1.
Erik Henningsen
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Erik Ludvig Henningsen was a Danish painter and illustrator. He is best known for his Social Realist paintings of poor and he was the younger brother of Frants Henningsen who was also a painter. Erik Henningsen was born on 29 August 1855 in Copenhagen to Frants Ludvig Henningsen, a grocer and he showed an early artistic talent and was articled to decorative painter A. Hellesen. He also took drawing lessons privately with C. V. Nielsen and was admitted to the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in 1873. He graduated in 1877 and won awards and distinctions, including the Academys Annual Medal in 1887 and 1890, the Ancher Prize in 1889. His travels took him to Germany, Italy, France and the Netherlands, Henningsen became part of the group Bogstaveligheden, a forum for the Realists humanitarian ideals about creating a better society through illumination and debate. In his paintings from the 1880s and 1890s, Henningsen was preoccupied with the rights and living conditions of such as the unemployed, women, workers, children. Examples are Summum jus, summa injuria, the infanticide (1886, The Hirschsprung Collection and Evicted. He also depicted the lighter aspects of life, as in his paintings of street life in Copenhagen. Towards the turn of the century Henningsen mainly painted historical scenes, an example is his mural in the banquet hall of the University of Copenhagens main building on Vor Frue Plads in Copenhagen. It depicts the banquet at the Scandinavian Scientist Conference held in Roskilde in 1847 and it completed a series of murals depicting the history of the university of which the earlier painting had been created by Vilhelm Marstrand, Carl Bloch and Vilhelm Rosenstand. During the two first decades of the 20th century he mainly painted genre works from the lives of the bourgeoisie, Henningsen also worked as an illustrator, both for the weekly magazine Ude og Hjemme and books such as Pietro Krohns Peters Jul. In 1900, the Tuborg Breweries announced a competition for an advertisement poster to mark its 25 years jubilee. It has since obtained iconic status and become one of the most immediately recognizable posters in Denmark, morning in Adressekontorets Gaard A snowy day at Gammeltorv Summum jus, summa injuria
2.
National Gallery of Denmark
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National Gallery of Denmark is the Danish national gallery located in the centre of Copenhagen. The museum collects, registers, maintains, researches and handles Danish, the major part of the museums older collections comes from the art chambers of Danish kings. The display of European Art 1300–1800 is a collection of art over the 500-year period, featuring works by Mantegna, Cranach, Titian, Rubens. The art is spread over thirteen rooms, and is the oldest art collection in Denmark, with a emphasis on Danish, Dutch, Flemish, Italian, French, Spanish. Danish and Nordic Art 1750-1900 charts Scandinavian art from the beginnings of Danish painting through the ‘Golden Age’ to the birth of Modernism and it displays over 400 works through 24 galleries. It features work by Abildgaard, Eckersberg, Købke, Ring, SMK gained its modern French art collection in 1928 when it was donated by the late collector Johannes Rump. This collection features some of the museum’s most famous pieces from artists such as Matisse, Picasso, Derain and Braque. The collection was first offered to the SMK by Rump in 1923, housed in the museum’s 1993 extension, this 20th and 21st century collection is predominantly focused on the most important examples of modern Danish art. A long corridor of paintings looking onto Østre Anlæg park works as an overview of the work from this period. The beginnings of this collection were made around the time of Christian II, in his diary from 1521 the German painter Albrecht Dürer says he has given the King the best pieces of all my prints. In 1843 the various works, which had so far been the private collection, were displayed to the public. It was then moved into the Statens Museum for Kunst when the first building was completed in 1896, along with The Royal Collection of Paintings, although the papers contain a great number of foreign works, Danish art constitutes the main part of the collection. This collection is open to the public through the Print Room, the Royal Cast Collection is held at the West India Warehouse, Toldbodgade 40, between The Little Mermaid and Nyhavn in Copenhagen. It consists of over 2,000 naked plaster casts of statues and reliefs from collections, museums, temples, churches, the Royal Cast Collection is only open for special events. At the start of the Second World War the art of antiquity became increasingly unfashionable, associated with an archaic artistic tradition. In 1966, as abstract art became popular, the Royal Cast Collection was removed to a barn outside Copenhagen for storage. The collections of the Danish National Gallery originate in the Art Chamber of the Danish monarchs, when the German Gerhard Morell became Keeper of Frederick Vs Art Chamber about 1750, he suggested that the king create a separate collection of paintings. To ensure that the collection was not inferior to those of other European royal houses and local counts, the collection became particularly well provided with Flemish and Dutch art
3.
Hussars
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A Hussar was a member of any one of several types of light cavalry used during the 18th and 19th centuries, beginning in Central Europe. Historically, the term derives from the cavalry of late medieval Hungary, the title and distinctive dress of these horsemen were subsequently widely adopted by light cavalry regiments in European and European colonial armies in the late 17th and 18th centuries. A number of armored or ceremonial mounted units in modern armies retain the designation of hussars, the first written mention of the word Hussarones has been found in documents dating from 1432 in Southern Hungary. A type of light horsemen was already well-established by the 15th century in medieval Hungary. Etymologists are divided over the derivation of the word hussar, byzantinist scholars argue that the term originated in Roman military practice, and the cursarii. 10th-century Byzantine military manuals mention chonsarioi, light cavalry, recruited in the Balkans, especially Serbs and this word was subsequently reintroduced to Western European military practice after its original usage had been lost with the collapse of Rome in the west. According to Websters Dictionary, the word stems from the Hungarian huszár. On the other hand, husz means twenty in Hungarian whilst ar is a unit of measurement or acre. Hussars are so named as they were a form of military levy whereby any land owner with twenty acres was duty bound to provide a mounted and equipped soldier to the army at their own expense. The elaborate uniforms were based on traditional Magyar horsemans clothes with highly braided, tight riding breeches, close fitting pointed boots, the hussars reportedly originated in bands of mostly Serbian warriors, crossing into southern Hungary after the Ottoman conquest of Serbia at the end of the 14th century. Regent-Governor John Hunyadi created mounted units inspired by the Ottomans and his son, Matthias Corvinus, later king of Hungary, is unanimously accepted as the creator of these troops, commonly called Rac. Initially, they fought in bands, but were reorganised into larger. The first hussar regiments comprised the cavalry of the Black Army of Hungary. Under Corvinus command, the took part in the war against the Ottoman Empire in 1485 and proved successful against the sipahis as well as against the Bohemians. After the kings death, in 1490, hussars became the form of cavalry in Hungary in addition to the heavy cavalry. The Habsburg emperors hired Hungarian hussars as mercenaries to serve against the Ottomans, early hussars wore armor when they could afford to it like the later Polish hussars. Hungarian hussars abandoned using shields and later armors and became entirely light cavalry in the first half of the 17th century, initially the first units of Polish hussars in the Kingdom of Poland were formed in 1500, influenced by Serbian mercenaries. A small number of Serbian mercenaries were recruited and became citizens of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Polish heavy hussars of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were far more manoeuvrable than the heavily armoured lancers previously employed
4.
Lower East Side
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The Lower East Side is roughly bounded by the Bowery to the west, East Houston Street to the north, the F. D. R. Drive to the east and Canal Street to the south, the western boundary below Grand Street veers east off of the Bowery to approximately Essex Street. The neighborhood is bordered in the south and west by Chinatown – which extends north to roughly Grand Street, in the west by Nolita and in the north by the East Village. Historically, the Lower East Side referred to the area alongside the East River from about the Manhattan Bridge and Canal Street up to 14th Street and it included areas known today as East Village, Alphabet City, Chinatown, Bowery, Little Italy, and NoLIta. Parts of the East Village are still known as Loisaida, a Latino pronunciation of Lower East Side, Avenue C is known directly as Loisaida and is home to the Loisaida Festival every summer. Their main trail took approximately the route of Broadway, one encampment in the Lower East Side area, near Corlears Hook was called Rechtauck or Naghtogack. Around these farms were a number of enclaves of free or half-free Africans, one of the largest of these was located along the modern Bowery between Prince Street and Astor Place. These black farmers were some of the earliest settlers of the area, gradually, during the 17th century, there was an overall consolidation of the boweries and farms into larger parcels, and much of the Lower East side was then part of the Delancy farm. James Delanceys pre-Revolutionary farm east of post road leading from the city survives in the names Delancey Street, on the modern map of Manhattan, the Delancey farm is represented in the grid of streets from Division Street north to Houston Street. In response to the pressures of a city, Delancey began to survey streets in the southern part of the West Farm in the 1760s. The point of land on the East River now called Corlears Hook was also called Corlaers Hook under Dutch and British rule, and briefly Crown Point during British occupation in the Revolution. It was named after the schoolmaster Jacobus van Corlaer, who settled on this plantation that in 1638 was called by a Europeanized version of its Lenape name, Nechtans or Nechtanc. Corlaer sold the plantation to Wilhelmus Hendrickse Beekman, founder of the Beekman family of New York, the projection into the East River that retained Corlaers name was an important landmark for navigators for 300 years. On older maps and documents it is usually spelled Corlaers Hook, in the course of the 19th century they came to be called hookers. In 1833, Corlears Hook was the location of some of the first tenements built in New York City, the original location of Corlears Hook is now obscured by shoreline landfill. It was near the east end of the present pedestrian bridge over the FDR Drive near Cherry Street, the name is preserved in Corlears Hook Park at the intersection of Jackson and Cherry Streets along the East River Drive. The bulk of immigrants who came to New York City in the late 19th and early 20th centuries came to the Lower East Side, moving into crowded tenements there. By the 1840s, large numbers of German immigrants settled in the area, later, more radical artists such as the Beat poets and writers were drawn to the neighborhood – especially the parts which later became the East Village – by the inexpensive housing and cheap food
5.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
6.
Landlord
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A landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, land or real estate which is rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant. When a juristic person is in position, the term landlord is used. Other terms include lessor and owner, the term landlady may be used for women owners, and lessor applies to both genders. The medieval system ultimately continues the system of villas and latifundia of the Roman Empire, in modern times, landlords provide housing for persons who cannot afford or dont want to own their own homes. This can be both a lucrative and challenging occupation, the term slumlord is sometimes used to describe landlords in those circumstances. In Minneapolis, such landlords rose up against city officials and, in the 2001 election, succeeded in defeating the incumbent mayor, but such situations are quite unusual. Many owners hire a property management company to care of all the details of renting their property out to a tenant. In the United States, residential homeowner–tenant disputes are primarily governed by state law regarding property, state law and, in some places, city law or county law, sets the requirements for eviction of a tenant. Some cities, counties, and States have laws establishing the maximum rent a landlord can charge, known as rent control, or rent regulation, and related eviction. There is also an implied warranty of habitability, whereby a landlord must maintain safe, decent and habitable housing, meeting minimum safety requirements such as smoke detectors, in the Canada, residential homeowner–tenant disputes are primarily governed by provincial law regarding property and contracts. Provincial law sets the requirements for eviction of a tenant, generally, there are a limited number of reasons for which a landlord can evict a tenant. Some provinces have laws establishing the maximum rent a landlord can charge, known as rent control, or rent regulation, there is also an implied warranty of habitability, whereby a landlord must maintain safe, decent and habitable housing, meeting minimum safety requirements. A landlord can also decide to collect a security deposit or move-in fee which can also be a consideration for the tenant, many factors including city/state regulations can drive the landlord to choose one over the other. In a more formal situations, the term used is licensed victualler or simply licensee, a female landlord can either be called a landlady or simply landlord. The charity also runs three schools in Ascot and Reading in Berkshire and Sayers Common in Sussex. As well as having normal full fee paying students, Licensed Victuallers School in Ascot provides discounted education prices for the children of landlords, there are significant associations of landlords in Australia
7.
Foreclosure
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Formally, a mortgage lender, or other lienholder, obtains a termination of a mortgage borrower s equitable right of redemption, either by court order or by operation of law. Usually a lender obtains a security interest from a borrower who mortgages or pledges an asset like a house to secure the loan. If the borrower defaults and the lender tries to repossess the property, while this equitable right exists, it is a cloud on title and the lender cannot be sure that they can successfully repossess the property. Therefore, through the process of foreclosure, the lender seeks to foreclose the equitable right of redemption, other lien holders can also foreclose the owners right of redemption for other debts, such as for overdue taxes, unpaid contractors bills or overdue homeowners association dues or assessments. Commonly, the violation of the mortgage is a default in payment of a promissory note, the mortgage holder can usually initiate foreclosure at a time specified in the mortgage documents, typically some period of time after a default condition occurs. Within the United States, Canada and many countries, several types of foreclosure exist. In the U. S. two of them – namely, by sale and by power of sale – are widely used. Under this system, the lender initiates foreclosure by filing a lawsuit against the borrower, as with all other legal actions, all parties must be notified of the foreclosure, but notification requirements vary significantly from state to state. A judicial decision is announced after the exchange of pleadings at a hearing in a state or local court, in some rather rare instances, foreclosures are filed in federal courts. In some states, like California and Texas, nearly all so-called mortgages are actually deeds of trust and this process involves the sale of the property by the mortgage holder without court supervision. This process is much faster and cheaper than foreclosure by judicial sale. As in judicial sale, the holder and other lien holders are respectively first. Other types of foreclosure are considered minor because of their limited availability, should the mortgagor fail to do so, the mortgage holder gains the title to the property with no obligation to sell it. This type of foreclosure is available only when the value of the property is less than the debt. Historically, strict foreclosure was the method of foreclosure. Acceleration is a clause that is found in Sections 16,17. Not all accelerations are the same for each mortgage, as it depends on the terms, when a term in the mortgage has been broken, the acceleration clause goes into effect. It can declare the entire debt to the Lender if the Borrower were to transfer the title at a future date to a purchaser
8.
Jurisdiction
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Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility, e. g. Michigan tax law. In federations like the U. S. areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, colloquially it is used to refer to the geographical area to which such authority applies, e. g. the court has jurisdiction over all of Colorado. The legal term refers only to the authority, not to a geographical area. International laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to, supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as de jure, it is an acknowledgment by the de jure nations that the country has sovereignty. However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate, if a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies. The fact that organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Courts time, each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched and its authority could only be denied by a member if that member nation asserts its sovereignty. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law, in nations adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and this concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed forum non conveniens, to deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. In addition, the Lugano Convention binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association, council Regulation 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark. In some legal areas, at least, the CACA enforcement of judgments is now more straightforward. At a national level, the rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area
9.
Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
10.
Jurisdictions
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Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility, e. g. Michigan tax law. In federations like the U. S. areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, colloquially it is used to refer to the geographical area to which such authority applies, e. g. the court has jurisdiction over all of Colorado. The legal term refers only to the authority, not to a geographical area. International laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to, supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as de jure, it is an acknowledgment by the de jure nations that the country has sovereignty. However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate, if a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies. The fact that organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Courts time, each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched and its authority could only be denied by a member if that member nation asserts its sovereignty. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law, in nations adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and this concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed forum non conveniens, to deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. In addition, the Lugano Convention binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association, council Regulation 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark. In some legal areas, at least, the CACA enforcement of judgments is now more straightforward. At a national level, the rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area
11.
Flowchart
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A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm, workflow or process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given problem, Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields. Flowcharts are used in designing and documenting simple processes or programs, like other types of diagrams, they help visualize what is going on and thereby help understand a process, and perhaps also find flaws, bottlenecks, and other less-obvious features within it. There are many different types of flowcharts, and each type has its own repertoire of boxes and notational conventions. The two most common types of boxes in a flowchart are, a step, usually called activity. A flowchart is described as cross-functional when the page is divided into different swimlanes describing the control of different organizational units, a symbol appearing in a particular lane is within the control of that organizational unit. Flowcharts depict certain aspects of processes and they are complemented by other types of diagram. Similarly, in UML, a standard concept-modeling notation used in development, the activity diagram. Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams and Drakon-charts are a notation for process flow. The terms flowchart and flow chart are used interchangeably, the underlying graph structure of a flowchart is a flow graph, which abstracts away node types, their contents and other ancillary information. The Gilbreths tools quickly found their way into industrial engineering curricula, a 1944 graduate of Mogensens class, Art Spinanger, took the tools back to Procter and Gamble where he developed their Deliberate Methods Change Program. In 1947, ASME adopted a symbol set derived from Gilbreths original work as the ASME Standard, Operation, douglas Hartree in 1949 explained that Herman Goldstine and John von Neumann had developed a flowchart to plan computer programs. His contemporary account is endorsed by IBM engineers and by Goldstines personal recollections, Flowcharts became a popular means for describing computer algorithms. The popularity of flowcharts decreased in the 1970s when interactive computer terminals, algorithms can be expressed much more concisely as source code in such languages. Often pseudo-code is used, which uses the common idioms of such languages without strictly adhering to the details of a particular one, nowadays flowcharts are still used for describing computer algorithms. Modern techniques such as UML activity diagrams and Drakon-charts can be considered to be extensions of the flowchart, however, there are several of these classifications. For example, Andrew Veronis named three basic types of flowcharts, the system flowchart, the general flowchart, and the detailed flowchart and that same year Marilyn Bohl stated in practice, two kinds of flowcharts are used in solution planning, system flowcharts and program flowcharts. In addition, many techniques exist that are similar to flowcharts but carry a different name
12.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
13.
Complaint
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Civil court rules in states that have incorporated the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure use the same term for the same pleading. In some jurisdictions, specific types of cases may also be commenced by the filing of a complaint. In the United States, the complaint is often associated with criminal charges presented by the prosecutor without the grand jury process. In most U. S. jurisdictions, the charging instrument presented to, several United States federal courts publish general guidelines for the petitioners and Civil Rights complaint forms. The case caption usually also indicates the court in which the case originates, names of the parties, jurisdiction and venue - this section describes why the case should be heard in the selected court rather than some other court or forum. Parties - identifies plaintiffs and defendants, definitions - optional section which defines some terms used throughout the document. The main purpose of a definition is to achieve clarity without needless repetition, statement of facts - lists facts that brought the case to the court. Cause of Action - a numbered list of allegations, with specific details about application of the governing law to each count. Injury - plaintiff explains to the judge how the actions of the defendant harmed his rights, demand for relief - describes the relief that plaintiff is seeking as a result of the lawsuit. The relief can include a request for declaratory judgment, a request for relief, compensatory and actual damages, punitive damages. After the complaint has been filed with the court, it has to be served to the opposite parties. The court also can issue a summons - an official document which the plaintiff needs to have served together with the complaint. The defendants have limited time to respond, depending on the State or Federal rules, a defendants failure to answer a complaint can result in a default judgment in favor of the petitioner. For example, in United States federal courts, any person who is at least 18 years old and not a party may serve a summons and complaint in a civil case. The defendant must submit an answer within 21 days after being served with the summons and complaint, or request a waiver and this allows the judge to make determinations about which deadlines to set for different phases of the case, as it moves through the court system. There are also freely accessible web search engines to assist parties in finding court decisions that can be cited in the complaint as an example or analogy to similar questions of law. Google Scholar is the biggest database of full state and federal courts decisions that can be accessed without charge. These web search engines allow one to select specific state courts to search
14.
Trial
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In law, a trial is a coming together of parties to a dispute, to present information in a tribunal, a formal setting with the authority to adjudicate claims or disputes. One form of tribunal is a court, the tribunal, which may occur before a judge, jury, or other designated trier of fact, aims to achieve a resolution to their dispute. Where the trial is held before a group of members of the community, where the trial is held solely before a judge, it is called a bench trial. Hearings before administrative bodies may have many of the features of a trial before a court, trials can also be divided by the type of dispute at issue. A criminal trial is designed to resolve accusations brought against an accused of a crime. In common law systems, most criminal defendants are entitled to a trial held before a jury, because the state is attempting to use its power to deprive the accused of life, liberty, or property, the rights of the accused afforded to criminal defendants are typically broad. The rules of criminal procedure provide rules for criminal trials, a civil trial is generally held to settle lawsuits or civil claims—non-criminal disputes. In some countries, the government can both sue and be sued in a civil capacity, the rules of civil procedure provide rules for civil trials. Although administrative hearings are not ordinarily considered trials, they retain many elements found in more formal trial settings, when the dispute goes to judicial setting, it is called an administrative trial, to revise the administrative hearing, depending on the jurisdiction. The types of disputes handled in these hearings is governed by administrative law, labor law is the body of laws, administrative rulings, and precedents which address the legal rights of, and restrictions on, working people and their organizations. As such, it mediates many aspects of the relationship between trade unions, employers and employees, in Canada, employment laws related to unionized workplaces are differentiated from those relating to particular individuals. In most countries however, no distinction is made. However, there are two categories of labour law. First, collective labour law relates to the relationship between employee, employer and union. Second, individual labour law concerns employees rights at work and through the contract for work, the labour movement has been instrumental in the enacting of laws protecting labour rights in the 19th and 20th centuries. Labour rights have been integral to the social and economic development since the industrial revolution, there are two primary systems for conducting a trial, Adversarial, In common law systems, an adversarial or accusatory approach is used to adjudicate guilt or innocence. In several jurisdictions in more cases, there is a jury to determine the facts. This polarizes the issues, with each competitor acting in its own self-interest, to maintain fairness, there is a presumption of innocence, and the burden of proof lies on the prosecution
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Police officer
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A police officer, also known as a policeman, policewoman, police agent, or a police employee is a warranted law employee of a police force. In the United States, the officer is typically the formal name of the lowest police rank. In many other countries, officer is a term not specifying a particular rank. In some nations the use of the officer is legally reserved for military personnel. Police officers may be sworn to an oath, and have the power to arrest people and detain them for a time, along with other duties. Although many police officers wear a uniform, some police officers are plain-clothed in order to dissimulate as ordinary citizens. The word police comes from the Greek politia meaning government, which came to mean its civil administration, Police officers are those empowered by government to enforce the laws it creates. In The Federalist Papers, James Madison wrote If men were angels and these words apply to those who serve government, including police. The more general term for the function is law enforcement officer or peace officer, a sheriff is typically the top police officer of a county, with that word coming from the person enforcing law over a shire. A person who has been deputized to serve the function of the sheriff is referred to as the deputy, a common nickname for a police officer is cop. The term copper is used in Britain to mean someone who captures. The common myth is that its a term referring to the officers buttons which are made of copper. The word Cop derives from a Gaelic word which has the equivalence of saying, protector, leader, the terms are almost nearly homophonic but have similar meanings. The term County Mountie is used specifically in reference to county police officers or county sheriffs deputies in the United States, as with Canadian Mounties, the term mountie comes from police who serve while mounted on horseback. Responsibilities of an officer are varied, and may differ greatly from within one political context to another. Typical duties relate to keeping the peace, law enforcement, protection of people and property, officers are expected to respond to a variety of situations that may arise while they are on duty. Rules and guidelines dictate how an officer should behave within the community, in some countries, rules and procedures dictate that a police officer is obliged to intervene in a criminal incident, even if they are off-duty. Police officers in all countries retain their lawful powers while off duty
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Abandonment (legal)
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Such intentional action may take the form of a discontinuance or a waiver. This broad meaning has a number of applications in different branches of law, in common law jurisdictions, both common law abandonment and statutory abandonment of property may be recognized. By contrast, an example of statutory abandonment is the abandonment by a trustee under 11 U. S. C. Intentional abandonment is also referred to as dereliction, and something voluntarily abandoned by its owner with the intention of not retaking it is a derelict, someone that holds the property or to whom property rights have been relinquished is an abandonee. An item that has been abandoned is termed an abandum, a res nullius abandoned by its owner, leaving it vacant, belongs to no one. Occurs when one ceases to reside permanently in a former domicile, the presumptions which will guide the court in deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be inferred from the facts of each case. In the United States, a tenant is generally understood to have abandoned a property if he or she has fallen behind in rent, the landlord must then send notice of the intent to seize the property and wait a certain number of days to take action on it. How long the landlord has to wait depends on the value of the property, the landlord can keep the money up to the costs incurred as a result of the abandonment, the rest must be set aside for the former tenant, should she or he eventually return. Abandonment occurs when the insured surrenders to the insurer all rights to damaged or lost property, sometimes, this is permitted only when damage constitutes constructive total loss. In marine insurance parlance, abandonment involves the surrender of a ship or goods to the insurer, Abandonment can also mean refusal to accept from a delivering carrier a shipment so damaged in transit as to be worthless. Abandonment is recognized as the release of material by a copyright holder into the public domain. However, statutory abandonment is legally a tricky issue which has little relevant case precedent to establish how an artist can abandon their copyright during their lifetime, the more common approach is to license work under a scheme that provides for public use rather than strictly abandoning copyright. Copyright protection attaches to a work as soon as it is fixed in a tangible medium, before the Copyright Act of 1976 an artist could abandon or forfeit their copyright by neglecting to comply with the relevant formalities. Difficulty arises when one tries to apply the doctrine of abandonment to present-day concerns regarding the abandonment or gifting of a work to the public domain. Despite this test, the current legal environment towards protectionism is so strong that a court might disregard an author’s statements regarding their intent. Abandonment is relinquishment by an inventor of the right to secure a patent, Abandonment is permission sought by or granted to a carrier by a state or federal agency to cease operation of all or part of a route or service. Likewise, in the United States, the Surface Transportation Board grants permission to abandon railway lines and it can involve desertion of a spouse with the intention of creating a permanent separation. Desertion of one spouse by the other without just cause is called malicious abandonment, child abandonment is often recognized as a crime, in which case the child is usually not physically harmed directly as part of the abandonment
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Gentrification
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Gentrification is a process of renovation of deteriorated urban neighborhoods by means of the influx of more affluent residents. This is a common and controversial topic in politics and in urban planning, conversations surrounding gentrification have evolved, as many in the social-scientific community have questioned the negative connotations associated with the word gentrification. Gentrification is typically the result of increased interest in a certain environment, early gentrifiers may belong to low-income artist or boheme communities, which increase the attractiveness and flair of a certain quarter. In addition to these benefits, gentrification can lead to population migration. The term gentrification has come to refer to a phenomenon that can be defined in different ways. Historians say that gentrification took place in ancient Rome and in Roman Britain, the word gentrification derives from gentry—which comes from the Old French word genterise, of gentle birth and people of gentle birth. In England, Landed gentry denoted the social class, consisting of gentlemen and this change has the potential to cause displacement of long-time residents and businesses. When long-time or original neighborhood residents move from an area because of higher rents, mortgages. Gentrification is a housing, economic, and health issue that affects a communitys history and culture and it often shifts a neighborhoods characteristics, e. g. racial-ethnic composition and household income, by adding new stores and resources in previously run-down neighborhoods. German geographers have a more distanced view on gentrification, actual gentrification is seen as a mere symbolic issue happening in a low amount of places and blocks, the symbolic value and visibility in public discourse being higher than actual migration trends. Gerhard Hard assumes that urban flight is more important than inner city gentrification. Volkskunde scholar Barbara Lang introduced the term symbolic gentrification with regard to the Mythos Kreuzberg in Berlin, Lang assumes that complaints about gentrification often come from those who have been responsible for the process in their youth. When former students and bohemians started raising families and earning money in better paid jobs, especially Berlin is a showcase of intense debates about symbols of gentrification, while the actual processes are much slower than in other cities. The citys Prenzlauer Berg district is, however, a child of the capitals gentrification. This leads to mixed feelings amidst the local population, the neologism Bionade-Biedermeier was coined about Prenzlauer Berg. It describes the milieu of the former quartier of the alternative scene. There are several approaches that attempt to explain the roots and the reasons behind the spread of gentrification, bruce London and J. John Palen compiled a list of five explanations, demographic-ecological, sociocultural, political-economical, community networks, and social movements. The first theory, demographic-ecological, attempts to explain gentrification through the analysis of demographics, population, social organization, environment and this theory frequently refers to the growing number of people between the ages of 25 and 35 in the 1970s, or the baby boom generation
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Rent regulation
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Rent regulation is a system of laws, administered by a court or a public authority, which aim to ensure the quality and affordability of housing and tenancies on the rental market for land. Comprehensive rent regulation is common in Commonwealth and European Union countries, including Canada, Germany, Ireland, Cyprus and Sweden, and also some states in the United States. However, many US states maintain rent controls, and a majority of OECD countries maintain rent regulation laws, which enjoy considerable popular support, in Canada there are rent regulation laws in each province. For example, in Ontario the Residential Tenancies Act 2006 requires that prices for rented properties do not rise more than 2.5 percent each year, or a lower figure fixed by a government minister. German rent regulation is found in the Civil Code in §§535 to 580a, rental price increases are required to follow a rental mirror, which is a database of local reference rents. This collects all rents for the past four years, and landlords may only increase prices on their property in line with rents in the same locality, usury rents are prohibited altogether, so that any price rises above 20 per cent over three years are unlawful. Tenants may be evicted against their will through a procedure for a good reason. Tenants receive unlimited duration of their rental agreement unless the duration is explicitly halted, in practice, landlords have little incentive to change tenants as rental price increases beyond inflation are constrained. During the period of the tenancy, a persons tenancy may only be terminated for very good reasons, a system of rights for the rental property to be maintained by the landlord is designed to ensure quality of housing. Many states, such as Berlin, have a right to adequate housing. Rent regulation covered the whole of the UK private sector rental market from 1915 to 1980, however, from the Housing Act 1980, it became the Conservative Partys policy to deregulate and dismantle rent regulation. Regulation for all new tenancies was abolished by the Housing Act 1988, Rent regulations survive among a small number of council houses, and often the rates set by local authorities mirror escalating prices in the non-regulated private market. Rent regulation in the United States is an issue for each state, after the New Deal, the Supreme Court ceased to interfere with social and economic legislation, and a growing number of states adopted rules. For example, in New York City only some properties continue to have the protection of rent regulation, fisher v. City of Berkeley,475 U. S.260 held there was no incompatibility with rent control and the Sherman Act. Price controls remain the most controversial element of a system of rent regulation, historically, economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo viewed landlords as producing very little that was valuable, and so regarded rents as an exploitative concept. Sometimes called rent leveling or rent stabilization, rent regulation is argued to promote social stability by slowing displacement in booming economic cycles and this analysis targeted nominal rent freezes, and the studies conducted were mainly focused on rental prices in Manhattan or elsewhere in the United States. A view at the time was that a well-designed rent control can be beneficial, the Swedish economist Assar Lindbeck, a housing expert, says that rent control appears to be the most efficient technique presently known to destroy a city – except for bombing. English land law R Arnott, ‘Time for Revisionism on Rent Control
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Lease
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An asset-backed security is a security whose income payments and hence value are derived from and collateralized by a specified pool of underlying assets. The pool of assets is typically a group of small and illiquid assets which are unable to be sold individually. The pools of underlying assets can include common payments from credit cards, auto loans, often a separate institution, called a special purpose vehicle, is created to handle the securitization of asset backed securities. The special purpose vehicle, which creates and sells the securities, uses the proceeds of the sale to pay back the bank that created, or originated and this allows banks to invest more of their capital in new loans or other assets and possibly have a lower capital requirement. In the first case, collateralized debt obligations and mortgage-backed securities, are subsets and it has also interpreted the phrase discrete pool to exclude those that can change in composition over time. However, such securities may be shelf-registered on Form S-3 only if the value of the leased property represents less than 20% of the original securitized pool balance. However, consistent with current practice, shelf registration on will be only if delinquent assets constitute 20% or less of the original asset pool. Exceptions to the Discrete Pool Requirement, the new rules generally codify the SEC staff’s position that a security must be backed by a discrete pool of assets in order to be considered an ABS. However, the new rules establish the following exceptions to address market practices, any security issued in a master trust structure would meet the definition of asset-backed security without limitation. Asset-backed securities will also include securities with a period of up to one year during which up to 50% of the offering proceeds may be used for subsequent purchases of pool assets. The new rules also include within the definition of asset-backed security securities with revolving periods during which new financial assets may be acquired, however, the new assets added to the pool during the revolving period must be of the same general character as the original pool assets. Investors typically refer to HELs as any nonagency loans that do not fit either the jumbo or alt-A loan categories. While early HELs were mostly second lien subprime mortgages, first-lien loans now make up the majority of issuance, Subprime mortgage borrowers have a less than perfect credit history and are required to pay interest rates higher than what would be available to a typical agency borrower. The second largest subsector in the ABS market is auto loans, auto finance companies issue securities backed by underlying pools of auto-related loans. Auto ABS are classified into three categories, prime, nonprime, and subprime, Prime auto ABS are collaterized by loans made to borrowers with strong credit histories, nonprime auto ABS consist of loans made to lesser credit quality consumers, which may have higher cumulative losses. Subprime borrowers will typically have lower incomes, tainted credited histories, owner trusts are the most common structure used when issuing auto loans and allow investors to receive interest and principal on sequential basis. Deals can also be structured to pay on a pro-rata or combination of the two, Securities backed by credit card receivables have been benchmark for the ABS market since they were first introduced in 1987. Credit card holders may borrow funds on a basis up to an assigned credit limit
20.
Population transfer
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Banishment or exile is a similar process, but is forcibly applied to individuals and groups. Often the affected population is transferred by force to a distant region, perhaps not suited to their way of life, in addition, the loss of all immovable property and, when rushed, the loss of substantial amounts of movable property, is implied. The best-known recent example caused by economic development is resulting from the construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China. Transfer was considered a drastic but often means to end an ethnic conflict or ethnic civil war. The feasibility of population transfer was hugely increased by the creation of networks from the mid-19th century. Population transfer differs more than simply technically from individually motivated migration, but at times of war, if a state can preserve the fiction that migrations are the result of innumerable personal decisions, the state may be able to claim that it is not to blame for the expulsions. The view of law on population transfer underwent considerable evolution during the 20th century. Prior to World War II, many major population transfers were the result of treaties and had the support of international bodies such as the League of Nations. The tide started to turn when the Charter of the Nuremberg Trials of German Nazi leaders declared forced deportation of civilian populations to be both a war crime and a crime against humanity and that opinion was progressively adopted and extended through the remainder of the century. Underlying the change was the trend to assign rights to individuals, No legal distinction is made between one-way and two-way transfers since the rights of each individual are regarded as independent of the experience of others. The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies, the agreement of recognized States may provide one criterion for the authorization of the final terms of conflict resolution. However, the principle of voluntariness is seldom satisfied, regardless of the objective of the transfer. For the transfer to comply with human rights standards as developed, the same report warned of the difficulty of ensuring true voluntariness, some historical transfers did not call for forced or compulsory transfers, but included options for the affected populations. Nonetheless, the attending the relevant treaties created strong moral, psychological. Moreover, that consent must be free of direct or indirect negative pressure. Deportation or forcible transfer of population is defined as a crime against humanity by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia has indicted and sometimes convicted a number of politicians and military commanders indicted for forced deportations in that region. Ethnic cleansing encompasses deportation or forcible transfer of population and the force involved may involve other crimes and his paper has, however, been rebutted by Jakob Cornidess study The Sudeten German Question after EU Enlargement. Religious warfare over the Protestants led to many seeking refuge in the Low Countries, in the early eighteenth century, some Huguenots emigrated to the Thirteen Colonies
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Dollars & Sense
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Dollars & Sense is a magazine focusing on economics from a progressive perspective, published by Dollars & Sense, Inc, which also publishes textbooks in the same genre. In recent years, the magazine took special interest to issues pertaining to global warming, published since 1974, it is edited by a collective of economists, journalists, and activists committed to the ideals of social justice and economic democracy. It was initially sponsored by the Union for Radical Political Economics, today, the magazine is published by the independent Economic Affairs Bureau, Inc. a 5013 non-profit corporation based in Boston, Massachusetts. The magazine is aimed at academics, students, and activists in the justice, social justice. The magazine has been a frequent winner of Project Censored awards, among its award-winning articles are, Jamie Court, Supremes Limit Punitive Damages, March/April 2004. Bob Feldman, War on the Earth, March/April 2003, arthur Stamoulis, Slamming Shut Open Access, September/October 2002. Heather Boushey, Good Times, Bad Times, Recession and the Welfare Debate, dena Montague and Frida Berrigan, The Business of War in the Democratic Republic Of Congo, Who benefits. Danielle Knight, United McNations, July/August 2000, arvind Ganesan, Corporation Crackdowns, Business Backs Brutality, May/June 1999. Official website Dollars and Sense records, 1974-1997, University Archives and Special Collections, Joseph P. Healey Library, University of Massachusetts Boston Dollars & Sense books
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