1.
Ex parte Merryman
–
Ex parte Merryman,17 F. Cas. 144, is a well-known and controversial U. S. federal court case arose out of the American Civil War. U. S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled that the authority to suspend habeas corpus lay exclusively with Congress. The Executive Branch, including the Army, failed to comply with Taneys Merryman opinion, Taney filed his Merryman decision with the United States Circuit Court for the District of Maryland, but it is unclear if Taneys decision was a circuit court decision. According to this view, Merryman was an in-chambers decision, due to its vague jurisdictional locus and hastened disposition, the nature of the Merryman decision remains contested to this day. The court can then remand the prisoner to custody, release him on bail, in April 1861, actual fighting in the Civil War began. President Lincoln called for the states to provide troops to the Federal government to suppress the rebellion. Troops traveling to Washington passed through Baltimore, Maryland, Baltimore mobs objecting to a war with the seceding states attacked some of the troop transports on April 19. It seemed possible that Maryland would attempt to block the passage of troops, cutting off Washington, at this time the legislature seems to have wanted to avoid involvement in a war with its southern neighbors. However, for the few weeks, troops were brought to Washington via Annapolis. Also on April 19, Lincoln asked Attorney General Edward Bates for an opinion on the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus, the threat to Washington was serious, and Lincoln eventually responded by delegating limited authority to the Army to suspend habeas corpus in Maryland. Militia Lieutenant John Merryman was arrested on May 25 by order of Brigadier General William High Keim of the United States Volunteers, Merryman was charged with treason and being a commissioned lieutenant in an organization intending armed hostility toward the government. In another Maryland habeas corpus case, just prior to Merryman, the commander of Fort McHenry, Major William W. If all this be not rebellion, I know not what to call it, I certainly regard it as sufficient legal cause for suspending the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. Taneys order only directed Cadwalader to produce Merryman, not to release him, during that era, Supreme Court Justices sat as circuit court judges, as well. Cadwalader, although himself a lawyer, had less than one day to draft a response and defense for his conduct, Cadwalader responded to Taneys order on May 27 by sending a colonel to explain that the Army had suspended the writ of habeas corpus under presidential authority. The letter declared that the safety was still threatened and that any errors should be on the side of safety to the country. Because of the seriousness of the charges and the complexity of the issues, Taney refused the request, and instead held Cadwalader in contempt of court for refusing to produce John Merryman
2.
Supreme Court of the United States
–
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
3.
Lambdin P. Milligan
–
Lambdin Purdy Milligan was a lawyer and farmer who was known for his extreme opinions on states rights and his opposition to the Abraham Lincoln administrations conduct of the American Civil War. Believing that the Confederate states of the South had the power under the U. S, Constitution to secede from the Union, he opposed the war to reunite the nation. U. S. Army forces arrested him at his home and tried him and other conspirators by military commission for disloyalty, found guilty, he was sentenced to death. See Ex parte Milligan 71 U. S.2, following the Courts ruling on April 3,1866, Milligan and the others were released from custody. He returned home and practiced law in Huntington, Indiana, where he filed a civil suit claiming damages for the military arrest. On May 30,1871, the found in Milligans favor. Milligan, who was of Irish descent, was born on a farm near Saint Clairsville, in Kirkwood Township, Belmont County and his parents were Moses Milligan Sr, a soldier in the American Revolutionary War, and Mary Milligan. Lambdin was the eighth of nine siblings, Milligans formal schooling ended when he was eight years old. Despite his father threatening to him, Milligan left home. He began teaching in the schools at the age of nineteen. Milligan was admitted to the Ohio bar on October 27,1835 and he was among the class of nine new lawyers that included Edwin M. Stanton, who became a member of Lincolns cabinet during the American Civil War. Milligan moved to Cadiz, in Harrison County, Ohio, where he continued his law practice, before relocating to Huntington County, Indiana, at Huntington, Milligan edited a local newspaper, The Democratic Age, in 1849–50, but it went out of business within a year. He resumed his law practice in 1853, Milligan married Sarah L. Ridgeway on October 27,1835, the same day he passed the Ohio bar. Sarah died on November 20,1870, three year later, on August 12,1873, Milligan married Maria L. Cavender, a widow who was a native of Madison, Indiana. From his youth, Milligan was active in partisan politics, as a young man, he took a prominent role in Belmont County Democratic Party affairs in defense of Jeffersonian states-rights positions. During the Nullification Crisis of the early 1830s, he echoed South Carolinian John C, calhouns stance that the states could nullify offensive federal laws. He followed Calhoun into the Whig Party, but then followed Calhoun back to the Democratic Party when President Martin Van Buren wooed him back to the fold, Milligan continued active in Democratic Party affairs after his move to Indiana. Resuming his law practice after a hiatus of real estate speculation and holding county positions, he developed a reputation as a successful lawyer
4.
United States Reports
–
The United States Reports are the official record of the rulings, orders, case tables, and other proceedings of the Supreme Court of the United States. Opinions of the court in each case, prepended with a prepared by the Reporter of Decisions. For lawyers, citations to United States Reports are the reference for Supreme Court decisions. Following Bluebook, a commonly accepted citation protocol, the case Brown, et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, for example, would be cited as, Brown v. Bd. of Educ. The early volumes of the United States Reports were originally published privately by the individual Supreme Court Reporters, as was the practice in England, the reports were designated by the names of the reporters who compiled them, Dallass Reports, Cranchs Reports, etc. The decisions appearing in the entire first volume and most of the volume of United States Reports are not decisions of the United States Supreme Court. Instead, they are decisions from various Pennsylvania courts, dating from the colonial period, alexander Dallas, a lawyer and journalist, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, had been in the business of reporting these cases for newspapers and periodicals. He subsequently began compiling his case reports in a bound volume and this would come to be known as the first volume of Dallas Reports. Dallas continued to collect and publish Pennsylvania decisions in a volume of his Reports. When the Supreme Court began hearing cases, he added those cases to his reports, starting towards the end of the volume,2 Dallas Reports. Dallas went on to publish a total of four volumes of decisions during his tenure as Reporter, when the Supreme Court moved to Washington, D. C. in 1800, Dallas remained in Philadelphia, and William Cranch took over as unofficial reporter of decisions. In 1817, Congress made the Reporter of Decisions an official, salaried position, in 1874, the U. S. government began to fund the reports publication, creating the United States Reports. The earlier, private reports were retroactively numbered volumes 1–90 of the United States Reports, therefore, decisions appearing in these early reports have dual citation forms, one for the volume number of the United States Reports, and one for the set of nominate reports. For example, the citation to McCulloch v. Maryland is 17 U. S.316
5.
Salmon P. Chase
–
Salmon Portland Chase was an American politician and jurist who served as the sixth Chief Justice of the United States from 1864 to his death in 1873. Earlier in his career, Chase was the 23rd Governor of Ohio, senator from Ohio prior to service under Abraham Lincoln as the 25th Secretary of the Treasury. As Secretary of the Treasury, Chase strengthened the government, introducing its first paper currency as well as a national bank. He coined the slogan of the Free Soil Party, Free Soil, Free Labor, Chief Justice Chase presided over the Senate trial of Andrew Johnson during the Presidents impeachment proceedings in 1868. Chase was born in Cornish, New Hampshire, on January 13,1808, to Janet Ralston and Ithamar Chase, senator Dudley Chase of Vermont was another uncle. He studied in the schools of Windsor, Vermont, and Worthington, Ohio. He was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi Fraternity and Phi Beta Kappa, while at Dartmouth, he taught at the Royalton Academy in Royalton, Vermont. Chase then moved to the District of Columbia, where he opened a school while studying law under U. S. Attorney General William Wirt. He was admitted to the bar in 1829, Chase moved to a country home near Loveland, Ohio, and practiced law in Cincinnati from 1830. He rose to prominence for his compilation of the states statutes. From the beginning, despite the risk to his livelihood, he defended runaway slaves and he worked initially with the American Sunday School Union. Chase was also a member of the literary Semi-Colon Club, its members included Harriet Beecher Stowe, Chase became the leader of the political reformers, as opposed to the Garrisonian abolitionist movement. For his defense of escaped slaves seized in Ohio under the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 and his argument in the case of Jones v. Van Zandt on the constitutionality of fugitive slave laws before the U. S. Supreme Court attracted particular attention. In this and similar cases, the court ruled against him, Chase contended that slavery was local, not national, and that it could exist only by virtue of positive state law. Elected as a Whig to the Cincinnati City Council in 1840, for seven years he was the leader of the Liberty Party in Ohio. He helped balance its idealism with his approach and political thought. He was skillful in drafting platforms and addresses, and he prepared the national Liberty platform of 1843, building the Liberty Party was slow going. By 1848 Chase was leader in the effort to combine the Liberty Party with the Barnburners or Van Buren Democrats of New York to form the Free Soil Party
6.
James Moore Wayne
–
James Moore Wayne was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States and was a United States Representative from Georgia. He served in the United States Army during the War of 1812, from 1812 to 1815 and he served in the Georgia House of Representatives from 1815 to 1816. He then served as the mayor of Savannah from September 8,1817 to July 12,1819 and he resigned to accept the appointment as an Associate Justice to the Supreme Court. He served on the court from January 14,1835 to his death on July 5,1867 and he favored free trade, opposed internal improvements by Congress, and opposed the rechartering of the United States Bank. President Andrew Jackson, who was the seventh President of the United States, while Wayne served his time as a Chief Justice he heard many cases about slavery, tax, and reform. A “Jacksonian”, Wayne agreed with President Andrew Jackson on the ideals of deepening rivers and harbors, Wayne also agreed with President Andrew Jackson on the Indian Removal Act and believed that the land that used to belong to the Indians would belong to the state. The fact that Wayne refused to accept the Indians as an independent nation and forced them to move west, Justice James Moore Wayne was a Unionist. He was against the Confederate States of America, which was shocking because he was from the state of Georgia, as a Unionist in a southern state, James Moore Wayne took a careful approach on the ideals of nullification and consolidation. While Justice Wayne himself remained loyal to the Union, his son Henry C. Wayne served as a general in the Confederate Army, in 1844 Chief Justice James Moore Wayne heard the case Louisville, Cincinnati & Charleston Railroad Co. v. Letson. It centered on the principle that a citizen in a state should have the right to sue a corporation. In these statements Justice Wayne is explaining how owners stopped being relevant and this case was instrumental as it showed the view of the Supreme Court that corporations could be viewed as ‘citizens’ of the states where they were incorporated. This court case was significant in Justice James Moore Wayne’s career and development because this showed that Wayne was willing to increase dominion in the courts. The court case of Dred Scott v. Sandford was argued in front of the United States Supreme Court, taney giving the majority opinion and Judge Wayne concurring. This landmark decision against slave Dred Scott ruled that African-Americans, whether slave or free were not to be considered American citizens, some scholars view this decision, which Justice Wayne concurred with as one of the worst to ever be handed down by the Court. The vacancy caused by the death of Justice John Catron in 1865 had not been filled, in 1869 Congress passed the Circuit Judges Act, setting the court at nine members. With Waynes and Catrons seats remaining vacant, the Court had eight justices at the time of this Act, the new seat was ultimately filled on March 21,1870, by Joseph Philo Bradley. Justice Wayne served on the Supreme Court for 32 years, one of the longest terms for any justice and his leanings stayed consistent and many of his decisions believed power resides in the federal offices such as the U. S. Congress. He held to this in the Dred Scott case supporting Chief Taney’s opinion in the face of criticism by many
7.
Samuel Nelson
–
Samuel Nelson was an American attorney and a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Nelson was born in Hebron, New York on November 10,1792, Nelson’s family was upper middle class, and their income came from the family farm that Nelson grew up on. He obtained his education in the common schools of Hebron. He then entered Middlebury College in Vermont, upon graduation in 1813, Nelson decided on a legal career and read law at the firm of John Savage and David Woods in Salem, New York. Two years later, Savage and Woods dissolved their practice, Nelson received his license to practice law in 1817, and entered private practice in Cortland. He developed a successful practice, specializing in real estate. Nelson was an elector in 1820, voting for James Monroe. Nelson was Postmaster of Cortland from 1820 to 1823, in 1821, Nelson served as a delegate to the New York Constitutional Convention, as one of the Bucktails faction led by Martin van Buren. Nelson argued for expansion of suffrage and for restructuring the state judiciary, the revised constitution was adopted, and created eight new Circuit Courts. In 1823, Governor Joseph Yates appointed him Judge of the new Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, after eight years as a circuit court judge, Nelson was appointed to the New York Supreme Court in 1831 by Governor Enos Throop. Six years later Governor William Marcy additionally promoted him to the position of chief justice and he was an unsuccessful candidate for U. S. On February 4,1845, Nelson was nominated by President John Tyler as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, the unpopular Tyler had failed repeatedly to fill the Thompson vacancy, as the Whig-controlled Senate rejected his earlier nominations of John C. Spencer, Reuben Walworth, Edward King, and John M. Read, tylers nomination of Nelson was a surprise, but proved to be a popular choice. Nelson was a respected chief justice on the New York Supreme Court. The Whigs found Nelson acceptable because, although he was a Democrat, he had a reputation as a careful, the Senate confirmed Nelsons appointment on February 14,1845, after just ten days. Samuel Nelson was the only Supreme Court Justice to be appointed by President Tyler, Nelson served as a Justice for 27 years, until his retirement on November 28,1872. His tenure was generally viewed as unremarkable, during his time on the court Nelson acquired a reputation of fairness and directness. In accordance with his stance, he wrote mostly uncontroversial opinions
8.
Robert Cooper Grier
–
Robert Cooper Grier, was an American jurist who served on the Supreme Court of the United States. A Jacksonian Democrat from Pennsylvania who served from 1846 to 1870, Grier was born in Cumberland County, Pennsylvania to Elizabeth Cooper Grier and Isaac Grier, a Presbyterian minister and school teacher, who tutored him until he entered Dickinson College. Grier graduated from Dickinson in only one year, receiving a B. A. in 1812 and he succeeded his father as headmaster in 1815. Grier married Isabelle Rose, the daughter of a wealthy Scottish immigrant, Grier was a political organizer for the Jacksonians in the Democrats. In 1833 Grier was rewarded with an appointment to a judgeship on the Pennsylvania state District Court for Allegheny County. He served there for 13 years, developing a reputation for competence, U. S. Supreme Court Justice Henry Baldwin died in 1844 during the administration of President Tyler. Tyler made two attempted appointments to the seat, Edward King and John M. Read, but the Senate confirmed neither, Polk also made two nominations, one of whom refused the appointment, and the Senate refused to confirm George Washington Woodward. Polk finally nominated Grier on August 3,1846, plucking him from relative obscurity, the Senate unanimously approved Grier on August 4,1846, and he received his commission the same day, joining fellow Dickinson alumnus, Chief Justice Roger Brooke Taney, on the Court. His less famous economic opinions, however, are integral to understanding Grier’s overall significance, in studying Grier’s time on the bench, it is important to begin with Cook v. Moffat. In this case, William G. Cook of Maryland filed bankruptcy in his home state and he believed that, because he had made this decision under Maryland’s insolvency laws, he escaped from all debts, including those that he owed to citizens and companies in other states. John L. Moffat and Joseph Curtis, the respondents in this case, as citizens of New York, Moffat and Curtis argued that Maryland’s bankruptcy laws did not free Cook from his obligations in other states. In his first majority opinion, Grier ruled in favor of Moffat and Curtis, finding that a State shall not “inflict her bankrupt laws on contracts and persons not within her limits. ”Perhaps more important than what Grier ruled in the case is how he ruled. Citing multiple opinions, Grier remarked that holding in favor of Cook would “overrule every case heretofore decided on this most difficult and intricate subject. ”To “depart from the maxim of stare decisis, ” said Grier. Grier’s respect of the Court’s previous rulings constitutes an essential component of his first major opinion, Grier authored another decisive majority opinion on the question of contracts in Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad Company v. Louisa Railroad Company. This case revolved around an 1834 charter issued by Virginia to the Richmond, Fredericksburg, the charter granted the RFP sole rights to transport passengers between Richmond and Fredericksburg for a period of thirty years, establishing a contract between the company and the state. Nonetheless, Virginia approved a charter to establish the Louisa Railroad Company in 1848, the LRC, which proposed to carry only freight, followed a route similar to that of the RFP. Feeling that its contract had been violated, the RFP filed suit. ”Plainly answering himself, Grier explained that “such a contract cannot be elicited from the letter or spirit of this act, ” thus ruling in favor of the LRC. There is absolutely nothing which can or will impair his reputation as a judge or an upright, nonetheless, the Committees report is intriguing because it was authored by Hendrick B
9.
Nathan Clifford
–
Nathan Clifford was an American statesman, diplomat and jurist, whose career culminated in a lengthy period of service as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Clifford was born of old Yankee stock in Rumney, New Hampshire, to Deacon Nathaniel Clifford and Lydia Simpson Clifford and he attended the public schools of that town, then the Haverhill Academy in New Hampshire, and finally the New Hampton Literary Institute. After teaching school for a time, he studied law in the offices of Josiah Quincy III and was admitted to the bar in Maine in 1827, establishing his first practice in Newfield and it was in Newfield where he met his wife, Hannah Ayer. He served in the Maine House of Representatives from 1830 to 1834 and he was then Maine Attorney General from 1834 until 1838, when he entered national politics. Initially, Clifford ran for the Senate and lost, then, Clifford was elected as a Democrat to the 26th and 27th Congresses, serving March 4,1839, through March 3,1843, and representing the Second and then the Third District. In Washington D. C. he followed the Democratic party line on policies, Clifford was opposed to a high tariff, supported internal improvements, endorsed state banking, and was in favor of federal retrenchment. He also criticized abolition, saying that its supporters were well intentioned but denounced the “mean and incendiary schemes of political Abolitionists. ”Due to re-redistricting and political infighting, Clifford was not a candidate for re-election in 1842. In 1846, President James K. Polk appointed him 20th Attorney General of the United States after his predecessor, mason, returned to being Naval Secretary. Clifford served in Polks Cabinet from October 17,1846, to March 17,1848, Clifford resigned his post with the Justice Department to become the U. S. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Mexico, serving from March 18,1848 to September 6,1849 and it was through Clifford that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was arranged with Mexico, by which California became a part of the United States. A Whig Presidential victory meant that Clifford was recalled to the United States, following his service in the diplomatic corps, Clifford resumed the practice of law in Portland, Maine. Cliffords was a contested nomination. A perennial partisan Democrat, to the opposition Clifford seemed to be a political hack, Clifford was labeled a “doughface, ” a Northern man with Southern sympathies. Especially due to his position, anti-slavery representatives in the Senate fiercely opposed Clifford. Rather, they delayed his confirmation for thirty four days, and Clifford was confirmed on January 12,1858, by a narrow margin of 26 votes to 23 in the United States Senate. If not for the Democratic Party rallying around their candidate, the absence of two of his opponents, and the last minute change in stance by a Democratic Senator and his specialties were commercial and maritime law, Mexican land grants, and procedure and practice. Though he rarely declared any legal philosophy about the Constitution, Justice Clifford believed in a dividing line between federal and state authority. ”Clifford supported a mechanical jurisprudence adhering to the strict text of the Constitution. Clifford was a Unionist, but distrusted federal authority and this meant that during the American Civil War he generally supported the government’s policies, although he opposed the use of arbitrary powers
10.
Noah Haynes Swayne
–
Noah Haynes Swayne was an American jurist and politician. He was the first Republican appointed as a justice to the United States Supreme Court, Swayne was born in Frederick County, Virginia in the uppermost reaches of the Shenandoah Valley, approximately 100 miles northwest of Washington D. C. He was the youngest of nine children of Joshua Swayne and Rebecca Swayne and he was a descendant of Francis Swayne, who emigrated from England in 1710 and settled near Philadelphia. After his father died in 1809, Noah was educated locally until enrolling in Jacob Mendendhalls Academy in Waterford, Virginia and he began to study medicine in Alexandria, Virginia, but abandoned this pursuit after his teacher Dr. George Thornton died in 1819. Despite his family having no money to support his education, he read law under John Scott and Francis Brooks in Warrenton, Virginia. A devout Quaker, Swayne was deeply opposed to slavery, and his abolitionist sentiments caused him to move to Ohio. He began a practice in Coshocton and, in 1825, was elected Coshocton County Attorney. Four years later he was elected to the Ohio state legislature, in 1830 he was appointed U. S. Attorney for Ohio by Andrew Jackson, and moved to Columbus to take up the new position. While serving as U. S. Attorney, Swayne was elected in 1834 to the Columbus City Council, as U. S. Attorney, Swayne became close friends with Supreme Court justice John McLean. McLean, by the end of his career, was a strong Republican, disney, to Washington D. C. to confer with President Andrew Jackson. The delegation presented Ohios case and urged the President to act swiftly to address the situation, John McLean was one of two dissenters in the Dred Scott case. He sought the Republican nomination for President in 1860, losing to Abraham Lincoln, however, he recommended to Lincoln on a number of occasions that Swayne be nominated to replace him on the court. This proved timely, McLean died shortly after Lincolns inauguration, in April 1861, as the American Civil War began, Swayne campaigned for the vacant seat, lobbying several Ohio members of Congress for their support. As the Supreme Court media itself notes, Swayne satisfied Lincolns criteria for appointment, commitment to the Union, slavery opponent and it is also believed that Swayne had also represented fugitive slaves in court. So eight months after McLeans death, Swayne was nominated, on January 21,1862, the nomination was confirmed by the United States Senate on January 24,1862, with Swayne receiving his commission the same day. Fields dissent was important, and presaged later decisions broadening the scope of the Fourteenth Amendment, however, four years later Swayne joined the majority in Munn v. Illinois, with Field still dissenting. Swaynes potential judicial greatness failed to materialize and he is also said to have been the weakest. His main distinction was his staunch support of the presidents war measures, the Union blockade, issuance of paper money
11.
Samuel Freeman Miller
–
Samuel Freeman Miller was an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court who served from 1862 to 1890. He was a physician and lawyer, born in Richmond, Kentucky, Miller was the son of yeoman farmers. He earned a degree in 1838 from Transylvania University in Lexington. While practicing medicine for a decade, he studied the law on his own and was admitted to the bar in 1847, favoring the abolition of slavery, which was prevalent in Kentucky, he supported the Whigs in Kentucky. Miller moved to Keokuk, in Iowa, a more amenable to his views on slavery. Active in Hawkeye politics, he supported Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 election, Lincoln nominated Miller to the Supreme Court on July 16,1862, after the beginning of the American Civil War. His reputation was so high that Miller was confirmed half an hour after the Senate received notice of his nomination and his opinions strongly favored Lincolns positions, and he upheld his wartime suspension of habeas corpus and trials by military commission. After the war, his reading of the Fourteenth Amendment—he wrote the opinion in the Slaughterhouse Cases—limited the effectiveness of the amendment. In Ex Parte Yarbrough,110 U. S.651, however, Miller held that the government had broad authority to act to protect black voters from violence by the Ku Klux Klan. Miller also supported the use of federal power under the Commerce Clause to trump state regulations. Justice Miller wrote more opinions than any other Supreme Court Justice, after the 1876 presidential election between Rutherford Hayes and Samuel Tilden, Miller served on the electoral commission that awarded the disputed electoral votes to the Republican Hayes. In the 1880s, his name was floated as a Republican candidate for president, Miller, a religious liberal, belonged to the Unitarian Church and served as President of the Unitarians National Conference. Following his death, his funeral was held at Keokuks First Unitarian Church and he died in Washington, D. C. while still a member of the court. He is buried at Oakland Cemetery in Keokuk, Iowa, the Slaughter-House Cases,83 U. S.36 Murdock v. Memphis,87 U. S.20 Wall. 590590 United States v. Kagama,118 U. S.375 In re Burrus,136 U. S.586 Justice Samuel Freeman Miller House, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa Ross, Michael A. Hill Country Doctor, The Early Life and Career of Supreme Court Justice Samuel F. Miller in Kentucky, 1816-1849, The Filson History Quarterly, Vol.71, 430–446. Ross, Michael A. Justice of Shattered Dreams, Samuel Freeman Miller, baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press. Justice Millers Reconstruction, The Slaughter-House Cases, Health Codes, and Civil Rights in New Orleans, 1861-1873
12.
David Davis (Supreme Court justice)
–
David Davis was a United States Senator from Illinois and associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. Davis and Lamon, along with another Lincoln associate, Leonard Swett, educated at Kenyon College and Yale University, Davis settled in Bloomington, Illinois in the 1830s, where he practiced law. He served in the Illinois legislature and as a delegate to the constitutional convention before becoming a state Judge in 1848. Lincoln practiced law in his court, after Lincoln won the presidency, Davis was appointed to the United States Supreme Court, where he served until being elected to the Senate in 1877. He was born to a family in Cecil County, Maryland. After graduating from Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio, in 1832, he went on to law in Massachusetts. Upon his graduation from Yale in 1835, Davis moved to Bloomington, Illinois and he married Sarah Woodruff Walker of Lenox, Massachusetts, in 1838. Two of their children, George and Sallie, survived to adulthood, Davis also served as a member of the Illinois House of Representatives in 1845 and a delegate to the Illinois constitutional convention in McLean County,1847. From 1848 to 1862, Davis presided over the court of the Illinois Eighth Circuit, Davis was a delegate to the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago, serving as Lincolns campaign manager during the 1860 presidential election. After President Lincolns assassination, Judge Davis was an administrator of his estate, formally nominated on December 1,1862, Davis was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 8,1862, and received his commission the same day. On the Court, Davis became famous for writing one of the most profound decisions in the Supreme Court history, in that decision, the court set aside the death sentence imposed during the Civil War by a military commission upon a civilian, Lambdin P. Milligan. Milligan had been guilty of inciting insurrection. The Supreme Court held that since the courts were operative. The opinion denounced arbitrary military power, effectively becoming one of the bulwarks of held notions of American civil liberty, in 1870 he held, with the minority of the Supreme Court, that the acts of Congress making government notes a legal tender in payment of debts were constitutional. He is the judge of the Supreme Court with no recorded affiliation to any religious sect. In answer to the letter informing him of the nomination, Judge Davis said, the chief magistracy of the republic should neither be sought nor declined by any American citizen. He withdrew from the presidential contest when he failed to receive the Liberal Republican Party nomination, Greeley died after the popular election and before the return of the electoral vote. One of Greeleys electoral votes went to Davis, in 1877, Davis narrowly avoided the opportunity to be the only person to ever single-handedly select the President of the United States
13.
Stephen Johnson Field
–
Stephen Johnson Field was an American jurist. He was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court from March 10,1863, prior to this appointment, he was the fifth Chief Justice of California. Born in Haddam, Connecticut, he was the sixth of the nine children of David Dudley Field I, a Congregationalist minister, henry Martyn Field a prominent clergyman and travel writer. He grew up in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and went to Turkey at thirteen with his sister Emilia and her missionary husband and he received a BA from Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, in 1837. While attending Williams College he was one of the original Founders of Delta Upsilon Fraternity, in California, Fields legal practice boomed and he was elected alcalde, a form of mayor and justice of the peace under the old Mexican rule of law, of Marysville. The voters sent him to the California State Assembly in 1850 to represent Yuba County and his successful legal practice led to his election to the California Supreme Court in 1857, serving six years. During his time on the Supreme Court of California, Field had a coat made with pockets large enough to hold two pistols so that he could shoot at his various enemies through the pockets. In 1858 he was challenged to a duel by a fellow Judge but at the dueling ground, neither man fired his gun. In 1859 Field replaced the chief justice of the California Supreme Court, David S. Terry because Judge Terry killed a United States Senator from California in a duel. Oddly, Field and Terrys paths crossed again 30 years later when Field, acting in his capacity as a judge of the 9th Federal Circuit Court, ruled against Terry in a convoluted divorce case. Seeking revenge, Terry attempted to kill Field in 1889 near Stockton, California but was shot dead by Justice Fields bodyguard. Ironically, legal issues arising from the killing of Mr. Terry came before the Supreme Court in the 1890 habeas corpus case of In re Neagle. On March 6,1863, Abraham Lincoln appointed Field to the newly created tenth Supreme Court seat, the appointment would also give the Court someone familiar with real estate and mining issues. Field was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 10,1863, Fields vocal advocacy of substantive due process was illustrated in his dissents to the Slaughterhouse Cases and Munn v. Illinois. In the Slaughter-House Cases, Justice Fields dissent focused on the Privileges or Immunities clause, in both Munn v Illinois and Mugler v Kansas, Justice Field based his dissent on the protection of property interests by the Due Process clause. One of Fields most notable opinions was his majority opinion in Pennoyer v. Neff and his views on due process were eventually adopted by the courts majority after he left the Supreme Court. In other cases he helped end the tax, limited antitrust law. On racial issues, Justice Field is regarded to have had a poor record
14.
United States Constitution
–
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states
15.
Habeas Corpus Suspension Act 1863
–
The Habeas Corpus Suspension Act,12 Stat. The Senate amended the Houses bill, and the compromise reported out of the conference committee altered it to qualify the indemnity, Abraham Lincoln signed the bill into law on March 3,1863, and suspended habeas corpus under the authority it granted him six months later. The suspension was lifted with the issuance of Proclamation 148 by Andrew Johnson. The military situation made it dangerous to call Congress into session, Abraham Lincoln, the president of the United States, therefore authorized his military commanders to suspend the writ of habeas corpus between Washington, D. C. and Philadelphia. Numerous individuals were arrested, including John Merryman and a number of Baltimore police commissioners, the Presidents advisers said the circuit courts ruling was invalid and it was ignored. When Congress was called into session, July 4,1861. Early in the session, Sen. Sen, on July 17,1861, Sen. Trumbull introduced a bill to suppress insurrection and sedition which included a suspension of the writ of habeas corpus upon Congresss authority. He was imprisoned in Fort McHenry, which, as he noted, was the fort where the Star Spangled Banner had been waving oer the land of the free in his grandfathers song. In early 1862 Lincoln took a back from the suspension of habeas corpus controversy. On February 14, he ordered all political prisoners released, with exceptions and offered them amnesty for past treason or disloyalty. Mays bill passed the House in summer 1862, and it would later be included in the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act, which would require actual indictments for suspected traitors. He also said, I approved them then, and I approve them now, and this bill passed the House over relatively weak opposition on December 8,1862. When it came time for the Senate to consider Rep. Stevens indemnity bill, however, unlike Stevens bill, it did not suggest that the presidents suspension of habeas corpus upon his own authority had been legal. The Senate passed its version of the bill on January 28,1863, the House appointed Thaddeus Stevens, John Bingham, and George H. Pendleton to the conference committee. The Senate agreed to a conference the day and appointed Lyman Trumbull, Jacob Collamer. Stevens, Bingham, Trumbull, and Collamer were all Republicans, Willey was a Unionist, on February 27, the conference committee issued its report. The result was a new bill authorizing the explicit suspension of habeas corpus. In the House, several members left, depriving the chamber of a quorum, the Sergeant-at-Arms was dispatched to compel attendance and several representatives were fined for their absence
16.
President of the United States
–
The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
17.
Abraham Lincoln
–
Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
18.
Union (American Civil War)
–
The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
19.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
20.
William A. Bowles
–
William A. Bowles was a physician, landowner, and politician from French Lick, Orange County, Indiana. He is best remembered for establishing the first French Lick Springs Hotel, a mineral springs resort hotel in the 1840s, Bowles, a Democrat, served two terms in the Indiana state legislature. During the Mexican-American War he became a colonel in the 2nd Indiana Volunteer Regiment, an outspoken advocate of slavery as an institution, Bowles was sympathetic to the South during the American Civil War. In 1863 Harrison H. Dodd, leader of the Order of Sons of Liberty in Indiana, Bowles also played a role in the Indianapolis treason trials in 1864, when he and three others were convicted of plotting to overthrow the federal government. Following his release from prison in 1886, Bowles returned to Orange County, Indiana, Bowles was sentenced to hang, but President Andrew Johnson authorized a commutation of sentence to life imprisonment on May 30,1865. The landmark U. S. Supreme Court case found that the trial in Indianapolis by the commission was unconstitutional because the civilian courts were still in operation. The military commission had no jurisdiction to try and sentence the men in this instance, and as a result, Bowles was released from prison in 1866. William Augustus Bowles was born in Maryland in 1799 to Isaac Bowles and he was the first of their ten children. Isaac, who was of English ancestry, moved the family to Rockbridge County, Virginia, little is known of Williams early education, it is not known where he received his medical training to become a physician. Bowles was married three times, with the first two ending in divorce. Little is known of his first marriage, Bowless second wife was Eliza Carlin, a native of Louisiana, whom he married in 1845. In 1868 Eliza sued William for divorce, charging him of improper conduct, Bowles failed to make the payments. Alimony payments, accumulated interest, and other fees amounting to nearly $40,000 was taken from his following his death. In 1872, the year before his death, Bowles married Julia Albee, in 1829 Bowles and his brother, Thomas Carrington Bowles came to Orange County from Washington County, Indiana. After it was determined that the springs were not saline enough to make it practical for state-sponsored salt mining at French Lick. In 1832 the Bowles brothers bought lands totaling almost 1,500 acres that included the springs at French Lick from the state government. Thomas assigned his ownership of the property to his brother and returned to Washington County, William continued to live in Orange County, residing at Paoli, Indiana. He did not immediately develop his lands at French Lick, as a young man, Bowles became a minister in the Baptist church in what is now known as West Baden, Indiana, but he was expelled after quarreling with its members
21.
Andrew Humphreys
–
Representative from Bloomfield, Greene County, Indiana, who served in the Forty-fourth Congress. Prior to the American Civil War, Humphreys was as a member of the Indiana House of Representatives, in 1864 Humphreys was a defendant in a controversial trial by a military commission that convened on October 21 at Indianapolis, where he and three others were convicted of treason. Humphreys was sentenced to labor for the remainder of the war. At the end of the war, Humphreys resumed a career in politics, which included terms in Forty-fourth Congress, born near Knoxville, Tennessee, Humphreys moved with his parents to Owen County, Indiana, in 1829. Afterwards, the relocated to Putnam County, near Manhattan. He moved to Greene County in 1842, Humphreys, who was a Democrat, settled in Bloomfield, Greene County, Indiana, and served as a member of the Indiana House of Representatives from 1849 to 1852, and from January 8 to March 9,1857. He was appointed Indian agent for Utah by President Buchanan in 1857, during the American Civil War, Humphreys was critical of Indianas Republican governor, Oliver P. Morton, and President Abraham Lincolns conduct of the war. Harrison H. Dodd, grand commander of the Sons of Liberty in Indiana, the controversial proceedings led to the landmark U. S. Supreme Court case known as Ex parte Milligan. The Court ruled the application of military tribunals to citizens when civilian courts are still operating is unconstitutional, on December 10,1864, the commission found Humphreys, Milligan, Horsey, and Bowles guilty on all charges. Humphreys was sentenced to labor for the remainder of the war. Compared to the accused as co-conspirators, the case against Humphreys was weaker. Three weeks after his conviction, and with President Lincolns support, General Hovey modified Humphreyss sentence, Humphreys was required to remain within two specific townships in Greene County and could not participate in any acts that opposed the war. After the U. S. Supreme Court handed down their ruling in Ex parte Milligan on April 3,1866, Humphreys was the first of the defendants from the Indianapolis treason trials to turn to the civilian courts seeking damages from his arrest, trial, and confinement. On February 1,1866, he filed a complaint in a court in Sullivan County, Indiana, against Samuel McCormick. Humphrey won the suit and was awarded $25,000 in damages, although he lost his bid to win a seat in the Indiana General Assembly by a narrow margin in 1868, Humphreys remained active in politics. He served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1872 and 1888, Humphreys was elected to the Indiana Senate three times, serving from 1874 to 1876, from 1878 to 1882, and from 1896 to 1900. Humphreys began his first term in the Indiana Senate in 1874, Humphreys was elected as a Democrat to the Forty-fourth Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of James D. Williams and served from December 5,1876, to March 3,1877. Humphreys returned to the Indiana Senate in 1878 and became chairman of the its ways, in 1896, at the age of seventy-four, the Democrats drafted Humphreys to run for another term in the Indiana Senate
22.
Indianapolis
–
Indianapolis, is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Indiana and the seat of Marion County. It is in the East North Central region of the Midwestern United States, with an estimated population of 853,173 in 2015, Indianapolis is the second most populous city in the Midwest, after Chicago, and 14th largest in the U. S. The city is the economic and cultural center of the Indianapolis metropolitan area, home to 2 million people and its combined statistical area ranks 26th, with 2.4 million inhabitants. Indianapolis covers 372 square miles, making it the 16th largest city by area in the U. S. The city grew beyond the Mile Square, as completion of the National Road and advent of the railroad solidified the position as a manufacturing. Indianapolis is within a single-day drive of 70 percent of the nations population, Indianapolis has developed niche markets in amateur sports and auto racing. The city is perhaps best known for hosting the worlds largest single-day sporting event. The city is notable as headquarters for the American Legion and home to a significant collection of monuments dedicated to veterans and war dead, the most in the U. S. outside of Washington, D. C. Since the 1970 city-county consolidation, known as Unigov, local government administration has operated under the direction of an elected 25-member city-county council, Indianapolis is considered a high sufficiency global city. In 1816, the year Indiana gained statehood, the U. S. Congress donated four sections of land to establish a permanent seat of state government. Two years later, under the Treaty of St. Marys and this tract of land, which was called the New Purchase, included the site selected for the new state capital in 1820. The availability of new lands for purchase in central Indiana attracted settlers. Although many of these first European and American setters were Protestants, few African Americans lived in central Indiana before 1840. The first European Americans to permanently settle in the area that became Indianapolis were either the McCormick or Pogue families, on January 11,1820, the Indiana General Assembly authorized a committee to select a site in central Indiana for the new state capital. The state legislature approved the site, adopting the name Indianapolis on January 6,1821, in April, Alexander Ralston and Elias Pym Fordham were appointed to survey and design a town plan for the new settlement. Indianapolis became a seat of county government on December 31,1821, a combined county and town government continued until 1832, when Indianapolis incorporated as a town. Indianapolis became an incorporated city effective March 30,1847, Samuel Henderson, the citys first mayor, led the new city government, which included a seven-member city council. In 1853, voters approved a new city charter provided for an elected mayor
23.
Confederate States of America
–
The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
24.
Rebellion
–
Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the resistance against the orders of an established authority. The term comes from the Latin verb rebellō, I renew war (from re- + bellō, the rebel is the individual that partakes in rebellion or rebellious activities, particularly when armed. Thus, the rebellion also refers to the ensemble of rebels in a state of revolt. A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation, Rebellion can be individual or collective, peaceful or violent In political terms, rebellion and revolt are often distinguished by their different aims. If rebellion generally seeks to evade an oppressive power, a revolt seeks to overthrow and destroy that power, the goal of rebellion is resistance while a revolt seeks a revolution. As power shifts relative to the adversary, or power shifts within a mixed coalition, or positions harden or soften on either side. The following theories broadly build on the Marxist interpretation of rebellion and they explore the causes of rebellion from a wide lens perspective. Marx writes about the structure of society that must be elucidated through an examination of the direct relationship of the owners of the conditions of production to the direct producers. The mismatch, between one mode of production, between the forces and the social ownership of the production, is at the origin of the revolution. The inner imbalance within these modes of production is derived from the modes of organization, such as capitalism within feudalism. The dynamics engineered by these class frictions help class consciousness root itself in the collective imaginary, for example, the development of the bourgeoisie class went from oppressed merchant class to urban independence, eventually gaining enough power to represent the state as a whole. Social movements, thus, are determined by a set of circumstances. The proletariat must also, according to Marx, go through the process of self-determination which can only be achieved by friction against the bourgeoisie. In Marxs theory revolutions are the locomotives of history, it is because rebellion has for ultimate goal to overthrow the ruling class and its antiquated mode of production. Later, rebellion attempts to replace it with a new system of political economy, one that is suited to the new ruling class. The cycle of rebellion, thus, replaces one mode of production by another through the constant class friction, in his book Why Men Rebel, Ted Gurr looks at the roots of political violence itself applied to a rebellion framework. He defines political violence as, all collective attacks within a political community against the political regime, the concept represents a set of events, a common property of which is the actual or threatened use of violence
25.
Andrew Johnson
–
Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. Johnson became president as he was president at the time of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. A Democrat who ran with Lincoln on the National Union ticket, the new president favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union. His plans did not give protection to the slaves, and he came into conflict with the Republican-dominated Congress. The first American president to be impeached, he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote, Johnson was born in poverty in Raleigh, North Carolina. Apprenticed as a tailor, he worked in several towns before settling in Greeneville. He served as alderman and mayor there before being elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1835, after brief service in the Tennessee Senate, Johnson was elected to the federal House of Representatives in 1843, where he served five two-year terms. He became Governor of Tennessee for four years, and was elected by the legislature to the Senate in 1857, in his congressional service, he sought passage of the Homestead Bill, which was enacted soon after he left his Senate seat in 1862. As Southern slave states, including Tennessee, seceded to form the Confederate States of America and he was the only sitting senator from a Confederate state who did not resign his seat upon learning of his states secession. In 1862, Lincoln appointed him as governor of Tennessee after most of it had been retaken. When Johnson was sworn in as president in March 1865, he gave a rambling speech. Six weeks later, the assassination of Lincoln made him president, Johnson implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction – a series of proclamations directing the seceded states to hold conventions and elections to re-form their civil governments. Johnson vetoed their bills, and Congressional Republicans overrode him, setting a pattern for the remainder of his presidency, Johnson opposed the Fourteenth Amendment, which gave citizenship to former slaves. In 1866, Johnson went on a national tour promoting his executive policies. As the conflict between the branches of government grew, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, restricting Johnsons ability to fire Cabinet officials. When he persisted in trying to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, he was impeached by the House of Representatives, and narrowly avoided conviction in the Senate and removal from office. Returning to Tennessee after his presidency, Johnson sought political vindication, Johnson is regarded by many historians as one of the worst presidents in American history. While some admire his strict constitutionalism, his opposition to federally guaranteed rights for African Americans is widely criticized
26.
Habeas corpus
–
Habeas corpus is a recourse in law whereby a person can report an unlawful detention or imprisonment before a court, usually through a prison official. The writ of habeas corpus is known as the great and efficacious writ in all manner of illegal confinement, if the custodian is acting beyond his or her authority, then the prisoner must be released. Any prisoner, or another person acting on his or her behalf, may petition the court, or a judge, One reason for the writ to be sought by a person other than the prisoner is that the detainee might be held incommunicado. Most civil law jurisdictions provide a remedy for those unlawfully detained. For example, in some Spanish-speaking nations, the equivalent remedy for unlawful imprisonment is the amparo de libertad, though a writ of right, it is not a writ of course. So if an imposition such as internment without trial is permitted by the law, in some countries, the writ has been temporarily or permanently suspended under the pretext of war or state of emergency. The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus has nonetheless long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject, the most common of the other such prerogative writs are quo warranto, prohibito, mandamus, procedendo, and certiorari. The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, the official who is the respondent must prove his authority to do or not do something. Failing this, the court must decide for the petitioner, who may be any person and this differs from a motion in a civil process in which the movant must have standing, and bears the burden of proof. From Latin habeas, 2nd person singular present subjunctive active of habere, to have, to hold, in reference to more than one person, habeas corpora. Literally, the means you may have the body. The complete phrase habeas corpus ad subjiciendum means you may have the person for the purpose of subjecting him/her to. These are the words of writs in 14th century Anglo-French documents requiring a person to be brought before a court or judge. The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs, Habeas corpus ad prosequendum, a writ ordering return with a prisoner for the purpose of prosecuting him before the court. Habeas corpus ad respondendum, a writ ordering return to allow the prisoner to answer to new proceedings before the court, Habeas corpus ad testificandum, a writ ordering return with the body of a prisoner for the purposes of testifying. Habeas Corpus originally stems from the Assize of Clarendon, a re-issuance of rights during the reign of Henry II of England, in the 17th century the foundations for habeas corpus were wrongly thought to have originated in Magna Carta. William Blackstone cites the first recorded usage of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum in 1305, however, other writs were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of Henry II in the 12th century. The procedure for issuing a writ of habeas corpus was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, a previous law had been passed forty years earlier to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of habeas corpus
27.
Martial law
–
It is usually imposed temporarily when the government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, such incidents may occur after a coup détat, when threatened by popular protest, to suppress political opposition, or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of natural disasters, however, most countries use a different legal construct. Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan as well as the Southern Reconstruction following the U. S. Civil War. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal, the Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people and it would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. Brunei has been under a law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 known as the Brunei Revolt and was put down by British troops from Singapore. e. The military does not administer justice, which remains in the hands of the courts, the Act has been invoked three times, During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, during the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the army of the American Continental Congress in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the territory of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections and it was imposed until April 27,1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4,1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, in Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, state of emergency was declared, Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since, the Parliament has renewed the emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006, but after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was an extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to Terrorism. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation, under martial law the source of power is not the people, not the parliament, not the constitution, not a Holy Text, but solely the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The military issued in its announcement the end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt. Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the power to declare a State of Emergency
28.
Article One of the United States Constitution
–
Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress. The Congress is a legislature consisting of a House of Representatives. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, Section 1 is a vesting clause that bestows federal legislative power exclusively to Congress. Similar clauses are found in Articles II and III, the former confers executive power upon the President alone, and the latter grants judicial power solely to the federal judiciary. These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government and this separation of powers, by which each department may exercise only its own constitutional powers and no others, is fundamental to the idea of a limited government accountable to the people. The separation of powers principle is particularly noteworthy in regard to the Congress, the Constitution declares that the Congress may exercise only those legislative powers herein granted within Article I. It also, by implied extension, prohibits Congress from delegating its authority to either of the other branches of government. That the power assigned to each branch must remain with that branch, although not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, Congress has also long asserted the power to investigate and the power to compel cooperation with an investigation. The Supreme Court has affirmed these powers as an implication of Congresss power to legislate, since the power to investigate is an aspect of Congresss power to legislate, it is as broad as Congresss powers to legislate. However, it is limited to inquiries that are in aid of the legislative function. The courts are highly deferential to Congresss exercise of its investigation powers, Congress has the power to investigate that which it could regulate, and the courts have interpreted Congresss regulatory powers broadly since the Great Depression. Section Two provides for the election of the House of Representatives every second year, since Representatives are to be chosen. At the time of its creation, the Constitution did not explicitly give citizens an inherent right to vote, rather, it provided that those qualified to vote in elections for the largest chamber of a states legislature may vote in Congressional elections. Since the Civil War, several amendments have been enacted that have curbed the states broad powers to set voter qualification standards. The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, the Nineteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex. The Twenty-fourth Amendment prohibits the revocation of voting due to the non-payment of a poll tax. The Twenty-sixth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, in the 1960s, the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. There is no requirement that a Representative reside within the district in which he or she represents, although this is usually the case, there have been occasional exceptions
29.
Clement Vallandigham
–
Clement Laird Vallandigham was an Ohio politician and leader of the Copperhead faction of anti-war Democrats during the American Civil War. He served two terms in the United States House of Representatives, in 1863 he was convicted at an Army court martial of opposing the war, and exiled to the Confederacy. He ran for governor of Ohio in 1863 from exile in Canada, Clement Laird Vallandigham was born July 29,1820 in New Lisbon, Ohio, to Clement and Rebecca Laird Vallandigham. His father, a Presbyterian minister, educated his son at home, in 1841, Vallandigham had a dispute with the college president at Jefferson College in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. He was honorably dismissed, but he never received a degree, edwin M. Stanton, the future Secretary of War under President Lincoln, was Vallandighams close friend before the Civil War. Stanton lent Vallandigham $500 for a law course and to begin his own practice, both Vallandigham and Stanton were Democrats, but they had opposing views of slavery. Shortly after beginning to practice law in Dayton, Vallandigham entered politics and he was elected as a Democrat to the Ohio legislature in 1845 and 1846, and served as editor of a weekly newspaper, the Dayton Empire, from 1847 until 1849. While in the Ohio state legislature, Vallandigham voted against the repeal of the Black Laws, in 1851 Vallandigham sought the Democratic nomination to be Ohios lieutenant governor, but the party declined to nominate him. Vallandigham ran for Congress in 1856, but he was narrowly defeated and he appealed to the Committee of Elections of the House of Representatives, claiming that illegal votes had been cast. The House eventually agreed, and Vallandigham was seated on the next to last day of the term, the delay was due to the division which had arisen in the Democratic party upon the Lecompton question. He was reelected by a margin in 1858 and won again in 1860. Vallandigham lost his bid for a full term in 1862 by a relatively large vote. However, his loss was at least partially due to redistricting his Congressional district, despite this loss, some still considered him to be a future presidential candidate. In October 1859, radical abolitionist John Brown raided Harpers Ferry, Virginia, Vallandigham was always a vigorous supporter of constitutional states rights. He believed the government had no power to regulate any legal institution. He also believed the states had a right to secede. Vallandigham was a believer in low tariffs and that slavery was a matter for each state to decide, during the ensuing war, he would become one of Lincolns most outspoken critics. On February 20,1861, Vallandigham delivered a speech titled The Great American Revolution to the House of Representatives and he accused the Republican Party of being belligerent and advocated a choice of peaceable disunion upon the one hand, or Union through adjustment and conciliation upon the other
30.
Ohio
–
Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
31.
Democratic Party (United States)
–
The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
32.
Cincinnati
–
Cincinnati is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio that serves as county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located on the side of the confluence of the Licking with the Ohio River. With a population of 298,550, Cincinnati is the third-largest city in Ohio and its metropolitan statistical area is the 28th-largest in the United States and the largest centered in Ohio. The city is part of the larger Cincinnati–Middletown–Wilmington combined statistical area. In the 19th century, Cincinnati was an American boomtown in the heart of the country, it rivaled the larger cities in size. Throughout much of the 19th century, it was listed among the top 10 U. S and it was by far the largest city in the west. By the end of the 19th century, with the shift from steamboats to railroads drawing off freight shipping, trade patterns had altered and Cincinnatis growth slowed considerably. Cincinnati is home to two sports teams, the Cincinnati Reds, the oldest franchise in Major League Baseball. The University of Cincinnati, founded in 1819, is one of the 50 largest in the United States, Cincinnati is known for its historic architecture. In the late 1800s, Cincinnati was commonly referred to as Paris of America, due mainly to such ambitious projects as the Music Hall, Cincinnatian Hotel. The original surveyor, John Filson, named it Losantiville, in 1790, Arthur St. Ethnic Germans were among the early settlers, migrating from Pennsylvania and the backcountry of Virginia and Tennessee. General David Ziegler succeeded General St. Clair in command at Fort Washington, after the conclusion of the Northwest Indian Wars and removal of Native Americans to the west, he was elected as the mayor of Cincinnati in 1802. Cincinnati was incorporated as a city in 1819, exporting pork products and hay, it became a center of pork processing in the region. From 1810 to 1830 its population tripled, from 9,642 to 24,831. Completion of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1827 to Middletown, Ohio further stimulated businesses, the city had a labor shortage until large waves of immigration by Irish and Germans in the late 1840s. The city grew rapidly over the two decades, reaching 115,000 persons by 1850. Construction on the Miami and Erie Canal began on July 21,1825, the first section of the canal was opened for business in 1827. In 1827, the canal connected Cincinnati to nearby Middletown, by 1840, during this period of rapid expansion and prominence, residents of Cincinnati began referring to the city as the Queen City
33.
Ex parte Vallandigham
–
Ex parte Vallandigham,68 U. S. Vallandigham was tried before a military tribunal by Major General Ambrose E. In February 1864, the Supreme Court avoided ruling on the question by instead unanimously holding that they could not take appeals from military tribunals at all. Clement Vallandigham, a member of the United States House of Representatives, was the leader of the pro-Confederate faction known as Copperheads in Ohio. To those who supported the war he declared, Defeat, debt and he also called for King Lincolns removal from the presidency. Accordingly, on May 5, Vallandingham was arrested as a violator of General Order No.38, Vallandighams enraged supporters burned the offices of the Dayton Journal, the local Republican newspaper. A Federal circuit judge upheld Vallandighams arrest and military trial as an exercise of the Presidents war powers. Despite repeated petitions, President Lincoln refused to repudiate Burnsides actions or release Vallandigham, however, in late May, Lincoln commuted Vallandighams sentence to banishment to the Confederacy, from where he went to Canada. Meanwhile, Vallandighams lawyers appealed the tribunals decision to the Supreme Court. The Court issued a ruling in February 1864, refusing to address Vallandighams main argument that the military tribunal lacked jurisdiction to try him. Instead, they said the Court was only authorized to take appeals as regulated by Congress -, accordingly, they denied Vallandighams appeal for lack of jurisdiction. Then, the court upheld Milligan and Vallandighams claim that military tribunals lacked authority to try civilians when civil courts were open. Supreme Court cases of the American Civil War Ex parte Milligan Findlaw Case file Full text of the Supreme Court case on Justia. com Full text of the Supreme Court case on Oyez. org
34.
General officer
–
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
35.
Alvin Peterson Hovey
–
Alvin Peterson Hovey was a Union general during the American Civil War, an Indiana Supreme Court justice, congressman, and the 21st Governor of Indiana from 1889 to 1891. During the war he played an important role in the Western theatre, earning high approval from Grant, as governor, he launched several legal challenges to the Indiana General Assemblys removal of his powers, but was mostly unsuccessful. He successfully advocated election reform before he died in office, Alvin Peterson Hovey was born in Mount Vernon, Indiana on September 6,1821 to Abiel and Francis Hovey. His mother died while he was a boy, and his father died when he was fifteen leaving him orphaned. His youth was spent in poverty, and after being sent to an orphanage following his fathers death, he received a basic education before being turned out at age eighteen. Hovey wanted to become a lawyer, and went work as a bricklayer by day, and studied law at night in the office of John Pitcher, after over three years of study in the office, he was admitted to bar in 1843 and opened his own law office. Hovey was propelled into the spotlight in 1849 when he was appointed to oversee the estate of the deceased William McClure. McClure was a wealthy idealist who was one of the co-founders of the utopian settlement of New Harmony. In his will, he ordered that his estate be sold and his two siblings had already seized much of his estate, sold it, and made off with the funds. Posey filed over sixty lawsuits to reclaim the assets of the estate, the estate successfully funded the opening of 160 libraries in Indiana and Illinois. The case gained considerable press coverage around Indiana, and Hovey gained considerable popularity from his success and he met and married his wife Mary Ann in 1844, and the couple had five children. Only two of the children survived infancy, Hovey was elected as a Democrat to serve as a delegate in 1850 to help create a new constitution for the state of Indiana. Hovey supported the educational and governmental reforms to the constitution, as well as being a force in some of the more controversial aspects of the constitution. He opposed the extension of suffrage to women and blacks, and his proposal was accepted because it was viewed as a punishment to the southern states, who would be required to care for the free blacks. He also opposed the reforms, saying that it would grant too much protection from creditors. The constitution was approved by the public, but the portions were ruled unconstitutional by the U. S. Supreme Court two years later. In 1854, Hovey was appointed by Governor Joseph A. Wright to fill a vacancy on the Indiana Supreme Court until an election could be held, at the time of his appointment, he was 34, making him the youngest justice in the history of the court. It also made him the only delegate to become the interpreter of a document which he himself had helped write
36.
Harrison H. Dodd
–
Harrison Horton Dodd was a founder of the 1860s-era OSL, a paramilitary secret society which was a continuation and/or extension of the KGC. The basic goal of members of the OSL was to thwart the war efforts of the Union military forces, harrison Horton Dodd was born in Brownville, New York. In his early life he moved to Toledo, Ohio. He moved to Indianapolis, Indiana the next year, establishing himself as a printer and an active participant for the Democratic Party. During the first year of the war, when Democrats were sometimes forced to take oaths of allegiance, Dodd advertised to start Marion Dragoons, however, the company never actually formed. By all accounts he was the most important Copperhead in Indianapolis, in 1863 a speech given by Dodd at Rensselaer, Indiana convinced a Methodist preacher that Dodd was a traitor. The local provost marshal without the authority to do so arrested Dodd, local Democrats threatened a riot, and Dodd was freed with a promise that he would stop any such riot from occurring. On August 20,1864 Dodds offices were raided by the Union military, several of his co-conspirators, such as William A. Bowles, were arrested. Dodd managed to capture and escaped into Canada. Dodd was convicted of treason by a commission, and sentenced to be hanged. President Andrew Johnson commuted the sentence to imprisonment on May 31,1865. Later that year on December 17 the U. S, returning from Canada after the trials, Dodd served several terms as mayor of Fond du Lac, Wisconsin as a Republican, joining the party of his wartime enemies Morton and Lincoln. Dark Lanterns, Secret Political Societies, Conspiracies and Treason Trials in the Civil War
37.
Sons of Liberty
–
The Sons of Liberty was an organization that was created in the Thirteen American Colonies. The secret society was formed to protect the rights of the colonists and they played a major role in most colonies in battling the Stamp Act in 1765. The group officially disbanded after the Stamp Act was repealed, however, the name was applied to other local separatist groups during the years preceding the American Revolution. In the popular imagination, the Sons of Liberty was an underground organization with recognized members and leaders. More likely, the name was a term for any men resisting new Crown taxes. The well-known label allowed organizers to issue summons to a Liberty Tree, Liberty Pole. Furthermore, a unifying name helped to promote efforts against Parliament. Their motto became No taxation without representation, in 1765, the British government needed money to afford the 10,000 officers and soldiers living in the colonies, and intended that the colonists living there should contribute. This became commonly known as No Taxation without Representation, Parliament insisted on its right to rule the colonies despite the fact that the colonists had no representative in Parliament. The most incendiary tax was the Stamp Act of 1765, which caused a firestorm of opposition through legislative resolutions, public demonstrations, threats, the organization spread hour by hour, after independent starts in several different colonies. In August 1765, the group was founded in Boston, Massachusetts, by November 6, a committee was set up in New York to correspond with other colonies. In December, an alliance was formed between groups in New York and Connecticut, january bore witness to a correspondence link between Boston and New York City, and by March, Providence had initiated connections with New York, New Hampshire, and Newport, Rhode Island. March also marked the emergence of Sons of Liberty organizations in New Jersey, Maryland, in Boston, another example of violence could be found in their treatment of local stamp distributor Andrew Oliver. They burned his effigy in the streets, when he did not resign, they escalated to burning down his office building. Even after he resigned, they almost destroyed the house of his close associate Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson. It is believed that the Sons of Liberty did this to excite the lower classes and their actions made many of the stamp distributors resign in fear. Early in the American Revolution, the former Sons of Liberty generally joined more formal groups, the Sons of Liberty popularized the use of tar and feathering to punish and humiliate offending government officials starting in 1767. This method was also, used against British Loyalists, during the American Revolution and this punishment had long been used by sailors to punish their mates
38.
Huntington, Indiana
–
Huntington, known as the Lime City, is the largest city in and the county seat of Huntington County, Indiana, United States. It is in Huntington and Union townships, the population was 17,391 at the 2010 census. According to the 2010 census, Huntington has an area of 8.844 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 17,391 people,6,566 households, the population density was 1,996.7 inhabitants per square mile. There were 7,487 housing units at a density of 859.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 96. 4% White,0. 6% African American,0. 4% Native American,0. 5% Asian,0. 6% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 4% of the population. 30. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.06. The median age in the city was 33.4 years. 24. 8% of residents were under the age of 18,13. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,25. 5% were from 25 to 44,22. 5% were from 45 to 64, and 13. 5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47. 7% male and 52. 3% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 17,450 people,6,717 households, and 4,419 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,091.0 people per square mile, there were 7,262 housing units at an average density of 870. 2/sq mi. The main religion is Roman Catholic, with around 42% of the city attending masses. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 83% White,0. 21% African American,0. 45% Native American,0. 45% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 30% from other races, and 0. 73% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 12% of the population,29. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the family size was 3.03. In the city, the population was out with 26. 2% under the age of 18,12. 9% from 18 to 24,28. 2% from 25 to 44,18. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 91.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.3 males, the median income for a household in the city was $45,600, and the median income for a family was $56,454
39.
Governor of Indiana
–
The Governor of Indiana is the chief executive of the state of Indiana. The governor is elected to a term, and responsible for overseeing the day-to-day management of the functions of many agencies of the Indiana state government. The governor also shares power with other executive officers, who manage other state government agencies. The governor works out of the Indiana Statehouse and holds official functions at the Indiana Governors Residence in the capital of Indianapolis. The 51st and current governor is Republican Eric Holcomb, the position of governor has developed over the course of two centuries. The governors powers are established in Article V of the Constitution of Indiana, constitutionally, the governor has very limited executive authority to manage the government of the state, most exercisable powers over state agencies are held by independent elected cabinet heads. The governor works in concert with the legislature and the state supreme court to govern the state. The governor has the power to veto legislation passed by the General Assembly, if vetoed, a bill is returned to the General Assembly for reconsideration. Unlike other states, most of which require a supermajority to override a veto. One of the governors most important political powers is the ability to call a session of the General Assembly. During a two-year period, the assembly can meet on its own for no more than 91 days, and this can give the governor considerable influence in the body which will often compromise on issues with him or her in exchange for a special legislative session. Among his other powers, the governor can call out the defense force or the Indiana National Guard in times of emergency or disaster. The governor is also charged with the enforcement of all the states laws, the governor also has the ability to grant a pardon or commutation of sentence of any person convicted of a crime in the state, except in cases of treason or impeachment. In addition to powers, governors also have a considerable degree of statutory authority. Most of the authority exercised by governors on a basis is derived from statute. The governor also can influence the court system through the appointment of judges. Justices of the peace and superior courts judges are elected in Indiana, if a vacancy occurs the governor may make an appointment, the authority to make such appointments gives the governor considerable sway in setting the makeup of the judiciary. The annual salary of the governor of Indiana is US$111,688, additionally, he receives $6,000 annually for discretionary spending and expenses
40.
Oliver P. Morton
–
Oliver Hazard Perry Throck Morton, commonly known as Oliver P. Morton, was a U. S. He served as the 14th Governor of Indiana during the American Civil War, during the war, Morton thwarted and neutralized the Democratic-controlled Indiana General Assembly. He was criticized for arresting and detaining political enemies and suspected southern sympathizers, during his second term as governor, and after being partially paralyzed by a stroke, he was elected to serve in the U. S. Senate. He was a leader among the Radical Republicans of the Reconstruction era, in 1877, during his second term in the Senate, Morton suffered a second debilitating stroke that caused a rapid deterioration in his health, he died later that year. Morton was mourned nationally and his funeral procession was witnessed by thousands and he is buried in Indianapoliss Crown Hill Cemetery. Morton was an Indiana native born in Wayne County near the settlement of Salisbury on August 4,1823, to James Throck. His grandfather had shortened the surname, Throckmorton, to Morton. He was named for Oliver Hazard Perry, the victorious Commodore in the Battle of Lake Erie, Morton disliked his name from an early age, and before beginning his political career he shortened it to Oliver Perry Morton, dropping the middle names of Hazard and Throck. His mother died when he was three, and he was raised by his maternal grandparents and he spent most of his young life living with them in Ohio. Morton returned to eastern Indiana as a man, and joined his family at Centerville. Leaving school at the age of fifteen, Morton briefly worked as an apothecarys clerk, in 1845 he returned to Centerville and was admitted to the Indiana bar in 1846. Morton formed a law practice with Judge Newman and became a successful, Morton married Lucinda Burbank in 1845. The couple had five children, but only two survived infancy, in 1852 Morton campaigned and was elected to serve as a circuit court judge, but resigned after only a year, he found that he preferred to practice law. By 1854 he was active in Indiana politics, initially, Morton was an anti-slavery Democrat, but living in a region dominated by the Whig Party he had little hope of furthering a political career without changing his party affiliation. Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromises ban on slavery in the western territories, as the Democrats divided over the issue, Morton took a stand with the Free Soil supporters and opposed the Act. Senator Jesse D. Bright, the states Democrats expel its members, including Morton. That same year Morton joined with other factions to form the Peoples party. He also served as a delegate to the 1856 Republican National Convention in Philadelphia, thirty-two-year-old Morton became the Peoples/Republican candidate for governor of Indiana in 1856
41.
French Lick, Indiana
–
French Lick is a town in French Lick Township, Orange County, Indiana, United States. The population was 1,807 at the 2010 census, in November 2006, the French Lick Resort Casino, the states tenth casino in the modern legalized era, opened, drawing national attention to the small town. However, it is best known as the hometown of basketball legend Larry Bird, French Lick was originally a French trading post built near a spring and salt lick. A fortified ranger post was established near the springs in 1811, on Johnsons 1837 map of Indiana, the community was known as Salt Spring. The town was founded in 1857, the sulfur springs were commercially exploited for medical benefits starting in 1840. By the later half of the 19th century, French Lick was famous in the United States as a spa town, in the early 20th century it also featured casinos attracting celebrities such as boxer Joe Louis, composer Irving Berlin and gangster Al Capone. In order to conserve rail transport during World War II,1943 spring training was limited to an area east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River. The French Lick Resort Casino was the point of most of the entertainment, the hotel remained open well after the casinos were closed down. The resort closed for renovation in 2005, pluto Water, a best selling laxative of the first half of the 20th century, was bottled here. It was also home to a large 7-Up bottling facility, which ceased operations in the mid-20th century, franklin D. Roosevelt announced his intention to run for president at a National Governors Convention held at the French Lick Springs Hotel. The town is famous as the hometown of NBA great Larry Bird, Bird started for French Lick/West Badens high school team, Springs Valley High School, where he left as the schools all-time scoring leader. In his later career, one of Birds nicknames was the Hick from French Lick. French Lick is located at 38°32′49″N 86°37′8″W, the area has rich mineral sources. According to the 2010 census, French Lick has an area of 1.77 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,807 people,764 households, the population density was 1,020.9 inhabitants per square mile. There were 924 housing units at a density of 522.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 88. 8% White,5. 8% African American,0. 3% Native American,1. 2% Asian,0. 9% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 1% of the population. 36. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.93
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Milligan, Ex Parte". Encyclopedia Americana.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
Works related to Ex parte Milligan at Wikisource