater, sent his men to track Demosthenes down. Demosthenes took his own life, in order to avoid being arrested by Archias, the Alexandrian Canon compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace recognised Demosthenes as one of the ten greatest Attic orators and logographers. Longinus likened Demosthenes to a thunderbolt, and argued that he perfected to the utmost the tone of lofty speech, living passions, copiousness, readiness. Quintilian extolled him as lex orandi, and Cicero said about him that inter omnis unus excellat, Demosthenes was born in 384 BC, during the last year of the 98th Olympiad or the first year of the 99th Olympiad. His father—also named Demosthenes—who belonged to the tribe, Pandionis. Aeschines, Demosthenes greatest political rival, maintained that his mother Kleoboule was a Scythian by blood—an allegation disputed by modern scholars. Demosthenes was orphaned at the age of seven, although his father provided well for him, his legal guardians, Aphobus, Demophon and Therippides, mishandled his inheritance. As soon as Demosthenes came of age in 366 BC, he demanded they render an account of their management, according to Demosthenes, the account revealed the misappropriation of his property. Although his father left an estate of nearly fourteen talents, Demosthenes asserted his guardians had left nothing except the house, and fourteen slaves and thirty silver minae. At the age of 20 Demosthenes sued his trustees in order to recover his patrimony and delivered five orations, the courts fixed Demosthenes damages at ten talents. When all the trials came to an end, he succeeded in retrieving a portion of his inheritance. According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes was married once, the only information about his wife, whose name is unknown, is that she was the daughter of Heliodorus, a prominent citizen. Demosthenes also had a daughter, the one who ever called him father
15.
Herodotus
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Herodotus was a Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire and lived in the fifth century BC, a contemporary of Socrates. The Histories is the work which he is known to have produced. Despite Herodotus historical significance, little is known of his personal life and his place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact, of these only fragments of Hecataeuss work survive yet they allow us glimpses into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own Histories. In his introduction to Hecataeus’s work, Genealogies, This points forward to the ‘folksy’ yet ‘international’ outlook typical of Herodotus. Yet, one scholar has described the work of Hecataeus as “a curious false start to history” since despite his critical spirit. It is possible that Herodotus borrowed much material from Hecataeus, as stated by Porphyry in a recorded by Eusebius. But Hecataeus did not record events that had occurred in living memory, unlike Herodotus, Herodotus claims to be better informed than his predecessors by relying on empirical observation to correct their excessive schematism. For example, He argues for continental asymmetry as opposed to the theory of a perfectly circular earth with Europe. Yet, he retains idealizing tendencies, as in his notions of the Danube. His debt to previous authors of prose ‘histories’ might be questionable, however, this point is one of the most contentious issues in modern scholarship. It is on account of the strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics in early modern times branded him “The Father of Lies”. Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement, similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed Herodotus as a “logos-writer”. Moreover, Thucydides developed a historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view, the interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as Herodotus himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory. Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus’s own writing for reliable information about his life, supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, modern accounts of his life typically go something like this, Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus around 484 BC. His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League, the epic poet Panyassis – a relative of Herodotus – is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising. Herodotus expresses affection for the island of Samos, and this is an indication that he might have lived there in his youth. So it is possible that his family was involved in an uprising against Lygdamis, leading to a period of exile on Samos, Herodotus wrote his Histories in the Ionian dialect, yet he was born in Halicarnassus, which was a Dorian settlement
16.
Aristotle
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Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
17.
Poverty
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Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made producing goods increasingly less expensive, of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms, Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank forecasts that 702.1 million people, down from 1.75 billion in 1990, of these, about 347.1 million people lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty fell from 37. 1% to 9. 6%. Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, extreme poverty is a global challenge, it is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies. UNICEF estimates half the children live in poverty. It has been argued by some academics that the policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF. Another estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately. In 2012 it is estimated that, given a poverty line of $1.25 a day 1.2 billion people lived in poverty, the word poverty comes from old French poverté, from Latin paupertās from pauper. The English word poverty via Anglo-Norman povert, there are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and the views of the person giving the definition. Income Poverty, a familys income fails to meet a federally established threshold that differs across countries, United Nations, Fundamentally, poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of capacity to participate effectively in society. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and it means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank, Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions and it includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity
18.
Julia Lathrop
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Julia Clifford Lathrop was an American social reformer in the area of education, social policy, and childrens welfare. As director of the United States Childrens Bureau from 1912 to 1922, Julia Clifford Lathrop was born in Rockford, Illinois. Julias father, a lawyer and personal friend of Abraham Lincoln, helped establish the Republican Party and served in the state legislature and her mother was a suffragist active in womens rights activities in Rockford and a graduate of the first class of Rockford Female Seminary. Lathrop attended Rockford Female Seminary where she met Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr, after one year, she transferred to Vassar College, developing her own multidisciplinary studies in statistics, institutional history, sociology, and community organization and graduated in 1880. Afterwards, she worked in her fathers law office first as a secretary, Lathrop ran a discussion group called the Plato Club in the early days of the House. The women at Hull House actively campaigned to persuade Congress to pass legislation to protect children, during the depression years of the early 90s Lathrop served as a volunteer investigator of relief applicants, visiting homes to document the needs of the families. This would lead to opening the market for educated women as well as improving social services in Progressive Era cities. Over the next few years she helped introduce reforms such as the appointment of doctors in state hospitals. Over the next nine years Lathrop directed research into child labor, infant mortality, maternal mortality, juvenile delinquency, mothers pensions, the Childrens Bureau under Lathrop and her successors became an administrative unit that not only created child welfare policy but also led its implementation. Lathrop modeled the Childrens Bureau investigations from the work she did while at Hull-House, the Bureau also lobbied to abolish child labor. Mother-work in the community meant that educated in the latest scientific theories about childrens health. Lathrop wrote in 1914, Work for infant welfare is coming to be regarded as more than a philanthropy or an expression of good will and it is a profoundly important public concern which tests the public spirit and the democracy of a community. However, Lathrop was careful to insist that motherhood was the most important calling in the world and this way Lathrop could avoid controversy even while she built public support for the new agency. In 1917, the American Association for Labor Legislation proposed a health insurance act that included a provision for weekly cash allocations for pregnant women. Lathrop argued in an address before the American Public Health Associations 1918 meeting in Chicago that U. S. Lathrop asked, Which is the more safe and sane conclusion. The attitude of most of the staff in the Childrens Bureau, any connections between childrens health and such issues as expansion of workers insurance, minimum wage or sanitation systems lost credence. The popular strategy remained focused on Americanizing immigrant workers and teaching white mothers how to care of babies. It is important to note that the Bureau chose not to address the high mortality rates among babies in families of color
19.
Minnie Cumnock Blodgett
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Minnie Cumnock Blodgett graduated from Vassar College in 1884, later becoming a trustee. She is the mother of Katharine Blodgett Hadley, who was also a Vassar trustee and her husband, John W. Blodgett, built their estate, which they named Brookby, where they made their Grand Rapids home. Lathrop soon teamed with alumna Minnie Cumnock Blodgett, who with her husband, John Wood Blodgett, curriculum planning, suggested by Vassar President Henry Noble MacCracken in 1922, began in earnest by 1923. In 1925, through a gift of $550,000.00 from Mrs. Blodgett and its aim was to supply scientific knowledge of the complex problems of adjustment between individuals and the environment, emphasizing home and family. Vassar historian Colton Johnson noted The Blodgetts gift was the largest gift given to the College after Matthew Vassar donated $408,000 in 1861 to get the College started. Their intention was to bring into the curriculum of the College a course of study specifically designed around the ideas of Ellen Swallow Richards. Mrs. John Wood Blodgett died suddenly of disease on October 13,1931 in her suite in The St. Regis Hotel, New York. She was there to meetings for two health organizations and spend some time visiting her daughter and son-in-law. She was the daughter of the late Mr. and Mrs. Alexander G. Cunnock of Lowell and she was also president of the D. A. Blodgett Home for Children, and sat on the board of trustees at Vassar College. Descendants include, John Wood Blodgett, Jr. who married Sally Reed Gallagher, of Milton, MA, marks School in Southboro, and graduated Harvard in 1923. Kathrine Cumnock Blodgett Hadley, who married Major Morris Hadley, July 12,1919, who married Katrina Boyden Hadley, she is buried in the Blodgett Plot. Blodgett structure reveals history of VC euthenics
20.
Vassar College
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Vassar College is a private, coeducational, liberal arts college in the town of Poughkeepsie, New York, in the United States. Founded in 1861 by Matthew Vassar, it was the first degree-granting institution of education for women in the United States. It became coeducational in 1969, and now has a ratio at the national average. The college offers B. A. degrees in more than 50 majors, Vassar also offers many extracurricular organizations including student theater, a cappella groups, club sports, volunteer and service groups, and a circus troupe. Vassar Colleges varsity sports teams, known as the Brewers, play in the NCAAs Division III as members of the Liberty League. Vassar tied for the 12th best liberal arts college in the nation in the 2017 annual ranking of U. S. News & World Report, for the freshman class entering fall 2016, the college had an acceptance rate of 26. 9%. The total number of attending the college is around 2,450. The Vassar campus comprises over 1,000 acres and more than 100 buildings, a designated arboretum, the campus features more than 200 species of trees, a native plant preserve, and a 400-acre ecological preserve. Vassar was founded as a school under the name Vassar Female College in 1861. The college became coeducational in 1969, Vassar was the second of the Seven Sisters colleges, higher education schools that were formerly strictly for women, and historically sister institutions to the Ivy League. It was chartered by its namesake, brewer Matthew Vassar, in 1861 in the Hudson Valley, the first person appointed to the Vassar faculty was the astronomer Maria Mitchell, in 1865. However, immediately following World War II, Vassar accepted a small number of male students on the G. I. Because Vassars charter prohibited male matriculants, the graduates were given diplomas via the University of the State of New York and these were reissued under the Vassar title after the school formally became co-educational. In its early years, Vassar was associated with the elite of the Protestant establishment. E. Digby Baltzell writes that upper-class WASP families educated their children at such as Harvard, Princeton, Yale. A select and elite few of Vassars students were allowed entry into the secret society Delta Sigma Rho. Before becoming President of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was a Trustee, roughly 2,450 students attend Vassar, and 98% live on campus. About 60% come from high schools, and 40% come from private schools
21.
York and Sawyer
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The architectural firm of York and Sawyer produced many outstanding structures, exemplary of Beaux-Arts architecture as it was practiced in the United States. The partners Edward York and Philip Sawyer had both trained in the office of McKim, Mead, and White, in 1898, they established their independent firm, based in New York City. Their structure for the New-York Historical Society was extended in 1938 by Walker & Gillette and their ability to organize, separate and coordinate mixed uses in a building is exemplified by their massive New York Athletic Club. York and Sawyer became known as specialists in the design of banks and their palatial Renaissance and classical bank buildings express the reassuring stability and awe-inspiring splendor the institutions wished to project. In each typical case a spectacular banking hall was the public space, original architectural drawings by York and Sawyer are held in the Dept. of Drawings & Archives at Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library at Columbia University in New York City. Rockefeller Hall of Vassar College, the first building of Vassar College used exclusively for academic purposes and it was funded by a $100,000 donation from John D. Rockefeller. Riggs National Bank on Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D. C. C, U. S. Greenwich Savings Bank on Broadway and 36th Street, now the Haier Building. Hoover Building, headquarters of the United States Department of Commerce, in Federal Triangle, demarest Hall, notable special interest residence hall at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Louis Ayres Frederick Staples Benedict Notes Bibliography Kathryn Horste,1997 The Michigan Law Quadrangle, Architecture and Origins New York Architecture Images, York and Sawyer Emporis
22.
Rubicon Foundation
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Rubicon Foundation, Inc. is a non-profit organization devoted to contributing to the interdependent dynamic between research, exploration, science and education. The foundation, started in 2002, is located in Durham, North Carolina and is supported by donations. Funding has included the Office of Naval Research from 2008 to 2010, gibson, Dunn & Crutcher has provided pro bono services to assist in copyright searches and support. In 2002, divers Brian Armstrong, Gene Hobbs, and James Wagner formed the first board of directors for the Rubicon Foundation, the Rubicon Research Repository is the foundations premier project that started in 2006. The RRR is a database of environmental physiology reports, including both hyperbaric and hypobaric medicine, as well as other environmental physiology topics. See also Rubicon Foundations suggested reading list, the Rubicon Review is a Yahoo. Group with periodic updates of literature in environmental physiology, the project started in 2007 with the goal of helping researchers stay up-to-date with the most current information however it was ended in 2010 due to technical issues with the Yahoo service. The B-25c Mitchell bomber was ditched on 4 April 1943 and remained 45 metres below the surface of Lake Murray for 60 years, the recovery effort was headed by Dr. Robert Seigler and supervised by Gary Larkins of the Air Pirates. Rubicon Foundation divers participated in the effort in 2005. The project was documented by the History Channel and televised on their show Mega Movers, the plane is being preserved by the Southern Museum of Flight in Birmingham, Alabama. This project carried Explorers Club flag number 103, in 2010, Rubicon started Project Pink Tank with a goal to improve the knowledge available to breast cancer survivors about their engagement in scuba diving. The methods applied for this project will also affect further diving medical research, the Mysterious Malady, Toward an understanding of decompression injuries. Global Underwater Explorers Annual Conference Gainesville, FL, Carden VR, Koonts RS, Peterson RA, Lackey CS, Thibodeau PL, Hobbs GW. Creating an Information Revolution in Hyperbaric Medicine, presented, Medical Library Association Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, PA. Hobbs GW, Armstrong BM, Armstrong HC, Schreiber JS, Kaylor ZM, what Can The Medical Community Do For Technical Divers. Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society Annual Meeting, Kapaluna, Maui Hawaii, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Lackey CS, Hobbs GW, Carden VR, Koonts RS, Peterson RA, Thibodeau PL. Recommended Key Words for Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Literature, Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society Annual Meeting, Kapaluna, Maui Hawaii. Carden VR, Koonts RS, Peterson RA, Lackey CS, Thibodeau PL, serving Up Hyperbaric Medicine Information – Cooking with the Undersea & Hyperbaric Medical Society & Rubicon Foundation
23.
Timeline of women's colleges in the United States
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The following is a timeline of womens colleges in the United States. These are institutions of education in the United States whose student population comprises exclusively, or almost exclusively. They are often liberal arts colleges, there are approximately 60 active womens colleges in the U. S. Colleges are listed by the date in which opened their doors to students. During the 19th century in the United States, Seminaries educated women for the socially acceptable occupation. Only unmarried women could be teachers, many early womens colleges began as female seminaries and were responsible for producing an important corps of educators. 1803, Bradford Academy - First Academy in Massachusetts to admit women, the first graduating class had 37 women and 14 men. 1827, The Linden Wood School for Girls, is the first institution of education for women west of the Mississippi River. 1833, Columbia Female Academy, Originally established as an academy and it is the second oldest female educational establishment that is still a womens college. 1837, St. Marys Hall, Originally established as a seminary by George Washington Doane 2nd Bishop of the Episcopal Church of New Jersey. First academic school founded on principles in the United States. Now a PK-12 Co-educational day school,1837, Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, It is the oldest of the Seven Sisters. It is also the oldest school which was established from inception as an institution of education for women that is still a womens college. 1839, Georgia Female College, It is the oldest school which was established from inception as a college for women. 1844, Saint Marys College, Founded by the Sisters of the Holy Cross, the first womens college in the Great Lakes region. 1848, Philadelphia School of Design for Women, It is the first,1850 Womens Medical College of Pennsylvania trained and graduated the first female physicians in the country and the first black female physicians. 1851, Cherokee Female Seminary, It is the first institute of higher learning exclusively for women the United States west of the Mississippi River, along with the Cherokee Male Seminary, this was the first college created by a tribe instead of the US federal government. It began offering bachelors degrees in 1989 and became coeducational in 1997
24.
Antifeminism
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Antifeminism is broadly defined as opposition to some or all forms of feminism. This opposition has taken various forms across time and cultures, for example, antifeminists in the late 1800s and early 1900s resisted womens suffrage, while antifeminists in the late 20th century in the United States opposed the Equal Rights Amendment. That social arrangements among men and women favor men, Antifeminist is also used to describe public female figures, some of whom define themselves as feminists, based on their opposition to some or all elements of feminist movements. Daphne Patai and Noreta Koertge argue that the intention of labeling these women antifeminists is to silence them, the meaning of antifeminism has varied across time and cultures, and antifeminism attracts both men and women. Some women, like those in the Womens National Anti-Suffrage League, emma Goldman, for example, was widely considered antifeminist during her fight against suffragism in the US. Decades later, however, she was heralded as a founder of anarcha-feminism, mens studies scholar and feminist Michael Kimmel defines antifeminism as the opposition to womens equality. He says that antifeminists oppose womens entry into the sphere, the re-organization of the private sphere, womens control of their bodies. He argues that antifeminists consider the gender division of labor as natural and inevitable. Some antifeminists view feminism as a denial of innate differences between the genders, and an attempt to people against their biological tendencies. Antifeminists also frequently argue that feminism, despite claiming to espouse equality, for example, the ubiquity of casual sex and the decline of marriage are mentioned as negative consequences of feminism. Some of these traditionalists oppose womens entry into the workforce, political office, antifeminists argue that a change of womens roles is a destructive force that endangers the family, or is contrary to religious morals. The womens movement began in 1848, most famously articulated by Elizabeth Stanton, janet Chafetz identified in a study 32 first-wave antifeminist movements, including those in the 19th century and early 20th century movements. These countermovements were in response to some womens growing demands, which were perceived as threatening to the way of life. Though men were not the only antifeminists, men experienced what some have called a crisis of masculinity in response to gender roles being challenged. Mens responses to increased feminism varied, some men even subscribed to feminist ideology, but others went the other direction and became decidedly antifeminist. Opponents of womens entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a burden on women. Other antifeminists opposed womens entry into the force, their right to join unions, to sit on juries. The pro-family movement appeared in the late 19th century, by about 1870 and this movement was intended to halt the rising divorce rate and reinforce traditional family values
25.
Women's rights
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In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others they are ignored and suppressed. They differ from broader notions of rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls, in favor of men. Although males seem to have dominated in many cultures, there are some exceptions, for example, in the Nigerian Aka culture women may hunt, even on their own, and often control distribution of resources. Ancient Egypt had female rulers, such as Cleopatra, Women throughout historical and ancient China were considered inferior and had subordinate legal status based on the Confucian law. In Imperial China, the Three Obediences promoted daughters to obey their fathers, wives to obey their husbands, Women could not inherit businesses or wealth and men had to adopt a son for such financial purposes. Late imperial law also featured seven different types of divorces, the status of women in China was also low largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century, for the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding, foot-binding involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long. The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus limiting the activities of women. Due to the custom that men and women should not be near each other. This resulted in a tremendous need for doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church to found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women, this College was located in Guangzhou, China, the College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese womens social status. During the Republic of China and earlier Chinese governments, women were legally bought and these women were known as Mui Tsai. The lives of Mui Tsai were recorded by American feminist Agnes Smedley in her book Portraits of Chinese Women in Revolution. However, in 1949 the Republic of China had been overthrown by communist guerillas led by Mao Zedong, in May 1950 the Peoples Republic of China enacted the New Marriage Law to tackle the sale of women into slavery. This outlawed marriage by proxy and made legal so long as both partners consent. The New Marriage Law raised the age of marriage to 20 for men and 18 for women
26.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
27.
Heredity
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Heredity is the genetic information passing for traits from parents to their offspring, either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction. This is the process by which a cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism. Through heredity, variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause some species to evolve through the selection of specific phenotype traits. The study of heredity in biology is called genetics, which includes the field of epigenetics, in humans, eye color is an example of an inherited characteristic, an individual might inherit the brown-eye trait from one of the parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the set of genes within an organisms genome is called its genotype. The complete set of traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits arise from the interaction of its genotype with the environment, as a result, many aspects of an organisms phenotype are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a persons phenotype and sunlight, thus, suntans are not passed on to peoples children, heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a polymer that incorporates four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specifies the genetic information, before a cell divides through mitosis, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. A portion of a DNA molecule that specifies a single unit is called a gene. Within cells, the strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes. Organisms inherit genetic material from their parents in the form of homologous chromosomes, the specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles, if a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism. However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by multiple interacting genes within. Recent findings have confirmed important examples of changes that cannot be explained by direct agency of the DNA molecule. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes, Heritability may also occur at even larger scales
28.
Hygiene
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Hygiene is a set of practices performed for the preservation of health. According to the World Health Organization, Hygiene refers to conditions and practices help to maintain health. Some regular hygienic practices may be considered good habits by a society while the neglect of hygiene can be considered disgusting, in ancient Greek religion, Hygeia was the personification of health, cleanliness and hygiene. Hygiene is a related to cleanliness, health and medicine. In medicine and in home and everyday life settings, hygiene practices are employed as preventative measures to reduce the incidence, the terms cleanliness and hygiene are often used interchangeably, which can cause confusion. In general, hygiene mostly means practices that prevent spread of disease-causing organisms, since cleaning processes remove infectious microbes as well as dirt and soil, they are often the means to achieve hygiene. Other uses of the term appear in phrases including, body hygiene, personal hygiene, sleep hygiene, mental hygiene, dental hygiene, Hygiene is also the name of a branch of science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health, also called hygienic. Hygiene practices vary widely, and what is considered acceptable in one culture might not be acceptable in another, medical hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices related to the administration of medicine, and medical care, that prevents or minimizes disease and the spreading of disease. Medical hygiene practices include, Isolation or quarantine of persons or materials to prevent spread of infection. Sterilization of instruments used in surgical procedures, use of protective clothing and barriers, such as masks, gowns, caps, eyewear and gloves. Proper bandaging and dressing of injuries, Some procedures were refined in response to late-20th century disease outbreaks, notably AIDS and Ebola. Hygiene in home and everyday life settings plays an important part in preventing spread of infectious diseases. It includes procedures used in a variety of situations such as hand hygiene, respiratory hygiene, food and water hygiene, general home hygiene, care of domestic animals. At present, these components of hygiene tend to be regarded as separate issues, preventing the spread of infectious diseases means breaking the chain of infection transmission. The simple principle is that, if the chain of infection is broken, targeted hygiene is based on identifying the routes of spread of pathogens in the home, and applying hygiene procedures at critical points at appropriate times to break the chain of infection. The main sources of infection in the home are people, foods and water, germs are constantly shed from these sources via mucous membranes, faeces, vomit, skin scales, etc. Thus, when circumstances combine, people become exposed, either directly or via food or water, the main highways for spread of germs in the home are the hands, hand and food contact surfaces, and cleaning cloths and utensils. Germs can also spread via clothing and household linens, such as towels, safe disposal of human waste is a fundamental need, poor sanitation is a primary cause of diarrhea disease in low income communities
29.
Lester Frank Ward
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Lester F. Ward was an American botanist, paleontologist, and sociologist. He served as the first president of the American Sociological Association, Ward promoted the introduction of sociology courses into American higher education. His belief that society could be controlled was especially attractive to intellectuals during the Progressive Era. His influence in certain circles was affected by his opinions regarding organized priesthoods, Ward emphasized universal and comprehensive public schooling to provide the public with the knowledge a democracy needs to successfully govern itself. A collection of Wards writings and photographs is maintained by the Special Collections Research Center of the George Washington University, the collection includes articles, diaries, correspondence, and a scrapbook. GWUs Special Collections Research Center is located in the Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library and it doesnt seem the thing to do. You are the one to write my biography from all the data that I shall leave, Lester Frank Ward was born in Joliet, Illinois, the youngest of 10 children born to Justus Ward and his wife Silence Rolph Ward. Justus Ward was of old New England colonial stock, but he wasnt rich, Silence Ward was the daughter of a clergyman, she was a talented perfectionist, educated and fond of literature. When Lester Frank was one year of age the family moved closer to Chicago, to a place called Cass, now known as Downers Grove, Illinois about twenty-three miles from Lake Michigan. The family then moved to a homestead in nearby St. Charles, Ward first attended a formal school at St. Charles, Kane County, Illinois, in 1850 when he was nine years old. He was known as Frank Ward to his classmates and friends and showed an enthusiasm for books and learning. Four years after Ward started attending school, his parents, along with Lester, four years later, in 1858, Justus Ward unexpectedly died, and the boys returned the family to the old homestead they still owned in St. Charles. Wards estranged mother, who lived two miles away with Wards sister, disapproved of the move, and wanted the boys to stay in Iowa to continue their fathers work. In late 1858 the two moved to Pennsylvania at the invitation of Lester Franks oldest brother Cyrenus who was starting a business making wagon wheel hubs. The brothers saw this as an opportunity to move closer to civilization and to eventually attend college. The business failed, however, and Lester Frank, who didnt have the money to attend college, found a job teaching in a small country school. He finally saved the money to attend college and enrolled in the Susquehanna Collegiate Institute in 1860, while he was at first self-conscious about his spotty formal education and self learning, he soon found that his knowledge compared favorably to his classmates, and he was rapidly promoted. It was while attending the Susquehanna Collegiate Institute that he met Elizabeth Lizzie Carolyn Vought and their rather torrid love affair was documented in Wards first journal Young Wards Diary
30.
Abraham Flexner
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Abraham Flexner was an American educator, best known for his role in the 20th century reform of medical and higher education in the United States and Canada. His work attracted the Carnegie Foundation to commission an in-depth evaluation into 155 colleges and universities across the United States and it was his resultant self-titled Flexner Report, published in 1910, that sparked the reform of medical education in the United States and Canada. Flexner was also a founder of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, Flexner was born in Louisville, Kentucky on November 13,1866. He was the sixth of nine born to German Jewish immigrants, Ester. He was the first in his family to complete high school, in 1886, at age 19, Flexner completed a Bachelor of Arts in classics at Johns Hopkins University, where he studied for only two years. In 1905, he pursued studies in psychology at Harvard University. He did not, however, complete work on a degree at either institution. Flexner had three brothers named Jacob, Bernard and Simon Flexner and he also had a sister named Rachel Flexner. The success of Abraham Flexners experimental schooling allowed him to help finance Simon Flexners medical education at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and he proceeded to become a pathologist, bacteriologist and a medical researcher employed by the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research from 1901 to 1935. Flexner also financed his sisters undergraduate studies at Bryn Mawr College, Jacob ran a drugstore and used the profits from selling the establishment to attend medical school. He then practiced as a physician in Louisville, Bernard pursued a career in law and later practiced in both Chicago and New York. In 1896, Flexner married a student of his school. She was a teacher who became a successful playwright and childrens author. The success of her play Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch funded Flexners studies at Harvard, the couple had two daughters Jean and Eleanor. Jean went on to one of the original employees of the United States Division of Labor Standards. Eleanor Flexner became an independent scholar and pioneer of womens studies, in terms of religious practices, Flexner grew up in an Orthodox family, however, early on he became a religious agnostic. Flexner died in Falls Church, Virginia, in 1959 at 92 years of age and he was buried in Cave Hill Cemetery in Louisville, Kentucky. After graduating from Johns Hopkins University in two years with a degree in classics, Flexner returned to Louisville to teach classics at Louisville Male High School, four years later, Flexner founded a private school in which he would test his growing ideas about education
31.
Margaret Sanger
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Margaret Higgins Sanger was an American birth control activist, sex educator, writer, and nurse. Sanger popularized the term control, opened the first birth control clinic in the United States. Sanger used her writings and speeches primarily to promote her way of thinking and she was prosecuted for her book Family Limitation under the Comstock Act in 1914. She was afraid of what would happen, so she fled to Britain until she knew it was safe to return to the US, Sangers efforts contributed to several judicial cases that helped legalize contraception in the United States. Sanger, who has criticized for supporting negative eugenics, remains an admired figure in the American reproductive rights movement. Her subsequent trial and appeal generated controversy, Sanger felt that in order for women to have a more equal footing in society and to lead healthier lives, they needed to be able to determine when to bear children. She also wanted to prevent so-called back-alley abortions, which were common at the time because abortions were illegal in the United States and she believed that while abortion was sometimes justified it should generally be avoided, and she considered contraception the only practical way to avoid them. In 1921, Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. In 1929, she formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control, from 1952 to 1959, Sanger served as president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation. She died in 1966, and is regarded as a founder of the modern birth control movement. Sanger was born Margaret Louise Higgins in 1879 in Corning, New York, to Michael Hennessey Higgins, an Irish-born stonemason and free-thinker, and Anne Purcell Higgins, a Catholic Irish-American. Michael Hennessey Higgins had emigrated to the USA at age 14 and joined the U. S. Army as a drummer at age 15, after leaving the army, Michael studied medicine and phrenology, but ultimately became a stonecutter, making stone angels, saints, and tombstones. Michael H. Higgins was a Catholic who became an atheist and her parents brought the family to Canada during the Potato Famine. Anne Higgins went through 18 pregnancies in 22 years before dying at the age of 49, Sanger was the sixth of eleven surviving children, and spent much of her youth assisting with household chores and caring for her younger siblings. Supported by her two sisters, Margaret Higgins attended Claverack College and Hudson River Institute, before enrolling in 1900 at White Plains Hospital as a nurse probationer. In 1902, she married the architect William Sanger and gave up her education, though she was plagued by a recurring active tubercular condition, Margaret Sanger bore three children, and the couple settled down to a quiet life in Westchester, New York. In 1911, after a fire destroyed their home in Hastings-on-Hudson, Margaret Sanger worked as a visiting nurse in the slums of the East Side, while her husband worked as an architect and a house painter. Already imbued with her husbands leftist politics, Margaret Sanger also threw herself into the radical politics, by the standards of the day, Sangers articles were extremely frank in their discussion of sexuality, and many New York Call readers were outraged by them
32.
Charles Davenport
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Charles Benedict Davenport was a prominent American eugenicist and biologist. He was one of the leaders of the American eugenics movement, Davenport was born in Stamford, Connecticut, to Amzi Benedict Davenport, an abolitionist of Puritan stock, and his wife Jane Joralemon Dimon. His mother’s strong beliefs tended to rub off onto Charles and he followed the example of his mother, during the summer months, Charles and his family lived in Brooklyn due to his father’s job. Due to Davenports fathers strong belief in Protestantism, as a young boy Charles was tutored at home and this came about in order for Charles to learn the values of hard work and education. When he was not studying, Charles worked as a janitor and he attended Harvard University, earning a Ph. D in biology in 1892 and married Gertrude Crotty, a zoology graduate, in 1894. Later on, Davenport became a professor of zoology at Harvard and he became one of the most prominent American biologists of his time, pioneering new quantitative standards of taxonomy. Davenport had a respect for the biometric approach to evolution pioneered by Francis Galton and Karl Pearson. However, after the re-discovery of Gregor Mendels laws of heredity, in 1904, Davenport became director of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, where he founded the Eugenics Record Office in 1910. Before Charles Davenport came across eugenics, he studied math and he came to know these subjects through Professors Karl Pearson and gentleman amateur Francis Galton. Upon meeting them, he fell in love with the subject matter, in 1901, Biometrika, a journal, which Charles Davenport was a co editor of, gave him the opportunity to use the skills that he has learned. Davenport became an advocate of the approach for the rest of his life. He began to study human heredity, and much of his effort was later turned to promoting eugenics and his 1911 book, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, was used as a college textbook for many years. The year after it was published Davenport was elected to the National Academy of Sciences, Davenports work with eugenics caused much controversy among many other eugenicists and scientists. Although his writings were about eugenics, their findings were very simplistic and this caused much racial and class bias. Only his most ardent admirers regarded it as scientific work. During Davenports tenure at Cold Spring Harbor, several took place there. In 1918 the Carnegie Institution of Washington took over funding of the ERO with a handsome endowment from Mary Harriman. In 1921 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association, Davenport founded the International Federation of Eugenics Organizations in 1925, with Eugen Fischer as chairman of the Commission on Bastardization and Miscegenation
33.
American Journal of Sociology
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The American Journal of Sociology was established in 1895 by Albion Small and is the oldest academic journal of sociology in the United States. The journal is attached to the University of Chicagos sociology department, the journal presents work on the theory, methods, practice, and history of sociology. It also publishes sociology-related papers by scholars from outside sociology, speaking to sociologists, social scientists, according to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 2.574, ranking it 7th out of 142 journals in the category Sociology. In 2002, the American Journal of Sociology created the Roger V. Gould prize in memory of its former editor. Winners include Peter Bearman, John Levi Martin, Michael J. Rosenfeld, Elizabeth E. Bruch, Robert D. Mare, Shelley Correll, department and Discipline, Chicago Sociology at One Hundred. The American Journal of Sociology Through Fifty Years
34.
Brown University
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Brown is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine Colonial Colleges established before the American Revolution. At its foundation, Brown was the first college in the United States to accept students regardless of their religious affiliation and its engineering program was established in 1847 and was the first in the Ivy League. It was one of the early doctoral-granting U. S. institutions in the late 19th century, adding master, Browns New Curriculum is sometimes referred to in education theory as the Brown Curriculum and was adopted by faculty vote in 1969 after a period of student lobbying. In 1971, Browns coordinate womens institution Pembroke College was fully merged into the university, Pembroke Campus now operates as a place for dorms and classrooms. Undergraduate admissions is very selective, with a rate of 8.3 percent for the class of 2021. The University comprises The College, the Graduate School, Alpert Medical School, the School of Engineering, the School of Public Health, and the School of Professional Studies. The Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program, offered in conjunction with the Rhode Island School of Design, is a course that awards degrees from both institutions. Browns main campus is located in the College Hill Historic District in the city of Providence, the Universitys neighborhood is a federally listed architectural district with a dense concentration of Colonial-era buildings. On the western edge of the campus, Benefit Street contains one of the finest cohesive collections of restored seventeenth-, Browns faculty and alumni include eight Nobel Prize laureates, five National Humanities Medalists, and ten National Medal of Science laureates. Other notable alumni include eight billionaire graduates, a U. S. Supreme Court Chief Justice, to erect a public Building or Buildings for the boarding of the youth & the Residence of the Professors. Stiles and Ellery were co-authors of the Charter of the College two years later, there is further documentary evidence that Stiles was making plans for a college in 1762. On January 20, Chauncey Whittelsey, pastor of the First Church of New Haven, answered a letter from Stiles, should you make any Progress in the Affair of a Colledge, I should be glad to hear of it, I heartily wish you Success therein. Isaac Backus was the historian of the New England Baptists and an inaugural Trustee of Brown, Mr. James Manning, who took his first degree in New-Jersey college in September,1762, was esteemed a suitable leader in this important work. Manning arrived at Newport in July 1763 and was introduced to Stiles, stiless first draft was read to the General Assembly in August 1763 and rejected by Baptist members who worried that the College Board of Fellows would under-represent the Baptists. A revised Charter written by Stiles and Ellery was adopted by the Assembly on March 3,1764, in September 1764, the inaugural meeting of the College Corporation was held at Newport. Governor Stephen Hopkins was chosen chancellor, former and future governor Samuel Ward was vice chancellor, John Tillinghast treasurer, the Charter stipulated that the Board of Trustees be composed of 22 Baptists, five Quakers, five Episcopalians, and four Congregationalists. Of the 12 Fellows, eight should be Baptists—including the College president—and the rest indifferently of any or all Denominations, the Charter was not the grant of King George III, as is sometimes supposed, but rather an Act of the colonial General Assembly. In two particulars, the Charter may be said to be a uniquely progressive document, the oft-repeated statement is inaccurate that Browns Charter alone prohibited a religious test for College membership, other college charters were also liberal in that particular
35.
Charles Darwin
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
36.
Jonathan Edwards (theologian)
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Jonathan Edwards was a revivalist preacher, philosopher, and Congregationalist Protestant theologian. Like most of the Puritans, he held to the Reformed theology and his colonial followers later distinguished themselves from other Congregationalists as New Lights, as opposed to Old Lights. Edwards is widely regarded as one of Americas most important and original philosophical theologians, Edwards theological work is broad in scope, but he was rooted in Reformed theology, the metaphysics of theological determinism, and the Puritan heritage. Recent studies have emphasized how thoroughly Edwards grounded his lifes work on conceptions of beauty, harmony, and ethical fittingness, Edwards played a critical role in shaping the First Great Awakening, and oversaw some of the first revivals in 1733–35 at his church in Northampton, Massachusetts. Edwards delivered the sermon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, Edwards died from a smallpox inoculation shortly after beginning the presidency at the College of New Jersey. He was the grandfather of Aaron Burr, third Vice President of the United States, Jonathan Edwards was born on October 5,1703 and was the son of Timothy Edwards, a minister at East Windsor, Connecticut, who eked out his salary by tutoring boys for college. His mother, Esther Stoddard, daughter of the Rev. Solomon Stoddard, of Northampton, Massachusetts, seems to have been a woman of unusual mental gifts, Jonathan, their only son, was the fifth of 11 children. He entered Yale College in 1716, at just under the age of 13, in the following year, he became acquainted with John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which influenced him profoundly. He was interested in history, and as a precocious 11-year-old, observed. Edwards would edit this text to match the genre of scientific literature. Even though he would go on to study theology for two years after his graduation, Edwards continued to be interested in science, Edwards was fascinated by the discoveries of Isaac Newton and other scientists of his age. Before he undertook full-time ministry work in Northampton, he wrote on topics in natural philosophy, including flying spiders, light. While he was worried about the materialism and faith in reason alone of some of his contemporaries, he saw the laws of nature as derived from God and demonstrating his wisdom and care. In 1722 to 1723, he was for eight months stated supply of a small Presbyterian Church in New York City, the church invited him to remain, but he declined the call. The years 1720 to 1726 are partially recorded in his diary and he now took a great and new joy in taking in the beauties of nature, and delighted in the allegorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon. On February 15,1727, Edwards was ordained minister at Northampton and he was a scholar-pastor, not a visiting pastor, his rule being 13 hours of study a day. In the same year, he married Sarah Pierpont, then 17, Sarah was from a storied New England clerical family, her father was James Pierpont, the head founder of Yale College, and her mother was the great-granddaughter of Thomas Hooker. Sarahs spiritual devotion was without peer, and her relationship with God had long proved an inspiration to Edwards and he first remarked on her great piety when she was 13 years old
37.
Louis Pasteur
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Louis Pasteur was a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He is remembered for his breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases. He reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and created the first vaccines for rabies and his medical discoveries provided direct support for the germ theory of disease and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to the public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination. He is regarded as one of the three founders of bacteriology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch, and is popularly known as the father of microbiology. Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation and he performed experiments that showed that without contamination, microorganisms could not develop. Under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences, he demonstrated that in sterilized and sealed flasks nothing ever developed, although Pasteur was not the first to propose the germ theory, his experiments indicated its correctness and convinced most of Europe that it was true. Today, he is regarded as one of the fathers of germ theory. Pasteur also made significant discoveries in chemistry, most notably on the basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals. Early in his career, his investigation of tartaric acid resulted in the first resolution of what is now called optical isomers and his work led the way to the current understanding of a fundamental principle in the structure of organic compounds. He was the director of the Pasteur Institute, established in 1887, till his death, although Pasteur made groundbreaking experiments, his reputation became associated with various controversies. Historical reassessment of his notebook revealed that he practiced deception to overcome his rivals, Louis Pasteur was born on December 27,1822, in Dole, Jura, France, to a Catholic family of a poor tanner. He was the child of Jean-Joseph Pasteur and Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui. The family moved to Marnoz in 1826 and then to Arbois in 1827, Pasteur entered primary school in 1831. He was a student in his early years, and not particularly academic. He drew many pastels and portraits of his parents, friends, Pasteur attended secondary school at the Collège dArbois. In October 1838, he left for Paris to join the Pension Barbet, in 1839, he entered the Collège Royal de Besançon to study philosophy and earned his Bachelor of Letters degree in 1840. He was appointed a tutor at the Besançon college while continuing a degree course with special mathematics
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