1.
Pope Gregory VII
–
Gregory VII, born Hildebrand of Sovana, was Pope from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085. He was also at the forefront of developments in the relationship between the emperor and the papacy during the years before he became pope. He was the first pope in centuries to rigorously enforce the Western Churchs ancient policy of celibacy for the clergy. He excommunicated Henry IV three times, consequently, Henry IV would appoint Antipope Clement III to oppose him in the political power struggles between the Catholic Church and his empire. Hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, Gregory VII was, during his own reign and this was eagerly repeated by later opponents of the Catholic Church, such as the English Protestant John Foxe. Joseph McCabe describes Gregory as a rough and violent peasant, enlisting his brute strength in the service of the ideal which he embraced. His zeal, moral force, and religious conviction, however, ensured that he should retain to a degree the loyalty. Gregory was born as Ildebrando di Soana in Sovana, in the county of Grosseto, now southern Tuscany and he was said to be of humble origins. One finds in Johann Georg Estor the claim that he was the son of a blacksmith. As a youth he was sent to study in Rome at the monastery of St. Mary on the Aventine, among his masters were the erudite Lawrence, archbishop of Amalfi, and Johannes Gratianus, the future Pope Gregory VI. When the latter was deposed by Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and exiled to Germany, according to some chroniclers, Hildebrand moved to Cluny after Gregorys death, which occurred in 1048, his declaration to have become a monk at Cluny must not be taken literally. He then accompanied Abbot Bruno of Toul to Rome, there, Bruno was elected Pope, choosing the name Leo IX, Leo sent Hildebrand as his legate to Tours in France in the wake of the controversy created by Berengar of Tours. At Leos death, the new Pope, Victor II, confirmed him as legate, while Victors successor Stephen IX sent him and Anselm of Lucca to Germany to obtain recognition from the Empress Agnes de Poitou. With the help of 300 Norman knights sent by Richard of Aversa, between 1058 and 1059, he was created archdeacon of the Roman church, becoming the most important figure in the papal administration. He was again the most powerful figure behind the election of Anselm of Lucca the Elder as Pope Alexander II in the election of October 1061. The new pope put forward the reform program devised by Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII was one of the few popes elected by acclamation. On the death of Alexander II on 21 April 1073, as the obsequies were being performed in the Lateran Basilica, there arose a loud outcry from the clergy and people, Blessed Peter has chosen Hildebrand the Archdeacon. Hildebrand immediately fled, and hid himself for some time, thereby making it clear that he had refused the election in the Liberian Basilica
Pope Gregory VII
–
Pope Saint Gregory VII
Pope Gregory VII
–
An engraving of Pope Gregory VII saying
Mass, from Little Pictorial Lives of the Saints (1878)
Pope Gregory VII
–
Wax funeral effigy of Gregory VII under glass, Salerno cathedral
Pope Gregory VII
–
Virgin Mary
2.
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Henry IV ascended to King of the Germans in 1056. From 1084 until his abdication in 1105, he was also referred to as the King of the Romans. He was the emperor of the Salian dynasty and one of the most powerful. His reign was marked by the Investiture Controversy with the Papacy, several civil wars over his throne took place in both Italy and Germany. He died of illness, soon after defeating his sons army near Visé, in Lorraine, in 1056 at Aachen, Henry IV was enthroned as the King of the Germans by Pope Victor II, while his mother, Agnes of Poitou, became regent. In 1062 the young king was kidnapped as a result of the Coup of Kaiserswerth, Agnes retired to a convent, and the government was placed in the hands of Anno. His first action was to back Pope Alexander II against the antipope Honorius II, the education and training of Henry were supervised by Anno, who was called his magister, while Adalbert of Hamburg, archbishop of Bremen, was styled Henrys patronus. Henrys education seems to have been neglected, and his willful, the malleable Adalbert of Hamburg soon became the confidante of the ruthless Henry. Eventually, during an absence of Anno from Germany, Henry managed to control of his civil duties. Henrys entire reign was marked by apparent efforts to consolidate Imperial power, in reality, however, he carefully worked to maintain the loyalty of the nobility and the support of the pope. In 1066, he expelled from the Crown Council Adalbert of Hamburg, Henry also adopted urgent military measures against the Slav pagans, who had recently invaded Germany and besieged Hamburg. In June 1066 Henry married Bertha of Savoy/Turin, daughter of Otto, Count of Savoy, in the same year, at the request of the Pope, he assembled an army to fight the Italo-Normans of southern Italy. Henrys troops had reached Augsburg when he received news that Godfrey of Tuscany, husband of the powerful Matilda of Canossa, in 1068, driven by his impetuous character and his infidelities, Henry attempted to divorce Bertha. Henry obeyed and his wife returned to Court, Henry believed that the Papal opposition was less about his marriage than about overthrowing lay power within the Empire, in favour of an ecclesiastical hierarchy. In the late 1060s, Henry demonstrated his determination to reduce any opposition and he led expeditions against the Lutici and the margrave of a district east of Saxony, soon afterwards he had to quell the rebellions of Rudolf of Swabia and Berthold of Carinthia. Much more serious was Henrys struggle with Otto of Nordheim, duke of Bavaria and it was decided that a trial by combat should take place at Goslar, but when Ottos demand for safe conduct to and from the place of meeting was refused, he declined to appear. He was declared deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon estates were plundered, however, he obtained sufficient support to carry on a struggle with the king in Saxony and Thuringia until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt. Henry aroused the hostility of the Thuringians by supporting Siegfried, archbishop of Mainz, in his efforts to exact tithes from them
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Henry IV
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Henry IV begging Matilda of Canossa
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Henry IV (left),
count palatine Herman II of Lotharingia and Antipope Clement III (center), from Codex Jenensis Bose (1157)
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
–
The abdication of Henry IV in favour of Henry V, from the Chronicle of
Ekkehard von Aura
3.
Sacrament
–
A sacrament is a Christian rite recognised as of particular importance and significance. There are various views on the existence and meaning of such rites, many Christians consider the sacraments to be a visible symbol of the reality of God, as well as a means by which God enacts his grace. Sacraments signify Gods grace in a way that is observable to the participant. The Catholic Church recognises seven sacraments, Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Reconciliation, Anointing of the Sick, Marriage, many Protestant denominations, such as those within the Reformed tradition, identify two sacraments instituted by Christ, the Eucharist and Baptism. The Lutheran sacraments include these two, often adding Confession as a third sacrament, the English word sacrament is derived indirectly from the Ecclesiastical Latin sacrāmentum, from Latin sacrō, from sacer. This in turn is derived from the Greek New Testament word mysterion and these seven sacraments were codified in the documents of the Council of Trent, which stated, CANON I. During the Middle Ages, sacraments were recorded in Latin, even after the Reformation, many ecclesiastical leaders continued using this practice into the 20th century. On occasion, Protestant ministers followed the same practice, since W was not part of the Latin alphabet, scribes only used it when dealing with names or places. In addition, names were modified to fit a Latin mold, for instance, the name Joseph would be rendered as Iosephus or Josephus. The Catholic Church indicates that the sacraments are necessary for salvation, the Church applies this teaching even to the sacrament of baptism, the gateway to the other sacraments. It states that Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed, catechumens and all those who, even without knowing Christ and the Church, still sincerely seek God and strive to do his will can also be saved without Baptism. The Church in her liturgy entrusts children who die without Baptism to the mercy of God, in the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, the sacraments are efficacious signs of grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us. The visible rites by which the sacraments are celebrated signify and make present the proper to each sacrament. They bear fruit in those who receive them with the required dispositions, the Church teaches that the effect of the sacraments comes ex opere operato, by the very fact of being administered, regardless of the personal holiness of the minister administering it. The sacraments presuppose faith and through their words and ritual elements, nourish, strengthen, through each of them, Christ bestows that sacraments particular grace, such as incorporation into Christ and the Church, forgiveness of sins, or consecration for a particular service. The Eastern Orthodox tradition does not limit the number of sacraments to seven, however it recognizes these seven as the major sacraments, which are completed by many other blessings and special services. Some lists of the sacraments taken from the Church Fathers include the consecration of a church, monastic tonsure, more specifically, for the Eastern Orthodox the term sacrament is a term which seeks to classify something that may, according to Orthodox thought, be impossible to classify. According to Orthodox thinking God touches mankind through material means such as water, wine, bread, oil, incense, candles, altars, icons, how God does this is a mystery
Sacrament
–
The Seven Sacraments, an
altarpiece by
Rogier van der Weyden, c. 1448
Sacrament
–
The
Council of Trent reaffirmed the seven sacraments.
Sacrament
–
The seven sacraments of the Catholic church:
Baptism,
Confirmation,
Matrimony,
Eucharist,
Penance,
Holy Orders and the
Anointing of the Sick.
Sacrament
–
Baptism and
Chrismation, the sacraments of initiation, in an
Eastern Orthodox church.
4.
Catholicism
–
The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
Catholicism
–
Ruins of gothic Catholic church in
Liptovská Mara (
Slovakia).
Catholicism
–
Ancient statue of
Saint Peter in the Basilica dedicated to him in the
Vatican.
Catholicism
–
An
Italian priest during the sacrament of
Baptism
5.
Protestant
–
Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
Protestant
–
(
The Ninety-Five Theses)
Protestant
–
The Memorial Church in
Speyer, Germany
Protestant
–
Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church
pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.
Protestant
–
The Bible translated into
vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of
scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.
6.
Churches of Christ
–
Churches of Christ are autonomous Christian congregations associated with one another through common beliefs and practices. They seek to base doctrine and practice on the Bible alone in order to be the church described in the New Testament, Churches of Christ in the United States have heritage in the American Restoration Movement. This evangelistic and Bible-based effort began in places as several people sought a return to the original teachings. The Restoration ideal was also similar and somewhat connected to restoration efforts in Europe. They did not see themselves as establishing a new church, the names Church of Christ, Christian Church, and Disciples of Christ were adopted by the movement because they believed these terms to be biblical, rather than denominational. Religious Census of 1906, all associated with the Restoration Movement had been reported together by the Census Bureau. The congregations in the a cappella tradition are the subject of this article, both issues highlighted differences in the groups underlying approaches to Biblical interpretation. For the Christian Churches, any practice not expressly forbidden could be considered, though not officially recognized as distinct movements until 1906, the separation of the Churches of Christ and the Christian Churches had been taking place gradually for decades. The Restoration Movement was not a purely North American phenomenon, there are now Churches of Christ in Africa, Asia, Australia, South America, Central America, and Europe. Members of the church of Christ do not conceive of themselves as a new church started near the beginning of the 19th century, rather, the whole movement is designed to reproduce in contemporary times the church originally established on Pentecost, A. D.33. The strength of the lies in the restoration of Christs original church. D. They simply identify themselves as Christians, without using any other forms of religious or denominational identification and they believe that they are recreating the New Testament church as established by Christ. In American congregations the terms Communion or body and blood are used, the term Eucharist is rarely, if ever, used. All but a small segment of churches use unfermented grape juice instead of wine), and Practice of a cappella singing. In keeping with their history, the churches of Christ claim the New Testament as their rule of faith and practice in deciding matters of doctrine. They view the Old Testament as divinely inspired and historically accurate and they believe that the New Testament demonstrates how a person may become a Christian and how a church should be collectively organized and carry out its scriptural purposes. These churches comprise about 2,000,000 members in over 40,000 individual congregations worldwide, there are approximately 13,000 congregations in the United States. Overall U. S. membership was approximately 1.8 million in 1990 and 1.9 million in 2008, estimates of the proportion of the US adult population associated with the Churches of Christ vary from 0. 8% to 1. 5%
Churches of Christ
–
Alexander Campbell
Churches of Christ
–
An American family Bible dating to 1859 A.D.
Churches of Christ
–
Baptism by immersion
Churches of Christ
–
Interior of the
original meeting house at Cane Ridge, Kentucky
7.
Communion (Christian)
–
The bond uniting Christians as individuals and groups with each other and with Jesus is described as communion. The term is derived from Latin communio and this basic meaning of the word predates its Christian uses. The Greek term κοινωνία appears in the New Testament, but nowhere in the ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint, as a noun, or in its adjectival or verbal forms, it is found in 43 verses of the New Testament. In addition, the noun is found in manuscripts in Ephesians 3,9. Communion between particular groups, the most remarkable instance of which was that between Jews and Gentiles III, Communion in the Body and Blood of Christ IV. Sharing in divine revelation and with God himself, by metonymy, the term is used of a group of Christian churches that have this close relationship of communion with each other. An example is the Anglican Communion, the communion of saints is the relationship that, according to the belief of Christians, exists between them as people made holy by their link with Christ. The term communion is applied to sharing in the Eucharist by partaking of the bread and wine. Sometimes the term is applied not only to this partaking but to the whole of the rite or to the consecrated elements, open communion Closed communion Koinonia NAS Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible with Hebrew-Aramaic and Greek Dictionaries. Eerdmans Publishing Co. Robert Porter Lynch, Ninon Prozonic, how the Greeks created the First Golden Age of Innovation. Richards, Lawrence O. Expository Dictionary of Bible Words, thayer, Joseph H. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. Grand Rapids, Michigan, Zondervan Publishing House
Communion (Christian)
–
The Eucharist has been a key theme in the depictions of the
Last Supper in Christian art, as in this 16th-century
Juan de Juanes painting.
8.
Exile
–
To be in exile means to be away from ones home, while either being explicitly refused permission to return or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return. It can be a form of punishment and solitude and it is common to distinguish between internal exile, i. e. forced resettlement within the country of residence, and external exile, which is deportation outside the country of residence. Although most commonly used to describe a situation, the term is also used for groups. Exile can also be a departure from ones homeland. Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. In some cases the head of state is allowed to go into exile following a coup or other change of government. A wealthy citizen who departs from an abode for a lower tax jurisdiction in order to reduce his/her tax burden is termed a tax exile. Creative people such as authors and musicians who achieve sudden wealth sometimes find themselves among this group, in 2012, Eduardo Saverin, one of the founders of Facebook, made headlines by renouncing his U. S. citizenship before his companys IPO. In some cases a person lives in exile to avoid legal issues. For example, nuns were exiled following the Communist coup détat of 1948 in Czechoslovakia, many Jewish prayers include a yearning to return to Jerusalem and the Jewish homeland. The entire population of Crimean Tatars that remained in their homeland Crimea was exiled on 18 May 1944 to Central Asia as a form of ethnic cleansing and collective punishment on false accusations. At Diego Garcia, between 1967 and 1973 the British Government forcibly removed some 2,000 Chagossian resident islanders to make way for a military base today jointly operated by the US, since the Cuban Revolution over one million Cubans have left Cuba. Most of these self-identify as exiles as their motivation for leaving the island is political in nature, most of the exiles children also consider themselves to be Cuban exiles. It is to be noted that under Cuban law, children of Cubans born abroad are considered Cuban citizens, during a foreign occupation or after a coup détat, a government in exile of a such afflicted country may be established abroad. Exile is a motif in ancient Greek tragedy. In the ancient Greek world, this was seen as a worse than death. The motif reaches its peak on the play Medea, written by Euripides in the fifth century BC, euripides’ Medea has remained the most frequently performed Greek tragedy through the 20th century. After Medea was abandoned by Jason and had become a murderer out of revenge, she fled to Athens and married king Aigeus there, due to a conflict with him, she must leave the Polis and go away into exile
Exile
–
The First Night in Exile-This painting comes from a celebrated series illustrating one of Hinduism’s great epics, the
Ramayana. It tells the story of prince Rama, who is wrongly exiled from his father’s kingdom, accompanied only by his wife and brother.
Exile
–
Dante in Exile.
Exile
–
The journey of a modern hero, to the island of Elba (1814), showing
Napoleon I, sword broken, being exiled to
Elba at the close of the
War of the Sixth Coalition
Exile
–
Jason and
Medea, by
John William Waterhouse, 1907
9.
Shaming
–
Shame is a painful, social emotion that can be seen as resulting. from comparison of the selfs action with the selfs standards. But which may stem from comparison of the selfs state of being with the ideal social contexts standard. Thus, shame may stem from volitional action or simply self-regard, no action by the shamed being is required, both the comparison and standards are enabled by socialization. Though usually considered an emotion, shame may also variously be considered an affect, cognition, state, or condition. The roots of the word shame are thought to derive from a word meaning to cover, as such, covering oneself. He also noted the sense of warmth or heat occurring in intense shame, a sense of shame is the feeling known as guilt but consciousness or awareness of shame as a state or condition defines core/toxic shame. The key emotion in all forms of shame is contempt, two distinct domains that shame is expressed are the consciousness of self as bad and the other is self as inadequate. People employ negative coping responses to counter deep rooted, associated sense of shameworthiness, to shame generally means to actively assign or communicate a state of shame to another. Behaviors designed to uncover or expose others are used for this purpose. Finally, to have means to maintain a sense of restraint against offending others while to have no shame is to behave without such restraint. The location of the line between the concepts of shame, guilt, and embarrassment is not fully standardized. According to cultural anthropologist Ruth Benedict, shame is a violation of cultural or social values while guilt feelings arise from violations of ones internal values, psychoanalyst Helen B. Lewis argued that, The experience of shame is directly about the self, which is the focus of evaluation. In guilt, the self is not the object of negative evaluation. Similarly, Fossum and Mason say in their book Facing Shame that While guilt is a feeling of regret and responsibility for ones actions. Clinical psychologist Gershen Kaufmans view of shame is derived from that of theory, namely that shame is one of a set of instinctual. Here, self-blame and self-contempt mean the application, towards ones self, of exactly the same dynamic that blaming of and this, however, can lead to an internalized, self-reinforcing sequence of shame events for which Kaufman coined the term shame spiral. Shame can also be used as a strategy when feeling guilt, another view of the dividing line between shame and embarrassment holds that the difference is one of intensity. In this view embarrassment is simply a less intense experience of shame, extreme or toxic shame is a much more intense experience and one that is not functional
Shaming
–
Eve covers herself and lowers her head in shame in
Rodin's Eve after the
Fall.
Shaming
–
Person hiding face and showing posture of shame (while wearing a
Sanbenito and coroza hat) in
Goya 's sketch "For being born somewhere else". The person has been shamed by the
Spanish Inquisition.
10.
Penance
–
Penance is repentance of sins as well as the proper name of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Anglican Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation/Confession. It also plays a part in non-sacramental confession among Lutherans and other Protestants, the word penance derives from Old French and Latin paenitentia, both of which derive from the same root meaning repentance, the desire to be forgiven. Word derivations occur in many languages, rather, Gods kindness is meant to lead you to repentance. In his Of Justification By Faith, Calvin says, without forgiveness no man is pleasing to God, nonetheless, in traditions formed by a Calvinist or Zwinglian sensibility there has traditionally been a stress on reconciliation as a precondition to fellowship. The attitude of penance or repentance can be externalized in acts that a believer imposes on himself or herself, Penitential activity is particularly common during the season of Lent and Holy Week. In some cultural traditions, this week, which commemorates the Passion of Christ, Advent is another season during which, to a lesser extent, penances are performed. Acts of self-discipline are used as tokens of repentance, easier acts of self-discipline include devoting time to prayer or reading of the Bible or other spiritual books. Examples of harder acts of self-discipline are fasting, continence, abstaining from alcohol or tobacco, self-flagellation and the wearing of a cilice are more rarely used. Such acts are associated also with the sacrament, in early Christianity, public penance was imposed on penitents, the severity of which varied according to the seriousness of the offences forgiven. The act imposed is called a penance or epitemia. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, penance is usually called Sacred Mystery of Confession, in Orthodoxy, the intention of the sacramental mystery of Holy Confession is to provide reconciliation with God through means of healing. Similar to the Eastern Catholic Churches, in the Eastern Orthodox Church there are no confessionals, traditionally the penitent stands or kneels before either the Icon of Christ the Teacher or in front of an Icon of Christ, Not Made by Hands. This is because in Orthodox sacramental theology, confession is not made to the priest, but to Christ, on an analogion in front of the penitent has been placed a Gospel Book and a Crucifix. The penitent venerates the Gospel Book and the cross and kneels and this is to show humility before the whole church and before Christ. Once they are ready to start, the priest says, “Blessed is our God, always, now and ever, and unto the ages of ages, ” reads the Trisagion Prayers, the penitent then accuses himself of sins. The priest quietly and patiently listens, gently asking questions to encourage the penitent not to any sins out of fear or shame. After the confessant reveals all their sins, the priest offers advice, the priest may modify the prayer rule of the penitent, or even prescribe another rule, if needed to combat the sins the penitent struggles most with. Penances, known as epitemia, are given with a therapeutic intent, epitemia are neither a punishment nor merely a pious action, but are specifically aimed at healing the spiritual ailment that has been confessed
Penance
–
La Penitente by
Pietro Rotari.
Penance
–
The
Augsburg Confession divides repentance into two parts: "One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through the
knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the Gospel, or of
absolution, and believes that for Christ's sake, sins are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from terrors."
Penance
–
The reproach of
Nathan and the penance of
King David (
Paris Psalter, folio 136v, 10th century).
Penance
–
Confession in a
Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
11.
Sacrament of Confession
–
Confession, in many religions, is the acknowledgment of ones sins or wrongs. Buddhism has been from its primarily a tradition of renunciation. Within the monastic framework of the regular confession of wrongdoing to superiors is mandatory. In the sutras of the Pali Canon Bhikkhus confessed their wrongdoing to the Buddha himself and that part of the Pali Canon called the Vinaya requires that monks confess their individual sins before the bi-weekly convening for the recitation of the Patimokkha. In Catholic teaching, the Sacrament of Penance is the method of the Church by which men and women may confess sins committed after baptism and have them absolved by a priest. Although it is not mandatory, the Catholic rite is usually conducted within a confessional box and this sacrament is known by many names, including penance, reconciliation and confession. For the Catholic Church, the intent of this sacrament is to provide healing for the soul as well as to regain the grace of God, in theological terms, the priest acts in persona Christi and receives from the Church the power of jurisdiction over the penitent. The Catholic Church teaches that sacramental confession requires three acts on the part of the penitent, contrition, disclosure of the sins, the basic form of confession has not changed for centuries, although at one time confessions were made publicly. Typically, the penitent begins sacramental confession by saying, Bless me Father and it has been since my last confession. The penitent must then confess what he/she believes to be grave and mortal sins, the sinner may also confess venial sins, this is especially recommended if the penitent has no mortal sins to confess. According to the Catechism, without being strictly necessary, confession of faults is nevertheless strongly recommended by the Church. Indeed the regular confession of our venial sins helps us form our conscience, fight against evil tendencies, let ourselves be healed by Christ, by receiving more frequently through this sacrament the gift of the Fathers Mercy, we are spurred to be merciful as He is merciful. When Christs faithful strive to confess all the sins that they can remember, as a result, even mortal sins which the penitent inadvertently forgot are forgiven if the confession was good. In general, Eastern Catholic and Orthodox Christians choose an individual to trust as his or her spiritual guide. In most cases this is the parish priest, but may be a starets or any individual, male or female and this person is often referred to as ones spiritual father or spiritual mother. Once chosen, the turns to his spiritual guide for advice on his or her spiritual development, confessing sins. What is confessed to ones spiritual guide is protected by the seal as would be any priest hearing a confession. While one does not have to be a priest to hear confession, Confession does not take place in a confessional, but normally in the main part of the church itself, usually before an analogion set up near the iconostasion
Sacrament of Confession
–
Traditional
confessional
Sacrament of Confession
–
A confessional in
Colombia
Sacrament of Confession
–
Pilgrims queueing to confess at
Međugorje,
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Sacrament of Confession
–
Modern confessional in the Church of the Holy Name,
Dunedin,
New Zealand. The penitent may kneel on the kneeler or sit in a chair facing the priest (not shown)
12.
Piety
–
In spiritual terminology, piety is a virtue that may include religious devotion, spirituality, or a mixture of both. A common element in most conceptions of piety is humility and religiosity, the word piety comes from the Latin word pietas, the noun form of the adjective pius. Pietas in traditional Latin usage expressed a complex, highly valued Roman virtue, a man with pietas respected his responsibilities to gods, country, parents, in its strictest sense it was the sort of love a son ought to have for his father. Piety in modern English usage can refer to a way to win the favour or forgiveness of God, according to some, this type of piety does not necessarily require spiritual piety, while others refrain from distinguishing the two. It is also used by others to refer only to signs that result from the spiritual aspect of piety. That is, according to some, if one is truly pious, piety in a historical context implied high morality, as religious diversity was unlike what is seen in modern populations. Piety now often refers to devotion to ones own religion. In Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, and Anglicanism, piety is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, piety can be demonstrated by position or state of mind, such as prayer. The best known gestures demonstrating piety are kneeling in Christianity, bowing down to pray in Islam, and prostration
Piety
–
Piety
13.
Mortification of the flesh
–
Mortification of the flesh is an act by which an individual or group seeks to mortify, or put to death, their sinful nature, as a part of the process of sanctification. In Christianity, common forms of mortification that are practiced to this day include fasting, abstinence, also common among Christian religious orders in the past were the wearing of sackcloth, as well as flagellation in imitation of Jesus of Nazareths suffering and death by crucifixion. Christian theology holds that the Holy Spirit helps believers in the mortification of the sins of the flesh, some forms unique to various Asian cultures are carrying heavy loads and immersion in water. According to Christian exegesis, deeds of the body and what is earthly, refer to the nature of man or his concupiscence. The Apostle Paul, who authored Romans, expected believers to put to death the deeds of the flesh and it can also be practiced by choosing a simple or even impoverished lifestyle, this is often one reason many monks of various religions take vows of poverty. Among votarists, traditional forms of mortification are the cilice. In some of its more severe forms, it can mean using a discipline to flagellate oneself, in Christianity, the Rev. Michael Geisler, a Catholic priest of the Opus Dei Prelature in St. Louis, wrote two articles explaining the theological purpose behind corporal mortification. Self-denial helps a person overcome both psychological and physical weakness, gives him energy, helps him grow in virtue and ultimately leads to salvation and it conquers the insidious demons of softness, pessimism and lukewarm faith that dominate the lives of so many today. Some theologians explain that the value of pain makes pain lovable in its effects. Pain is temporal and limited, thus to undergo it is worthwhile to gain the real benefits, for those with this viewpoint, pain is seen as a means to an end. Thus, a modern Catholic saint, Josemaria Escriva said, while consoling a dying woman who was suffering in a hospital, Blessed be pain. The root of the modern-day perplexity over mortification, according to some theologians, is the denial of God. Some Christians note that the cross carried by Jesus is the crossbar or patibulum, a tree trunk. Christ also fasted for 40 days and 40 nights, an example of submission to the first person of the Trinity, God the Father, the early Christians mortified the flesh through martyrdom and through what has been called confession of the faith, accepting torture in a joyful way. Saint Jerome, a Western church father and biblical scholar who translated the Bible into Latin, was famous for his severe penances in the desert, some canonized Catholic saints and founders of Roman Catholic religious organizations practiced mortification in order to imitate Christ. This is the true, earnest, and unfeigned mortification, to wit, to be exercised with divers afflictions, and such external discipline ought to be urged at all times, not only on a few and set days. So Christ commands, Luke 21,34, Take heed lest your hearts be overcharged with surfeiting,17,21, This kind goeth not out but by prayer and fasting. 9,27, I keep under my body and bring it into subjection, in The Ninety-Five Theses, Martin Luther stated that inner repentance is worthless unless it produces various outward mortification of the flesh
Mortification of the flesh
–
Flagellants' self-harm, flagellation, mortification of the flesh, Bustos, Bulacan, Philippines
Mortification of the flesh
–
Flagellants mortifying the flesh, at the time of the Black Death
Mortification of the flesh
–
Reproduction of the crops used in the Middle Ages
Mortification of the flesh
–
A group of people engaged in a modern secular ritual called pulling
14.
Religious text
–
Religious texts are texts which religious traditions consider to be central to their religious practice or set of beliefs. It is not possible to create an exhaustive list of religious texts, one of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of Ancient Sumer, a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE. For example, the content of a Protestant Bible may differ from the content of a Catholic Bible, the word canon comes from the Sumerian word meaning standard. Hierographology is the study of sacred texts, the following is an in-exhaustive list of links to specific religious texts which may be used for further, more in-depth study. The writings of Franklin Albert Jones a. k. a, some denominations also include the Apocrypha. For Protestantism, this is the 66-book canon - the Jewish Tanakh of 24 books divided differently, some denominations also include the 15 books of the Apocrypha between the Old Testament and the New Testament, for a total of 81 books. For Catholicism, this includes seven deuterocanonical books in the Old Testament for a total of 73 books, called the Canon of Trent. For the Eastern Orthodox Church, this includes the anagignoskomena, which consist of the Catholic deuterocanon, plus 3 Maccabees, Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh,4 Maccabees is considered to be canonical by the Georgian Orthodox Church. Some Syriac churches accept the Letter of Baruch as scripture, christian Scientists The Bible Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy. This textbook, along with the Bible, serves as the permanent impersonal pastor of the church, the Community of Christ uses the Joseph Smith Translation, which it calls the Inspired Version, as well as updated modern translations. Seventh-day Adventists The Bible The writings of Ellen White are held to a status, though not equal with the Bible. Also known as the Gospel of Mani and The Living Gospel the Treasure of Life the Pragmateia the Book of Mysteries The Book of Giants the Epistles the Psalms, the Shabuhragan The Arzhang The Kephalaia, Discourses, found in Coptic translation. Odù Ifá Jaap Verduijns Odu Ifa Collection Primary religious texts, that is, the Avesta collection, The Yasna, the Visperad, a collection of supplements to the Yasna. The Yashts, hymns in honor of the divinities, the Vendidad, describes the various forms of evil spirits and ways to confound them. Shorter texts and prayers, the Yashts the five Nyaishes, the Sirozeh, there are some 60 secondary religious texts, none of which are considered scripture. The Khordeh Avesta, Zoroastrian prayer book for lay people from the Avesta, religious full text online library Ancient texts library Internet Sacred Text Archive
Religious text
–
Ancient style of scripture used for the
Pāli Canon
Religious text
–
The Chinese
Diamond Sutra, the oldest known dated
printed book in the world, printed in the 9th year of Xiantong Era of the
Tang Dynasty, or 868 CE.
British Library.
Religious text
–
Christian
Bible, 1407 handwritten copy
Religious text
–
The Bible (left) and Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures (right) serve as the pastor of the
Christian Science church.
15.
Venice
–
Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
Venice
–
A collage of Venice: at the top left is the
Piazza San Marco, followed by a view of the city, then the
Grand Canal, and (smaller) the interior of
La Fenice and, finally, the Island of San Giorgio Maggiore
Venice
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Venice
–
Photography of Venice at dusk
Venice
–
The Grand Canal seen from the bridge at
Ponte di Rialto
16.
Foundling wheel
–
A baby hatch or baby box is a place where people can bring babies, usually newborn, and abandon them anonymously in a safe place to be found and cared for. This kind of arrangement was common in the Middle Ages and in the 18th and 19th centuries, when the device was known as a foundling wheel. The hatches are usually in hospitals, social centres, or churches, sensors in the bed nowadays alert carers when a baby has been put in it so that they can come and take care of the child. In Germany, babies are first looked after for eight weeks during which the mother can return, if this does not happen, after eight weeks the child is put up for adoption. Baby hatches have existed in one form or another for centuries, the system was quite common in medieval times. A foundling wheel was a cylinder set upright in the wall of the building. Mothers placed the child in the cylinder, turned it around so that the baby was inside the church, and then rang a bell to alert caretakers. One example of type which can still be seen today is in the Santo Spirito hospital at the Vatican City. In Hamburg, Germany, a Dutch merchant set up a wheel in an orphanage in 1709 and it closed after only five years in 1714 as the number of babies left there was too high for the orphanage to cope with financially. Other wheels are known to have existed in Kassel and Mainz, in France, foundling wheels were introduced by Saint Vincent de Paul who built the first foundling home in 1638 in Paris. Foundling wheels were legalised in a decree of January 19,1811. They were in such as the Hôpital des Enfants-Trouvés in Paris. The tours dabandon were officially abolished in a law of June 27,1904, today in France, women are allowed to give birth anonymously in hospitals and leave their baby there. In Brazil and Portugal, foundling wheels were used after Queen Mary I proclaimed on May 24,1783 that all towns should have a foundling hospital. One example was the wheel installed at the Santa Casa de Misericordia hospital in São Paulo on July 2,1825 and this was taken out of use on June 5,1949, declared incompatible with the modern social system after five years debate. A Brazilian film on this subject, Roda Dos Expostos, directed by Maria Emília de Azevedo, in Britain and Ireland, foundlings were brought up in orphanages financed by the Poor Tax. The foundling wheel in Dublin was taken out of use in 1826 when the Dublin hospital was closed because of the death rate of children there. The first modern baby hatch was in South Africa in July 1999 and was installed by Door of Hope Childrens Mission at a mission church in Berea in Johannesburg
Foundling wheel
–
Baby hatch in
Germany
Foundling wheel
–
Baby hatch called "BabyBox" in the
Czech Republic
Foundling wheel
–
Baby hatch in
Poland. The literal translation of "OKNO ŻYCIA" means "Window of Life"
Foundling wheel
–
Foundling wheel at the "Ospedale Santo Spirito" in
Rome
17.
Pope Paul III
–
Pope Paul III, born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope from 13 October 1534 to his death in 1549. He came to the throne in an era following the sack of Rome in 1527. He convened the Council of Trent in 1545 and he was a significant patron of the arts and employed nepotism to advance the power and fortunes of his family. It is to Pope Paul III that Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, alessandro’s humanist education was at the University of Pisa and the court of Lorenzo de Medici. Initially trained as a notary, he joined the Roman Curia in 1491. Farnese’s sister, Giulia was reputedly a mistress of Alexander VI, for this reason, he was sometimes mockingly referred to as the Borgia brother-in-law, just as Giulia was mocked as the Bride of Christ. More disparagingly he was referred to as Cardinal Fregnese, as Bishop of Parma, he came under the influence of his vicar general, Bartolomeo Guidiccioni. This led to the future pope breaking off the relationship with his mistress, under Pope Clement VII he became Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and dean of the College of Cardinals, and on the death of Clement VII in 1534, was elected as Pope Paul III. As a young cleric, Alessandro lived a dissolute life, taking for himself a mistress. By Silvia Ruffini, he fathered Pier Luigi Farnese, whom he created Duke of Parma, others included Ranuccio Farnese, the fourth pope during the period of the Protestant Reformation, Paul III became the first to take active reform measures in response to Protestantism. Paul III first deferred for a year and then discarded the whole project, in 1536, Paul III invited nine eminent prelates, distinguished by learning and piety alike, to act in committee and to report on the reformation and rebuilding of the Church. This report was printed not only at Rome, but at Strasburg, yet the Pope was in earnest when he took up the problem of reform. Yet it is clear that the Concilium bore no fruit in the situation. On the other hand, serious political complications resulted, in order to vest his grandson Ottavio Farnese with the dukedom of Camerino, Paul forcibly wrested the same from the duke of Urbino. He also incurred virtual war with his own subjects and vassals by the imposition of burdensome taxes, perugia, renouncing its obedience, was besieged by Pauls son, Pier Luigi, and forfeited its freedom entirely on its surrender. The burghers of Colonna were duly vanquished, and Ascanio was banished, after this the time seemed ripe for annihilating heresy. In 1540, the Church officially recognized the young society forming about Ignatius of Loyola, the second visible stage in the process becomes marked by the institution, or reorganization, in 1542, of the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition. On another side, the Emperor was insisting that Rome should forward his designs toward a recovery of the German Protestants
Pope Paul III
–
Pope Paul III
Pope Paul III
–
Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, later Pope Paul III, by
Raphael, 1509–1511 (
Museo di Capodimonte,
Naples).
Pope Paul III
–
Cardinal Ascanio Sforza
Pope Paul III
–
Pope Paul III and his Grandsons Cardinal
Alessandro Farnese (left), and
Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma (right), II Duke of Parma since 1547. A triple portrait by
Titian, 1546
18.
Latin Church
–
The Latin Church, commonly called Roman Catholic Church, sometimes Western Church, is the largest autonomous particular church sui iuris within the Catholic Church, applying Latin liturgical rites. There are 24 such sui iuris particular churches within the Catholic Church, all the other particular churches sui iuris, of which there are 23, originated farther east and are, therefore, collectively known as the Eastern Catholic Churches. Because of the migrations, members of all of these particular churches sui iuris are no longer confined to their areas of origin. A person is a member of or belongs to a particular church, a person also inherits or is of, a particular patrimony or rite. Since the rite has liturgical, theological, spiritual and disciplinary elements, Particular churches that inherit and perpetuate a particular patrimony are identified by metonymy with that patrimony. Accordingly, rite has been defined as a division of the Christian church using a distinctive liturgy, is considered equal to the Latin rite within the Church. It thus used the rite as a technical designation of what may now be called a particular church. Church or rite is used as a single heading in the United States Library of Congress classification of works. The last known use was Pope Pius XII in Humani generis who taught that the Mystical Body of Christ and the Roman Catholic Church are one. Most ecclesiologists - experts in the theology of the Church itself - instead use Roman Catholic to refer exclusively to the Latin Church. The reasons for this are that each of the 24 Catholic Churches sui iuris have a modifier - Maronite, Ukrainian, Roman, etc. - and that Latin and Roman are virtually interchangeable. Further, as Adrian Fortescue noted in his article in the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia, today, the most common Latin liturgical rites are the Roman Rite, the Ambrosian Rite, the Mozarabic Rite, and variations of the Roman Rite. The 23 Eastern Catholic Churches share five families of liturgical rites, the Latin liturgical rites, like the Armenian, are used only in a single sui iuris particular church. In the Eastern Churches these sacraments are usually administered immediately after baptism, celibacy, as a consequence of the duty to observe perfect continence, is obligatory for priests in the Latin Church. Rare exceptions are permitted for men who, after ministering as clergy in other churches and this contrasts with the discipline in most Eastern Catholic Churches. In the Latin Church, a man may not be admitted even to the diaconate unless he is legitimately destined to remain a deacon. Marriage after ordination is not possible, and attempting it can result in canonical penalties, Latin Mass Church of Rome Particular church General Roman Calendar Eastern Catholic Churches Catholic Encyclopedia, Latin Church
Latin Church
–
St. Peter's Basilica, burial place of
Saint Peter
Latin Church
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
19.
Martin Luther
–
Martin Luther, O. S. A. was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and he strongly disputed the Catholic view on indulgences as he understood it to be, that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther proposed a discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular made it accessible to the laity. It fostered the development of a version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation. His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches and his marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry. In two of his works, Luther expressed antagonistic views towards Jews, writing that Jewish homes and synagogues should be destroyed, their money confiscated. Condemned by virtually every Lutheran denomination, these statements and their influence on antisemitism have contributed to his controversial status, Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder and his wife Margarethe on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours and his family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council. He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have close to one of them. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, the three schools focused on the so-called trivium, grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell, in 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as a day of rote learning and he received his masters degree in 1505. In accordance with his fathers wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the university that year but dropped out almost immediately. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, for Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed and he later attributed his decision to an event, on 2 July 1505, he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home
Martin Luther
–
Luther (1529) by
Lucas Cranach the Elder
Martin Luther
–
Portraits of Hans and Margarethe Luther by
Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1527
Martin Luther
–
Luther as an
Augustinian friar
Martin Luther
–
According to one account, Luther nailed his
Ninety-Five Theses to the door of
All Saints' Church in
Wittenberg on 31 October 1517, sparking the
Reformation. The
Latin inscription above informs the reader that the original door was destroyed by a fire, and that in 1857, King
Frederick William IV of Prussia ordered the replacement be made. Luther's theses were engraved into today's bronze gate (pictured).
20.
Pope Leo X
–
Pope Leo X, born Giovanni di Lorenzo de Medici, was Pope from 9 March 1513 to his death in 1521. The second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, ruler of the Florentine Republic, following the death of Pope Julius II, Giovanni was elected pope after securing the backing of the younger members of the Sacred College. Early on in his rule he oversaw the sessions of the Fifth Council of the Lateran. In 1517 he led a war that succeeded in securing his nephew as duke of Urbino. He later only narrowly escaped a plot by some cardinals to poison him and he is probably best remembered for granting indulgences for those who donated to reconstruct St. Peters Basilica, which practice was challenged by Martin Luthers 95 Theses. He seems not to have taken seriously the array of demands for reform that would quickly grow into the Protestant Reformation. His Papal Bull of 1520, Exsurge Domine, simply condemned Luther on a number of areas and he did, however, grant establishment to the Oratory of Divine Love. A significant patron of the arts, upon election Leo is alleged to have said, Since God has given us the papacy, under his reign, progress was made on the rebuilding of Saint Peters Basilica and artists such as Raphael decorated the Vatican rooms. Leo also reorganised the Roman University, and promoted the study of literature, poetry and he died in 1521 and is buried in Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome. He is the last pope not to have been in priestly orders at the time of his election to the papacy. Giovanni di Lorenzo de Medici was born on December 11,1475 in the Republic of Florence, the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent. From an early age he was destined for an ecclesiastical career and he received the tonsure at the age of seven and was soon granted rich benefices and preferments. Meanwhile, he received an education at Lorenzos humanistic court under such men as Angelo Poliziano, Pico della Mirandola, Marsilio Ficino, from 1489 to 1491 he studied theology and canon law at Pisa. On 23 March 1492, he was admitted into the Sacred College of Cardinals and took up his residence at Rome. The death of Lorenzo on the following 8 April, however and he returned to Rome to participate in the conclave of 1492 which followed the death of Innocent VIII, and unsuccessfully opposed the election of Cardinal Borgia. While Piero found refuge at Venice and Urbino, Giovanni traveled in Germany, in the Netherlands, in May 1500, he returned to Rome, where he was received with outward cordiality by Pope Alexander VI, and where he lived for several years immersed in art and literature. In 1503 he welcomed the accession of Pope Julius II to the pontificate and this and other attempts to regain political control of Florence were frustrated until a bloodless revolution permitted the return of the Medici. Giovannis younger brother Giuliano was placed at the head of the republic, Giovanni was elected Pope on 9 March 1513, and this was proclaimed two days later
Pope Leo X
–
Pope Leo X
Pope Leo X
–
Santa Maria in Domnica
Pope Leo X
–
Bulla Contra errores Martini Lutheri of 1521.
Pope Leo X
–
Statue of Leo X in the church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, Rome.
21.
Decet Romanum Pontificem
–
Not to be confused with Romanum decet pontificem. Decet Romanum Pontificem is the papal bull excommunicating Martin Luther, bearing the title of the first three Latin words of the text. It was issued on January 3,1521, by Pope Leo X to effect the excommunication threatened in his papal bull Exsurge Domine since Luther failed to recant. Luther had burned his copy of Exsurge Domine on December 10,1520, at the Elster Gate in Wittenberg and he might better be called, as one has phrased it, a reluctant rebel. The Lutherans of the Missouri Synod have shown little if any willingness to engage in reciprocity, Pope Leo X. Minneapolis, Compass Point Books. The Bull Decet Romanum Pontificem - Leo X Excommunicates Martin Luther - Rome,1521 January 3rd
Decet Romanum Pontificem
–
Decet Romanum Pontificem
22.
Thomas Paprocki
–
Thomas John Joseph Paprocki is an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who serves as bishop of the Diocese of Springfield, Illinois. The third of nine children, Thomas Paprocki was born in Chicago, Illinois, he has six brothers, a lifelong fan of hockey, he began playing at a young age in the basement of his fathers drugstore and supports the Chicago Blackhawks. He graduated from Quigley Preparatory Seminary South in 1970, and then entered Niles College, from 1974 to 1979, he studied at St. Mary of the Lake Seminary, where he earned a Bachelors in Sacred Theology, Masters in Divinity, and Licentiate in Sacred Theology. Paprocki was ordained to the priesthood by John Cardinal Cody on May 10,1978, in 1981, he earned his Juris Doctor from DePaul University College of Law and founded the Chicago Legal Clinic to assist the working poor and disadvantaged. Paprocki served as administrator of St. Joseph Church in Chicago from 1983 to 1986 and he then furthered his studies in Rome at the Pontifical Gregorian University, where he obtained a Licentiate of Canon Law and a Doctor of Canon Law degree. Upon his return to the United States, he was named chancellor of the archdiocese in 1992, in 2013 he received an MBA from the University of Notre Dame. On January 24,2003, Paprocki was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Chicago and he received his episcopal consecration on the following March 19 from Francis Cardinal George, O. M. I. with bishops Raymond E. Goedert and Ricardo Watty Urquidi, M. Sp. S. As an auxiliary, he served as Episcopal Vicar for Vicariate IV and he is also a member of the boards of directors of the Polish American Association and the Polish American Leadership Initiative. It would not be sufficient to withdraw our sponsorship or to them to someone who would perform abortions. That would be a morally unacceptable cooperation in evil, in a subsequent interview with The Chicago Tribune, he reaffirmed his position, saying, If Catholic hospitals were required by federal law to perform abortions, wed have to close our hospitals. When remarking about who was responsible for the sexual abuse crises in the Catholic Church, on April 20,2010, Paprocki was appointed as the Bishop of Springfield by Pope Benedict XVI. He was installed at the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception on June 22,2010, in November 2010, he organized a conference on exorcism. S. He coined the name of the Fortnight for Freedom, a campaign of the American bishops on behalf of religious liberty and his article went on at length discussing how the Democratic Party embraced objectionable doctrines. Roman Catholic Diocese of Springfield in Illinois — official site
Thomas Paprocki
–
Bishop Thomas Paprocki (left) at 30th Anniversary Celebration of
Center for Neighborhood Technology
23.
Repentance
–
Repentance is the activity of reviewing ones actions and feeling contrition or regret for past wrongs. Today, it is seen as involving a commitment to personal change. In other words, being sorry for ones misdeeds, but it can also involve sorrow over a specific sin or series of sins that an individual feels he or she has committed. The practice of repentance plays an important role in the doctrines of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Analogous practices have been found in world religions as well. In religious contexts it often involves an act of confession to God or to a spiritual elder, as such, it can be seen as having a certain relationship to modern day therapeutic practices though it clearly differs in its particulars. In Biblical Hebrew, the idea of repentance is represented by two verbs, שוב shuv and נחם nacham. In the New Testament, the word translated as repentance is the Greek word μετάνοια, after/behind ones mind, which is a word of the preposition meta. In this compound word the preposition combines the two meanings of time and change, which may be denoted by after and different, so that the compound means. Metanoia is therefore primarily an after-thought, different from the former thought, the doctrine of repentance as taught in the Bible is a call to persons to make a radical turn from one way of life to another. The repentance called for throughout the Bible is a summons to a personal, though it includes sorrow and regret, it is more than that. It is a call to conversion from self-love, self-trust, and self-assertion to obedient trust, in repenting, one makes a complete change of direction toward God. The words repent, repentance, and repented are mentioned over 100 times in the Bible, ezekiel 14,6 says, Thus saith the Lord GOD, Repent, and turn yourselves from your idols, and turn away your faces from all your abominations. Rabbinic Jewish literature contains extensive discussions on the subject of repentance, many rabbinic sources state that repentance is of paramount importance to the existence of this world, so that it was one of the seven provisions which God made before the Creation. The Holy One, blessed be His name, said to Elijah, Behold, the gift which I have bestowed on my world, though a man sins again and again. Great is repentance, it brings healing into the world, it reaches to the throne of the Lord, it brings redemption, it prolongs mans life, Repentance and works of charity are mans intercessors before Gods throne. Sincere repentance is equivalent to the rebuilding of the Temple, the restoration of the altar, sincere repentance is manifested when the same temptation to sin, under the same conditions, is ever after resolutely resisted. According to Jewish doctrine, repentance is the prerequisite of atonement, no one need despair on account of his or her sins, for every penitent sinner is graciously received by God
Repentance
–
Martin Luther's 1534 bible
Repentance
–
John Calvin at 53 in an engraving by
René Boyvin.
24.
Schism
–
A schism is a division between people, usually belonging to an organization, movement, or religious denomination. The word is most frequently applied to a split in what had previously been a religious body. It is also used of a split within an organization or movement or, more broadly. A schismatic is a person who creates or incites schism in an organization or who is a member of a splinter group. Schismatic as an adjective pertaining to a schism or schisms, or to those ideas, policies. In religion, the charge of schism is distinguished from that of heresy, since the offence of schism concerns not differences of belief or doctrine but promotion of, or the state of, however, schisms frequently involve mutual accusations of heresy. In Roman Catholic teaching, every heresy is a schism, while there may be some free of the added guilt of heresy. Liberal Protestantism, however, has often preferred heresy over schism, mcCord drew a distinction between them, teaching, If you must make a choice between heresy and schism, always choose heresy. As a schismatic, you have torn and divided the body of Christ, in Buddhism, the first schism was set up by Devadatta, during Buddhas life. This schism lasted only a short time, later, the early Buddhist schools came into being, but were not schismatic, only focusing on different interpretations for the same monastic community. In the old texts,18 or 20 early schools are mentioned, later, there were the Mahayana and Vajrayana movements, which can be regarded as being schismatic in origin. Each school has various subgroups, which often are schismatic in origin, for example, in Thai Theravadin Buddhism there are two groups, of which the Dhammayut has its origin partly in the Mahanikaya, and is the new and schismatic group. Both Mahanikaya and Dhammayut have many subgroups, which usually do not have schismatic origins, Tibetan Buddhism has seen schisms in the past, of which most were healed, although the Drukpa school centred in Bhutan perhaps remains in a state of schism from the other Tibetan schools. The words schism and schismatic have found their heaviest usage in the history of Christianity, to denote splits within a church and these words have been used to denote both the phenomenon of Christian group splintering in general, and certain significant historical splits in particular. A distinction is made between heresy and schism, heresy is rejection of a doctrine that a Church considered to be essential. But, when for any reason people withdraw from communion, two distinct ecclesiastical entities may result, each of which then, or at least some of its members, may accuse the other of heresy. In Roman Catholic Church canon law, an act of schism, like an act of apostasy or heresy, as stated in canon 1312 §1 1° of the Code of Canon Law, this penalty is intended to be medicinal, so as to lead to restoration of unity. This nuanced view applies especially to the Churches of Eastern Christianity, the First Council of Nicaea distinguished between schism and heresy
Schism
–
The historical development of major church branches from their roots.
25.
Absolution
–
Absolution is a traditional theological term for the forgiveness experienced in the Sacrament of Penance. This concept is found in the Roman Catholic Church, as well as the Eastern Orthodox churches, Absolution is an integral part of the Sacrament of Penance, in Roman Catholicism. The penitent makes a confession of all mortal sins to a priest. The priest then assigns a penance and imparts absolution in the name of the Trinity, on behalf of Christ Himself, using a fixed sacramental formula. The traditional formula is, Dominus noster Jesus Christus te absolvat, deinde, ego te absolvo a peccatis tuis in nomine Patris, et Filii, + et Spiritus Sancti. May our Lord Jesus Christ absolve you, and by His authority I absolve you from every bond of excommunication and interdict, so far as my power allows and your needs require. Thereupon, I absolve you from your sins in the name of the Father, et ego te absolvo a peccatis tuis in nomine Patris, et Filii, + et Spiritus Sancti. The essential part of the formula are, I absolve you and this formula is preceded by other short prayers similar to those used at Mass after the Confiteor. Suspension, in the context of the formula for absolution, refers to a penalty which can be incurred only by clerics, therefore. This prayer shows the concepts of merit and the Communion of Saints in the context of grace as understood in Catholic theology. The diocesan bishop must give permission before general absolution may be given under this circumstance. It is important to note that the occurrence of a number of penitents. The second circumstance is thus envisaged more for mission territories where priests may visit certain villages only a few times a year, anyone receiving general absolution is also required to make a complete, individual confession to a priest as soon as possible before receiving general absolution again. An historical example is the absolution given by Fr, william Corby to the Irish Brigade during the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. The French form absoute is used in English for the absolution of the dead, the absolution of the dead does not forgive sins or confer the sacramental absolution of the Sacrament of Penance. Rather, it is a series of prayers to God that the soul will not have to suffer the temporal punishment in Purgatory due for sins which were forgiven during the persons life. The absolution of the dead is performed in context of the Tridentine Mass. Eastern Orthodoxy is made up of a confederacy of Christian churches in the Eastern tradition
Absolution
–
Traditional
confessional from
Sicily.
Absolution
–
A depiction of the general absolution given to the
Royal Munster Fusiliers by Father
Francis Gleeson on the eve of the
Battle of Aubers Ridge.
Absolution
–
"Private Absolution ought to be retained in the churches, although in confession an enumeration of all sins is not necessary." —
Augsburg Confession, Article 9
26.
Confessional
–
A confessional is a box, cabinet, or stall in which the priest in Christian churches sits to hear the confessions of penitents. It is the venue for the sacrament in the Roman Catholic Church, but similar structures are also used in Anglican churches of an Anglo-Catholic orientation. In the Catholic Church, confessions are only to be heard in a confessional or oratory, by this arrangement the priest is hidden, but the penitent is visible to the public. A notable example, in Renaissance style, is in the Saint Michaels church at Leuven, but more usually, confessionals are movable pieces of furniture. The confessional in its modern form dates no farther back than the 16th century, originally the term was applied to the place where a martyr or confessor had been buried. There are, however, instances where the name was attached to the spot, whether cell or seat, in the popular Protestant view confessional boxes are associated with the scandals, real or supposed, of the practice of auricular confession. They were, however, devised to guard against such scandals by securing at once essential publicity and a reasonable privacy, in the Middle Ages stringent rules were laid down, in this latter respect, by the canon law in the case of confessions by women and especially nuns. In England, before the Protestant Reformation, publicity was reckoned the best safeguard and it would seem that the priest usually heard confessions at the chancel opening or at a bench end in the nave near the chancel. There is, however, in some accounts mention of a special seat. At Lenham in Kent there is an ancient armchair in stone, with a bench and steps on one side. With the revival of the practice of confession in the English Church. Since, however, they formed no part of the furniture of the church in the second year of King Edward VI. The question of their legality was raised in 1900 in the case of Davey v. Hinde tried before Dr Tristram in the court of Chichester. Confessional, in the sense of a due payable for the right to hear confession, is now obsolete, media related to Confessionals at Wikimedia Commons
Confessional
–
Traditional confessional in
Saint-Thiébaut Church, Thann,
France
Confessional
–
Traditional confessional in the church
Gesù Nuovo,
Naples, Italy
Confessional
–
Modern confessional in the Church of the Holy Name,
Dunedin,
New Zealand. The penitent has the option to either kneel on the
kneeler or sit in a chair facing the priest (not shown)
Confessional
–
Metal confessional lattice in the
Dubrovnik Cathedral (Croatia)
27.
Bishop
–
A bishop is an ordained, consecrated, or appointed member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within these churches, bishops are seen as those who possess the full priesthood, Some Protestant churches including the Lutheran and Methodist churches have bishops serving similar functions as well, though not always understood to be within apostolic succession in the same way. Priests, deacons and lay ministers cooperate and assist their bishop in shepherding a flock, the earliest organization of the Church in Jerusalem was, according to most scholars, similar to that of Jewish synagogues, but it had a council or college of ordained presbyters. In, we see a system of government in Jerusalem chaired by James the Just. In, the Apostle Paul ordains presbyters in churches in Anatolia, in Timothy and Titus in the New Testament a more clearly defined episcopate can be seen. We are told that Paul had left Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete to oversee the local church, Paul commands Titus to ordain presbyters/bishops and to exercise general oversight, telling him to rebuke with all authority. Early sources are unclear but various groups of Christian communities may have had the bishop surrounded by a group or college functioning as leaders of the local churches, eventually, as Christendom grew, bishops no longer directly served individual congregations. Instead, the Metropolitan bishop appointed priests to each congregation. Around the end of the 1st century, the organization became clearer in historical documents. While Ignatius of Antioch offers the earliest clear description of monarchial bishops he is an advocate of monepiscopal structure rather than describing an accepted reality. To the bishops and house churches to which he writes, he offers strategies on how to pressure house churches who dont recognize the bishop into compliance. Other contemporary Christian writers do not describe monarchial bishops, either continuing to equate them with the presbyters or speaking of episkopoi in a city, plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself — Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6,1. Your godly bishop — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2,1, therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters. — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7,1. Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father, and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13,2. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church, — Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians 3,1. Follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles, and to the deacons pay respect, as to Gods commandment — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 8,1. He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God, he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9,1
Bishop
–
A 6th-century image of
Saint Augustine, bishop of
Hippo Regius.
Bishop
–
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, student of
John the Apostle
Bishop
–
A bishop with other officials on an 11th-century grave in
Sweden.
Bishop
–
Johann Otto von Gemmingen,
Prince-Bishop of Augsburg
28.
Ordinary (officer)
–
An ordinary is an officer of a church or civic authority who by reason of office has ordinary power to execute laws. Such officers are found in hierarchically organised churches of Western Christianity which have a legal system. For example, diocesan bishops are ordinaries in the Roman Catholic church, in Eastern Christianity, a corresponding officer is called a hierarch. In canon law, the power to govern the church is divided into the power to make laws, enforce the laws, and to judge based on the law. A person exercises power to either because the person holds an office to which the law grants governing power or because someone with governing power has delegated it to the person. Ordinary power is the former, while the latter is delegated power, the office with ordinary power could possess the governing power itself or instead it could have the ordinary power of agency, the inherent power to exercise someone elses power. Thus, in the Catholic Church, the office of successor of Simon Peter, many officers possess ordinary power but, due to their lack of ordinary executive power, are not called ordinaries. The best example of this phenomenon is the office of judicial vicar, the judicial vicar only has authority through his office to exercise the diocesan bishops power to judge cases. Though the vicar has vicarious ordinary judicial power, he is not an ordinary because he lacks ordinary executive power, a vicar general, however, has authority through his office to exercise the diocesan bishops executive power. He is therefore an ordinary because of this vicarious ordinary executive power, local ordinaries exercise ordinary power and are ordinaries in particular churches. The following clerics are local ordinaries, The Bishop of Rome is ordinary for the whole Catholic Church, in Eastern Catholic Churches, Patriarchs, major archbishops, and metropolitans have ordinary power of governance for the whole territory of their respective autonomous particular churches. Diocesan/eparchial bishops/eparchs Other prelates who head, even if only temporarily, Canon 368 of the Code of Canon Law lists five Latin-Rite jurisdictional areas that are considered equivalent to a diocese. A Military Ordinary A Personal Prelate, in charge of a group of persons without regard to geography, apart from certain limitations of nature and law, he has, on a caretaker basis, the same obligations and powers as a diocesan bishop. Occasionally an Apostolic Administrator is appointed by the Holy See to run a vacant diocese, the violation of this rule is called eispēdēsis, and is uncanonical. Ultimately, all bishops in the Church are equal, regardless of any title they may enjoy, the role of the bishop in the Orthodox Church is both hierarchical and sacramental. This pattern of governance dates back to the earliest centuries of Christianity, as witnessed by the writings of Ignatius of Antioch, let no one do any of the things which concern the Church without the bishop. Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be, just as wherever Jesus Christ is, and it is the bishops primary and distinctive task to celebrate the Eucharist, the medicine of immortality. Saint Cyprian of Carthage wrote, The episcopate is a single whole, so is the Church a single whole, though it spreads far and wide into a multitude of churches and its fertility increases
Ordinary (officer)
–
Pope
Pius XI, depicted in this window at
Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace,
Honolulu, was ordinary of the universal Church as well as the
Diocese of Rome from 1922 to 1939. At the same time, Bishop
Stephen Alencastre,
Apostolic Vicar of the
Sandwich Islands, was the ordinary of what is now the
Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu.
29.
Pope
–
The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
Pope
Pope
–
Bishop of
Rome
Pope
–
Saint Peter
Pope
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
30.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
31.
Jan Hus
–
Jan Hus, often referred to in English as John Hus or John Huss, was a Czech priest, philosopher, Master at Charles University in Prague, church reformer and a key predecessor to Protestantism. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of ecclesiastical Reformation, Hus is considered the first Church reformer, as he lived before Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. He was burned at the stake for heresy against the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, including those on ecclesiology, the Eucharist, a century later, as many as 90% of inhabitants of the Czech lands were Hussites. Jan Hus was born in Husinec, Bohemia, c, at an early age he traveled to the Imperial City of Prague, where he supported himself by singing and serving in Churches. His conduct was positive and his commitment to his studies was remarkable, in 1393, Hus earned the degree of Bachelor of Arts at the University of Prague, and he earned his masters degree in 1396. In 1400, he was ordained as a priest, in 1402 Hus began preaching inside the city demanding for the reformation of the Church. He served as rector of the University of Prague in 1402–03 and he was appointed a preacher at the newly built Bethlehem Chapel around the same time. Hus was an advocate for the Czechs, and therefore the Realists. Although Church authorities banned many works of Wycliffe in 1403, Hus translated Trialogus into Czech, Hus attacked the Church by denouncing the moral failings of clergy, bishops, and even the papacy from his pulpit. Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc tolerated this, and even appointed Hus preacher at the clergys biennial synod, on 24 June 1405, Pope Innocent VII, however, directed the Archbishop to counter Wycliffes teachings, especially the doctrine of impanation in the Eucharist. The archbishop complied by issuing a decree against Wycliffe, as well as forbidding any further attacks on the clergy. In 1406, two Bohemian students brought to Prague a document bearing the seal of the University of Oxford, Hus proudly read the document from his pulpit. Then in 1408, Pope Gregory XII warned Archbishop Zajic that the Church in Rome had been informed of Wycliffes heresies, in response, the king and University ordered all of Wycliffes writings surrendered to the archdiocesan chancery for correction. Hus obeyed, declaring that he condemned the errors in those writings, in 1408, the Charles University in Prague was divided by the Western Schism, in which Gregory XII in Rome and Benedict XIII in Avignon both claimed the papacy. Wenceslaus felt Gregory XII might interfere with his plans to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor and he denounced Gregory, ordered the clergy in Bohemia to observe a strict neutrality in the schism, and said that he expected the same of the University. Archbishop Zajíc remained faithful to Gregory, at the University, only the scholars of the Bohemian nation, with Hus as their leader, vowed neutrality. As a consequence, between five thousand and twenty thousand foreign doctors, masters, and students left Prague in 1409 and this exodus resulted in the founding of the University of Leipzig, among others. Thus Charles University lost its importance and became a strictly Czech school
Jan Hus
–
Jan Hus by an unknown author, 16th century
Jan Hus
–
Jan Hus preaching, illumination from a Czech manuscript, 1490s
Jan Hus
–
The oldest known representation of Jan Hus is from Martinická bible
Jan Hus
–
Jan Hus engraving, 1587
32.
Bell, book, and candle
–
The phrase bell, book and candle refers to a Latin Christian method of excommunication by anathema, imposed on a person who had committed an exceptionally grievous sin. Evidently introduced by Pope Zachary around the middle of the 8th century, in current practice a simple pronouncement is made to anathematize formally. The ceremony was described in the Pontificale Romanum up until the time of the Second Vatican Council, subsequent post-conciliar editions of the Pontificale omitted mention of any particular solemnities associated with excommunication. The ceremony traditionally involved a bishop, with 12 priests with candles, however, the rite of anathema as described in the Pontificale Romanum only prescribes the candles to be dashed to the ground. The frightful pronouncements of the ritual were calculated so as to strike terror into the ones so excommunicated and this form of excommunication was inflicted on Robert II of France by Pope Gregory V for his marriage to Bertha of Burgundy in the year 996, because Bertha was his cousin. He was later reconciled with the Church after negotiations with Gregorys successor Pope Silvester II, the dramatic nature of the ritual has lent itself to frequent depictions in culture and media. In the 1958 film Bell, Book and Candle, based on the play by John Van Druten, in the film Becket, Archbishop Thomas Becket excommunicates Lord Gilbert with something resembling a bell, book and candle ceremony. However, the bells are rung at the start, no book is in evidence, in Lord Jim, Richard Brooks film interpretation of Conrads book, the character Gentleman Brown says, Ring the bell. Never heard the sentence of excommunication. In the television film The Good Witch, Cassandra Nightingale owns a shop called The Bell, Book, in Jean-Paul Laurens painting, The Excommunication of Robert the Pious, the officiants have just excommunicated Robert as per the ritual, and left the quenched candle behind. In the video game Hugo 3, Jungle of Doom, a bell, book, Bell, Book, and Candle is the name of a quest in the video game Kingdoms of Amalur, Reckoning. In the video game Majesty, The Fantasy Kingdom Sim, one of the first and easiest missions one can play is named The Bell, The Book, in it, the player must retrieve the three stolen artifacts from monster-infested ruins and shrines. The Bell of Opening, The Book of the Dead, Star Wars Galaxies, the Star Wars themed MMORPG, references bell, book, and candle in the quest dialogue from Ree-yees in the games Jabbas Palace theme park. In Sam & Max season 2, episode 5, Whats New, the antagonists use a bell, a book, and a candle to open a portal to a flaming pit in hell. The protagonists manage to escape, and use a ritual to send the antagonists to their doom. An important quest in the video game Wizardry IV similarly involves the use of bell, book, in the early text-based computer game Zork, the player must gather a bell, a book, and a candle in order to gain access to the lowest regions of Hell. Peter Hammills song Empresss Clothes from the album Sitting Targets contains the line, You carry the bell, book, I need a bell, book and candle to keep your ghost away. Boos recording was used on the episode of Emmerdale when Tricia Dingle died, the song was also recorded by Eddi Reader and appears on her CD Angels and Electricity
Bell, book, and candle
–
The Excommunication of
Robert the Pious (1875) by
Jean-Paul Laurens.
33.
Divine Liturgy
–
Divine Liturgy is the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine Rite which is the Rite of the The Great Church of Christ and was developed from the Antiochene Rite of Christian liturgy. As such, it is used in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Armenian Christians, both of the Armenian Apostolic Church and of the Armenian Catholic Church, use the same term. Some Oriental Orthodox employ the term holy offering for their Eucharistic liturgies instead, the term is sometimes applied also to Roman Rite Eucharistic liturgies, though the term Mass is more commonly used there. In Eastern traditions, those of the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Divine Liturgy is seen as transcending time, all believers are believed to be united in worship in the Kingdom of God along with departed Saints and the celestial Angels. To this end, everything in the Liturgy is seen as symbolic, yet also not just merely symbolic, according to Eastern tradition and belief, the Liturgys roots go back to Jewish worship and the adaptation of Jewish worship by Early Christians. This can be seen in the first parts of the Liturgy termed the Liturgy of the Catechumens that includes reading of scriptures and, the latter half was added based on the Last Supper and the first Eucharistic celebrations by Early Christians. Each Liturgy has its differences from others, but most are similar to each other with adaptations based on tradition, purpose, culture. The Divine Liturgy of St. Basil the Great, used on the 5 Sundays of Great Lent, on the eves of the Nativity and Theophany, and on Holy Thursday and Holy Saturday, it is celebrated as a vesperal liturgy. In some traditions, Saint Basils Liturgy is also celebrated on the Exaltation of the Life-giving Cross on September 14, all together, St. Basils liturgy is celebrated 10 times out of the liturgical year. The Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, is used during Great Lent on Wednesdays, Fridays, and a handful of other occasions, and also on the first three days of Holy Week. Nowadays it is celebrated as a vesperal liturgy, the Liturgy of the Faithful has no Anaphora. It is traditionally attributed to St. Gregory the Dialogist, although some believe it originated with Patriarch Severus of Antioch. The Liturgy of Saint Mark was also observed in the Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria on at least that Saints day until recent times. As numbers in a diocese increased dramatically the bishop as presiding over the Eucharistic assembly appointed presbyters as celebrant in the local community, still, the Church is understood in Eastern Orthodoxy not in terms of the presbyter, but the diocesan bishop. When the latter is present, he is chief celebrant, phrases and hymns are also added. The hierarch commemorates his hierarch demonstrating unity with the greater Orthodox community, note, Psalms are numbered according to the Greek Septuagint. For the Hebrew Masoretic numbering that is familiar in the West. The format of Divine Liturgy is fixed, although the specific readings and hymns vary with season, in modern times, this restriction applies only to Holy Communion — reception of the sacrament of holy communion
Divine Liturgy
–
Icon of Ss.
Basil the Great (left) and
John Chrysostom, ascribed authors of the two most frequently used
Eastern Orthodox Divine Liturgies, c. 1150 (
mosaic in the
Palatine Chapel,
Palermo).
Divine Liturgy
Divine Liturgy
34.
Blessed Sacrament
–
In the Byzantine Rite, the terms Holy Gifts and Divine Mysteries are used to refer to the consecrated elements. This belief is based on interpretations of scripture and sacred tradition. The Catholic understanding has been defined by numerous ecumenical councils, including the Fourth Lateran Council and the Council of Trent, the capital city of California, Sacramento, is named for the Blessed Sacrament. The largest Portuguese feast in the world is held in New Bedford, the Blessed Sacrament may be received by Catholics who have undergone First Holy Communion as part of the Liturgy of the Eucharist during Mass. Catholics believe that the soul of the receiving the Eucharist must be in a state of grace at the time of reception. The Blessed Sacrament can also be exposed on an altar in a monstrance, rites involving the exposure of the Blessed Sacrament include Benediction and eucharistic adoration. According to Catholic theology, the host, after the Rite of Consecration, is no bread, but Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ. Catholics believe that Jesus is the sacrificial Lamb of God prefigured in the Old Testament Passover, unless the flesh of that passover sacrificial lamb was consumed, the members of the household would not be saved from death. As the Passover was the Old Covenant, so the Eucharist became the New Covenant. and Reception of the Blessed Sacrament in the Anglican Communion, devotions to the Blessed Sacrament vary. Individuals will genuflect or bow in the presence of the Blessed Sacrament and its presence is usually indicated by a lamp suspended over or placed near the tabernacle or aumbry. Except among Anglo-Catholics, the use of a monstrance is rare and this is in keeping with the Article XXV of the Thirty-Nine Articles that the Sacraments were not ordained of Christ to be gazed upon, or to be carried about, but that we should duly use Them. In some parishes, when the Blessed Sacrament is moved from the tabernacle, sanctus bells are rung, in most Lutheran churches, a person must have had catechetical training prior to a First Communion to receive the Eucharist. Recently, more liberal churches allow all who are baptized to receive it, similar to the Anglican teaching, Lutherans are also taught to genuflect or bow in the presence of the Blessed Sacrament, which is normally located on an altar. In the Lutheran churches that celebrate the Feast of Corpus Christi, like the Catholic Church. Methodists practice an Open Table, in which all baptised Christians are invited to receive Holy Communion, Eucharist Feast of Corpus Christi Newadvent. org, The Blessed Eucharist as a Sacrament. Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia Savior. com New Bedfords Feast of the Blessed Sacrament Melkite Greek Catholic Rite of Benediction
Blessed Sacrament
–
The Blessed Sacrament is displayed in a procession at the
Diocese of Charlotte Eucharistic Congress in 2005. It is normally reserved in the tabernacle.
Blessed Sacrament
–
The Blessed Sacrament exposed on the main altar of Sta. Cruz Church,
Manila
Blessed Sacrament
–
Perpetual adoration at the National Expiatory Temple of San Felipe de Jesus, Mexico City
35.
Heresy
–
Heresy /hār ə sē/ is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs. A heretic is a proponent of such claims or beliefs, the term is usually used to refer to violations of important religious teachings, but is used also of views strongly opposed to any generally accepted ideas. It is used in particular in reference to Christianity, Judaism, the word heresy is usually used within a Christian, Jewish, or Islamic context, and implies slightly different meanings in each. The founder or leader of a movement is called a heresiarch. Heresiology is the study of heresy, according to Titus 3,10 a divisive person should be warned two times before separating from him. The Greek for the phrase divisive person became a term in the early Church for a type of heretic who promoted dissension. In contrast correct teaching is called not only because it builds up the faith. The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy and they saw deviations from orthodox Christianity as heresies that were essentially Jewish in spirit. The use of the word heresy was given currency by Irenaeus in his 2nd century tract Contra Haereses to describe. He described the beliefs and doctrines as orthodox and the Gnostics teachings as heretical. He also pointed out the concept of succession to support his arguments. By Roman law the Emperor was Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of the College of Pontiffs of all recognized religions in ancient Rome. To put an end to the doctrinal debate initiated by Arius, Constantine called the first of what would afterwards be called the ecumenical councils and then enforced orthodoxy by Imperial authority. The first known usage of the term in a context was in AD380 by the Edict of Thessalonica of Theodosius I. Prior to the issuance of this edict, the Church had no state-sponsored support for any particular legal mechanism to counter what it perceived as heresy, by this edict the states authority and that of the Church became somewhat overlapping. One of the outcomes of this blurring of Church and state was the sharing of state powers of legal enforcement with church authorities and this reinforcement of the Churchs authority gave church leaders the power to, in effect, pronounce the death sentence upon those whom the church considered heretical. The edict of Theodosius II provided severe punishments for those who had or spread writings of Nestorius and those who possessed writings of Arius were sentenced to death. For some years after the Reformation, Protestant churches were known to execute those they considered heretics
Heresy
–
The
Gospel (allegory) triumphs over Heresia and the
Serpent. Church of King
Gustaf Vasa,
Stockholm, Sweden, sculpture by
Burchard Precht.
Heresy
–
The burning of adherents of the
pantheistic Amalrician sect in 1210, in the presence of King
Philip II Augustus. In the background is the
Gibbet of Montfaucon and, anachronistically, the Grosse Tour of the
Temple. Illumination from the
Grandes Chroniques de France, c. 1255-1260.
Heresy
–
Former German
Catholic priest Martin Luther was famously excommunicated as a
heretic by
Pope Leo X in 1520.
Heresy
–
Massacre of the
Waldensians of
Mérindol in 1545.
36.
Simony
–
Simony /ˈsaɪməni, ˈsɪ-/ is the act of selling church offices and roles. The term also extends to other forms of trafficking for money in spiritual things, Simony was also one of the important issues during the Investiture Controversy. Although an offense against canon law, Simony became widespread in the Catholic Church in the 9th and 10th centuries, in the canon law, the word bears a more extended meaning than in English law. Simony according to the canonists, says John Ayliffe in his Parergon, in the Corpus Juris Canonici the Decretum and the Decretals deal with the subject. No distinction seems to have drawn between the sale of an immediate and of a reversionary interest. The innocent simoniace promotus was, apart from dispensation, liable to the penalties as though he were guilty. Certain matters were simoniacal by the law which would not be so regarded in English law. So grave was the crime of simony considered that even infamous persons could accuse another of it, English provincial and legatine constitutions continually assailed simony. The Church of England also struggled with the practice after its separation from Rome, both Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I promulgated statutes against simony. The cases of Bishop of St. Davids Thomas Watson in 1699, by the Benefices Act 1892, a person guilty of simony is guilty of an offence for which he may be proceeded against under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892. An innocent clerk is under no disability, as he might be by the canon law, Simony may be committed in three ways – in promotion to orders, in presentation to a benefice, and in resignation of a benefice. The common law has been modified by statute. Where no statute applies to the case, the doctrines of the law may still be of authority. As of 2011, simony remains an offence, an unlawfully bestowed office can be declared void by the Crown, and the offender can be disabled from making future appointments and fined up to £1000. Clergy are no longer required to make a declaration as to simony on ordination, concordat of Worms Gregorian Reform Civil law Ayliffe, John. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Lord Mackay of Clashfern Halsburys Laws of England, 4th ed. Vol.14, Ecclesiastical Law,832 Penalties and disability on simony,1359 Simony Smith, a Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, Being a Continuation of the Dictionary of the Bible. J. B. Burr Pub. Co. pp. Simony, weber, N. A. Simony, Catholic Encyclopaedia Thomas Aquinas, Simony, Summa Theologica
Simony
–
Dante speaks to
Pope Nicholas III, committed to the
Inferno for his simony, in
Gustave Doré 's
wood engraving, 1861. (portrait of the
Third Bolgia of the Eighth Circle of Hell)
Simony
–
Abbot practising simony (France, 12th century)
Simony
–
Girolamo and cardinal Marco Corner investing Marco, abbot of Carrara, with his benefice,
Titian, ca 1520
37.
Conclave
–
A papal conclave is a meeting of the College of Cardinals convened to elect a new Bishop of Rome, also known as the Pope. The pope is considered by Roman Catholics to be the successor of Saint Peter. The conclave has been the procedure for choosing the pope for almost a thousand years, conclaves are now held in the Sistine Chapel of the Apostolic Palace. Since the Apostolic Age, the Bishop of Rome, like other bishops, was chosen by the consensus of the clergy, the body of electors was more precisely defined when, in 1059, the College of Cardinals was designated the sole body of electors. Since then, other details of the process have developed, in 1970, Pope Paul VI limited the electors to cardinals under 80 years of age. A two-thirds supermajority vote is required to elect the new pope, the procedures relating to the election of the pope have undergone almost two millennia of development. As the Christian communities became established they started to elect bishops, chosen by the clergy and laity of the community with the assistance of the bishops of neighbouring dioceses. St. Cyprian says that Pope Cornelius was chosen Bishop of Rome by the decree of God and of His Church, by the testimony of all the clergy, by the college of aged bishops. As was true for bishops of dioceses, the clergy of the Diocese of Rome was the electoral body for the Bishop of Rome. Instead of casting votes, the bishop was selected by consensus or by acclamation. The candidate would then be submitted to the people for their approval or disapproval. This lack of precision in the election procedures occasionally gave rise to rival popes or antipopes. The right of the laity to refuse the person elected was abolished by a Synod held in the Lateran in 769, the pope was also subjected to oaths of loyalty to the Holy Roman Emperor, whose task it was to provide security and public peace in Rome. The cardinal bishops were to meet first and discuss the candidates before summoning the cardinal priests, through much of the Middle Ages and Renaissance there were a small number of cardinals, down to as few as seven under either Pope Alexander IV or Pope John XXI. Difficult travel further reduced the number arriving at the conclave, with a small electorate an individual vote was significant, and was not easily shaken from familial or political lines. Conclaves could last months and even years, lengthy elections resumed and continued to be the norm until 1294, when a Benedictine hermit was elected Pope Celestine V. Celestine reinstated the strict conclave, but soon resigned the papacy. Beginning with Pope John XXIIIs attempts to broaden the representation of nations in the College of Cardinals, though this remains the theoretical limit, John Paul II exceeded this for short periods of time with knowledge of impending retirements. Originally, lay status did not bar election to the Bishop of Rome, Bishops of dioceses were sometimes elected while still catechumens, such as the case of St. Ambrose
Conclave
–
The
1492 conclave was the first to be held in the
Sistine Chapel, the site of all conclaves since 1878.
Conclave
–
The Holy See
Conclave
–
The Cardinal Camerlengo proclaims a papal death
Conclave
–
Cardinals formerly used these intricate ballot papers, one of which is shown folded above. Currently, the
ballots are simple cards, folded once (like a note card), with the words "I elect as Supreme Pontiff....." printed on them.
38.
Jus exclusivae
–
Jus exclusivæ was the right claimed by several Catholic monarchs of Europe to veto a candidate for the papacy. This right seems to have claimed during the 17th century. It does not seem to be related to a right exercised by Byzantine emperors and Holy Roman Emperors to confirm the election of a Pope, Spain, which ruled much of Italy at the time, raised the claim in 1605. In 1644, in the conclave which elected Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphili, jus exclusivæ was first exercised, by Spain, Cardinal Jules Mazarin of France arrived too late at that conclave to present the veto of France against Cardinal Pamphili, who had already been elected. Around this period, treatises arise in defence of this right, by the Bull In eligendis Pope Pius IV ordered the cardinals to elect a Pope without deference to any secular power. The Bull Aeterni Patris Filius forbids cardinals to conspire to exclude any candidate and these pronouncements however, do not specifically condemn the jus exclusivae. In the Constitution In hac sublimi Pius IX did however forbid any kind of interference in papal elections. The most recent attempt to exercise the right was publicly rejected by the conclave, no power has openly attempted to exercise the right since 1903. France had become a republic in 1870, after World War I, there was no German Empire and no Austrian Empire. Spain became a republic, though it returned to monarchy. Generalissimo Francisco Franco, it is said, attempted to interfere with the Conclave of 1963, papal appointment Sources Catholic Encyclopedia, Right of Exclusion. Papal Elections in the Age of Transition, 1878-1922, Lexington Books, ludwig Wahrmund, Das Ausschliessungs-recht der katholischen Staaten Österreich, Frankreich und Spanien bei den Papstwahlen. Sägmüller, Die Papstwahlbullen und das staatliche Recht der Exklusive, ludwig Wahrmund, Die Bulle „Aeterni Patris Filius” und der staatliche Einfluss auf die Papstwahlen, Archiv für katholisches Kirchenrecht 72 201-334. Ludwig Wahrmund, Zur Geschiste des exclusionrechtes bei den Papstwahlen im 18 Jahrhundert, william J. Hegarty, The Lay Veto, American Catholic Quarterly Review 37, pp. 419–439. Herbert Plock, Das Jus exclusivae der Staaten bei der Papstwahl und sein Verbotdurch die päpstliche Bulle Commissum nobis, peter Frei, Die Papstwahl des Jahres 1903, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des österreichisch-ungarischen Vetos
Jus exclusivae
–
Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko,
crown-cardinal of Austria, was the last to exercise the jus exclusivae.
39.
Hierarch
–
An ordinary is an officer of a church or civic authority who by reason of office has ordinary power to execute laws. Such officers are found in hierarchically organised churches of Western Christianity which have a legal system. For example, diocesan bishops are ordinaries in the Roman Catholic church, in Eastern Christianity, a corresponding officer is called a hierarch. In canon law, the power to govern the church is divided into the power to make laws, enforce the laws, and to judge based on the law. A person exercises power to either because the person holds an office to which the law grants governing power or because someone with governing power has delegated it to the person. Ordinary power is the former, while the latter is delegated power, the office with ordinary power could possess the governing power itself or instead it could have the ordinary power of agency, the inherent power to exercise someone elses power. Thus, in the Catholic Church, the office of successor of Simon Peter, many officers possess ordinary power but, due to their lack of ordinary executive power, are not called ordinaries. The best example of this phenomenon is the office of judicial vicar, the judicial vicar only has authority through his office to exercise the diocesan bishops power to judge cases. Though the vicar has vicarious ordinary judicial power, he is not an ordinary because he lacks ordinary executive power, a vicar general, however, has authority through his office to exercise the diocesan bishops executive power. He is therefore an ordinary because of this vicarious ordinary executive power, local ordinaries exercise ordinary power and are ordinaries in particular churches. The following clerics are local ordinaries, The Bishop of Rome is ordinary for the whole Catholic Church, in Eastern Catholic Churches, Patriarchs, major archbishops, and metropolitans have ordinary power of governance for the whole territory of their respective autonomous particular churches. Diocesan/eparchial bishops/eparchs Other prelates who head, even if only temporarily, Canon 368 of the Code of Canon Law lists five Latin-Rite jurisdictional areas that are considered equivalent to a diocese. A Military Ordinary A Personal Prelate, in charge of a group of persons without regard to geography, apart from certain limitations of nature and law, he has, on a caretaker basis, the same obligations and powers as a diocesan bishop. Occasionally an Apostolic Administrator is appointed by the Holy See to run a vacant diocese, the violation of this rule is called eispēdēsis, and is uncanonical. Ultimately, all bishops in the Church are equal, regardless of any title they may enjoy, the role of the bishop in the Orthodox Church is both hierarchical and sacramental. This pattern of governance dates back to the earliest centuries of Christianity, as witnessed by the writings of Ignatius of Antioch, let no one do any of the things which concern the Church without the bishop. Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be, just as wherever Jesus Christ is, and it is the bishops primary and distinctive task to celebrate the Eucharist, the medicine of immortality. Saint Cyprian of Carthage wrote, The episcopate is a single whole, so is the Church a single whole, though it spreads far and wide into a multitude of churches and its fertility increases
Hierarch
–
Pope
Pius XI, depicted in this window at
Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace,
Honolulu, was ordinary of the universal Church as well as the
Diocese of Rome from 1922 to 1939. At the same time, Bishop
Stephen Alencastre,
Apostolic Vicar of the
Sandwich Islands, was the ordinary of what is now the
Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu.
40.
Sedition
–
Sedition is overt conduct, such as speech and organization, that tends toward insurrection against the established order. Sedition often includes subversion of a constitution and incitement of discontent to lawful authority, Sedition may include any commotion, though not aimed at direct and open violence against the laws. Seditious words in writing are seditious libel, a seditionist is one who engages in or promotes the interests of sedition. Typically, sedition is considered an act, and the overt acts that may be prosecutable under sedition laws vary from one legal code to another. Where the history of legal codes has been traced, there is also a record of the change in the definition of the elements constituting sedition at certain points in history. This overview has served to develop a sociological definition of sedition as well, the term sedition in its modern meaning first appeared in the Elizabethan Era as the notion of inciting by words or writings disaffection towards the state or constituted authority. Australias sedition laws were amended in anti-terrorism legislation passed on 6 December 2005, updating definitions, opponents of these laws have suggested that they could be used against legitimate dissent. He had also brushed aside recommendations to curtail new clauses outlawing “urging conduct” that “assists” an “organisation or country engaged in armed hostilities” against the Australian military and these laws were amended in Australia on 19 September 2011. The ‘sedition’ clauses were repealed and replaced with ‘urging violence’, during World War II former Mayor of Montreal Camillien Houde campaigned against conscription in Canada. On 2 August 1940, Houde publicly urged the men of Quebec to ignore the National Registration Act, three days later, he was placed under arrest by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police on charges of sedition. After being found guilty, he was confined in internment camps in Petawawa, Ontario, upon his release on 18 August 1944, he was greeted by a cheering crowd of 50,000 Montrealers and won back his position as the Mayor of Montreal in the election in 1944. A Sedition Ordinance had existed in the territory since 1970, which was consolidated into the Crime Ordinance in 1972. The bill was shelved following massive opposition from the public, in 2010, writer Arundhati Roy was sought to be charged with sedition for her comments on Kashmir and Maoists. Two individuals have been charged with sedition since 2007, binayak Sen, an Indian paediatrician, public health specialist, and activist was found guilty of sedition. He is national Vice-President of the Peoples Union for Civil Liberties and they were sentenced to life imprisonment, but he got bail in Supreme Court on 16 April 2011. On 10 September 2012, Aseem Trivedi, a political cartoonist, was sent to judicial custody till 24 September 2012 on charges of sedition over a series of cartoons against corruption. Trivedi was accused of uploading ugly and obscene content to his website, trivedis arrest under sedition has been heavily criticised in India. The Press Council of India termed it a stupid move, in February 2016, JNU student union president Kanhaiya Kumar was arrested on charges of Sedition under section 124-A of Indian Penal Code
Sedition
–
Political cartoon by
Art Young,
The Masses, 1917.
41.
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
–
The Index Librorum Prohibitorum was a list of publications deemed heretical, anti-clerical or lascivious, and therefore banned by the Catholic Church. The 9th century witnessed the creation of what is considered to be the first index, called the Decretem Glasianum, much later, a first version was promulgated by Pope Paul IV in 1559, which Paul F. The 20th and final edition appeared in 1948, and the Index was formally abolished on 14 June 1966 by Pope Paul VI, the aim of the list was to protect the faith and morals of the faithful by preventing the reading of heretical and immoral books. The local ordinary consults someone whom he considers competent to give a judgment and, members of religious institutes require the imprimi potest of their major superior to publish books on matters of religion or morals. The burning at the stake of Giordano Bruno, whose works were placed on the Index in 1603, was because of teaching the heresy of pantheism. Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, one of works was on the Index, was beatified in 2007. The developments since the abolition of the Index signify the loss of relevance of the Index in the 21st century, a complete list of the authors and writings present in the successive editions of the Index is given in J. Martínez de Bujanda, Index Librorum Prohibitorum, 1600–1966. A list of the books that were on the Index can be found on the World Wide Web, the historical context in which the Index appeared involved the early restrictions on printing in Europe. Books, once rare and kept carefully in a number of libraries, could be mass-produced. While governments and church encouraged printing in many ways, which allowed the dissemination of Bibles and government information, works of dissent, as a consequence, governments established controls over printers across Europe, requiring them to have official licenses to trade and produce books. The early versions of the Index began to appear from 1529 to 1571, in the same time frame, in 1557 the English Crown aimed to stem the flow of dissent by chartering the Stationers Company. The right to print was restricted to two universities and to the 21 existing printers in the city of London, which had between them 53 printing presses. The French crown also tightly controlled printing, and the printer and writer Etienne Dolet was burned at the stake for atheism in 1546, the 1551 Edict of Châteaubriant comprehensively summarized censorship positions to date, and included provisions for unpacking and inspecting all books brought into France. The 1557 Edict of Compiègne applied the death penalty to heretics, printers were viewed as radical and rebellious, with 800 authors, printers and book dealers being incarcerated in the Bastille before it was stormed in 1789. The 1710 introduction of Statute of Anne in England eased this situation, the first list of the kind was not published in Rome, but in Catholic Netherlands, Venice and Paris under the terms of the Edict of Châteaubriant followed this example. The first Roman Index was printed in 1557 under the direction of Pope Paul IV, several times a year, the congregation held meetings. During the meetings, they reviewed various works and documented those discussions, in between the meetings was when the works to be discussed were thoroughly examined, and each work was scrutinized by two people. At the meetings, they decided whether or not the works should be included in the Index
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
–
Title page of Index Librorum Prohibitorum (Venice 1564).
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
–
Printing press from 1811,
Munich, Germany.
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
–
Title page of the first Papal Index, Index Auctorum et Librorum, published in 1557 and then withdrawn.
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
–
Galileo being condemned in 1633.
42.
Crimen sollicitationis
–
It repeated, with additions, the contents of an identically named instruction issued in 1922 by the same office. Dioceses were to use the instruction for their own guidance and keep it in their archives for confidential documents, they were not to publish the instruction nor produce commentaries on it. Crimen sollicitationis remained in effect until 18 May 2001, when it was replaced by new norms promulgated by the motu proprio Sacramentorum sanctitatis tutela of 30 April of the same year. Charges concerning these crimes also were to be handled according to the norms of the document, media accounts sometimes presented the instruction as not concerned principally with sexual solicitation in Confession, but with denunciations of paedophilia. While it is true that such acts were covered by Crimen Sollicitationis, who wanted to report a crime by a priest to the police. It described the procedures to be followed in each phase, reception of a denunciation, the course of the investigation, summoning the accused, sentencing, and the possibility of appeal. Quoting canon 2368 §1 of the 1917 Code of Canon Law, then in force, section 11 of Crimen sollicitationis outlines the required confidentiality of the investigation into accusations of the crime of solicitation. The ecclesiastical penalty for violation of secrecy by the accused priest was automatic suspension a divinis, unless violation of secrecy occurred after an explicit procedural warning given in the course of their examination, no ecclesiastical penalties were to be imposed on the accuser and witnesses. There is no basis to assume that the Holy See envisioned this process to be a substitute for any legal process. Basically this is a traditional privilege claimed by the institutional church whereby clerics accused of crimes were tried before ecclesiastical courts, although this privilege is anachronistic in contemporary society, the attitude or mentality which holds clerics accountable only to the institutional church authorities is still active. This does not mean that the official Church believes that clerics accused of crimes should not to be held accountable and it means that during certain periods in history the Church has believed that it alone should have the right to subject accused clerics to a judicial process. For 20 years Cardinal Ratzinger had been tasked with enforcing the Crimen Sollicitationis document, after sentence was passed, the defendant could appeal to the Holy See against it within ten days. If he did, any suspension from hearing confessions or exercising sacred ministry remained in force, the promoter of justice could likewise appeal to the Holy See against a verdict in favour of the accused. Unofficial English translation provided by the Holy See, INSTRUCTION, On the Manner of Proceeding in Causes involving the Crime of Solicitation Instructio, de modo procedendi in causis de crimine sollicitationis, original Latin text of Crimen sollicitationis with hand-written English annotations. The few lines on the page are missing. Instruction on the Manner of Proceeding in Cases of Solicitation, private English translation of Crimen sollicitationis,1962 document orders secrecy in sex cases, Many bishops unaware obscure missive was in their archives by John L. Allen Jr.7 August 2003 in National Catholic Reporter. Explaining Crimen Sollicitationis by John L. Allen Jr.15 August 2003 in National Catholic Reporter, CBS,1962 Vatican Document The 1922 Instruction and the 1962 Instruction Crimen sollicitationis promulgated by the Vatican by Thomas Doyle, October 3,2008
Crimen sollicitationis
–
The Latin expression crimen sollicitationis refers to a sexual advance made before, during or immediately after administration (even simulated) of the
Sacrament of Penance.
43.
Indulgences
–
In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, an indulgence is a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins. It may reduce the temporal punishment after death, in the state or process of purification called Purgatory and this temporal punishment would not be considered time, as Purgatory, like Heaven and Hell, is said to exist outside of time. The recipient of an indulgence must perform an action to receive it and this is most often the saying of a specified prayer, but may also include the visiting of a particular place, or the performance of specific good works. They draw on the Treasury of Merit accumulated by Christs superabundantly meritorious sacrifice on the cross and they are granted for specific good works and prayers in proportion to the devotion with which those good works are performed or prayers recited. By the late Middle Ages, the abuse of indulgences, mainly through commercialization, had become a problem which the Church recognized but was unable to restrain effectively. Indulgences were from the beginning of the Protestant Reformation a target of attacks by Martin Luther, eventually the Catholic Counter-Reformation curbed the excesses, but indulgences continue to play a role in modern Catholic religious life. Reforms in the 20th century largely abolished the quantification of indulgences and these days or years were meant to represent the equivalent of time spent in penance, although it was widely taken to mean time spent in Purgatory. The reforms also reduced the number of indulgences granted for visiting particular churches. When a person sins, he acquires certain liabilities, the liability of guilt, a mortal sin is equivalent to refusing friendship with God and communion with the only source of eternal life. The loss of life with God, and the eternal death of hell that is the effect of this rejection, is called the eternal punishment of sin. The Sacrament of Penance removes the guilt and the liability of eternal punishment related to mortal sin, though your sins are like scarlet, they shall be white as snow, though they are red like crimson, they shall become like wool. The forgiveness of sin and restoration of communion with God entail the remission of the punishment of sin. The process of sanctification and interior renewal requires not only forgiveness from the guilt of sin and this purification process gives rise to temporal punishment, because, not involving a total rejection of God, it is not eternal and can be expiated. While patiently bearing sufferings and trials of all kinds and, when the day comes, serenely facing death, the Christian must strive to accept this temporal punishment of sin as a grace. He should strive by works of mercy and charity, as well as by prayer, the temporal punishment that follows sin is thus undergone either during life on earth or in purgatory. Indulgences are a help towards achieving this purification, an indulgence does not forgive the guilt of sin, nor does it provide release from the eternal punishment associated with unforgiven mortal sins. Similarly, an indulgence is not a permit to commit sin, ordinarily, forgiveness of mortal sins is obtained through Confession. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, The treasury of the Church is the value, which can never be exhausted
Indulgences
–
Inscription on the
Basilica of St. John Lateran in
Rome: Indulgentia plenaria perpetua quotidiana toties quoties pro vivis et defunctis (English trans: "Perpetual everyday plenary indulgence on every occasion for the living and the dead")
Indulgences
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Indulgences
–
Archbishop Socrates B. Villegas bestows the
Easter Mass Plenary Indulgence in 2012 (St. John the Evangelist Metropolitan Cathedral,
Dagupan City, Pangasinan).
Indulgences
–
Engraving of the
Mass of Saint Gregory by
Israhel van Meckenem, 1490s, with an unauthorized indulgence at the bottom
44.
Freemasonry
–
The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
Freemasonry
–
Lodge in Palazzo Roffia,
Florence set out for French (Moderns) ritual
Freemasonry
–
The Masonic
Square and Compasses. (Found with or without the letter
G)
Freemasonry
–
Freemasons Hall, London, home of the
United Grand Lodge of England
Freemasonry
–
Freemasons' Hall, London, c. 1809
45.
Eastern Orthodoxy
–
The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
Eastern Orthodoxy
–
Orthodox liturgy
Eastern Orthodoxy
–
An
icon of
John the Baptist, 14th century, Macedonia
46.
Eucharist
–
The Eucharist /ˈjuːkərɪst/ is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches. Through the Eucharistic celebration Christians remember Christs sacrifice of himself on the cross, the elements of the Eucharist, bread and wine, are consecrated on an altar and consumed thereafter. Communicants may speak of receiving the Eucharist, as well as celebrating the Eucharist, Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. While all agree there is no perceptible change in the elements, Catholics believe that they actually become the body. Some Protestants view the Eucharist as an ordinance in which the ceremony is not as a specific channel of divine grace. Do this in remembrance of me, the term Eucharist is that by which the rite is referred by the Didache, Ignatius of Antioch and Justin Martyr. Today, the Eucharist is the still used by Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians. Other Protestant denominations rarely use this term, preferring either Communion, one remains hungry, another gets drunk. Communion or Holy Communion are used by some groups originating in the Protestant Reformation to mean the entire Eucharistic rite. The term Communion is derived from Latin communio, which translates Greek κοινωνία in 1 Corinthians 10,16, the bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ. The phrase appears five times in the New Testament in contexts which, according to some and it is the term used by the Plymouth Brethren. The Blessed Sacrament and the Blessed Sacrament of the Altar are common terms used by Catholics, Lutherans and some Anglicans for the consecrated elements, Sacrament of the Altar is in common use also among Lutherans. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the term The Sacrament is used of the rite. Among the many terms used in the Catholic Church are Holy Mass, the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. The term Mass is probably derived from the fact that the Roman rite celebrates the Eucharist with unleavened bread and this explains why the Eastern Catholic Liturgies are never referred to as the Mass. Eastern rite Liturgies are celebrated with leavened bread, although the prevailing theory is that it is derived from the Latin word missa, a word used in the concluding formula of Mass in Latin, Ite, missa est. The reverse is more likely. The word dismissal probably came about because the Mass signaled the time for the Catechumens to leave, thus, the term Misa came to imply a mission, because at the end of the Mass the congregation are sent out to serve Christ
Eucharist
–
The Eucharist has been a key theme in the depictions of the
Last Supper in Christian art, as in this 16th-century
Juan de Juanes painting.
Eucharist
–
A
Kremikovtsi Monastery fresco (15th century) depicting the
Last Supper celebrated by Jesus and his disciples. The early Christians too would have celebrated this meal to commemorate Jesus' death and subsequent resurrection.
Eucharist
–
Christ with the Eucharist,
Vicente Juan Masip, 16th century.
47.
Anathema
–
Anathema, in common usage, is something or someone that is detested or shunned. Its other main usage comes from the New Testament and refers to a formal ecclesiastical excommunication, however, in the Old Testament, anathema referred either to something that was consecrated or something denounced as evil or accursed and set aside for sacrificial offering. Anathema derives from Ancient Greek, ἀνάθεμα, anáthema, meaning an offering or anything dedicated, itself derived from the verb ἀνατίθημι, anatíthēmi, meaning to offer up. In the Old Testament, it referred to both objects consecrated to divine use and those dedicated to destruction in the Lords name, such as enemies, since weapons of the enemy were considered unholy, the meaning became anything dedicated to evil or a curse. In Church Latin, anathema was initially used by St. Paul to mean the excommunication of a heretic or an unrepentant heretic that had been excommunicated. Examples, Its no wonder then, that Paul calls down Gods curse, Gods anathema and he shrank from the venerable saint as if to avoid an anathema. In 1054, an anathema was issued by Rome against the Eastern Patriarch who then issued another one against the cardinal who delivered it, in 1526, anathema appeared in English for the first time and was used in the sense of something accursed. The consecrated object meaning was adopted a short time later. Its most common usage is in secular contexts where it is used to mean something or someone that is detested or shunned. Examples, Racial hatred was anathema to her, the idea that one would voluntarily inject poison into ones body was anathema to me. This notion was anathema to most of his countrymen, the New Testament uses the word to mean a curse and forced expulsion of someone from the Christian community. The Hebrew word was used for what was devoted, by virtue of a simple vow, not to the Lord. The noun ἀνάθεμα occurs in the Greek New Testament six times, in 1 Cor 12,3,16,22, Gal 1,8,9, Rom 9,3, Acts 23,14. Since the time of the apostles, the term anathema has come to mean a form of religious sanction. Cyril of Alexandria issued twelve anathemas against Nestorius in 431, the Orthodox Church distinguishes between separation from the communion of the Church and other epitemia laid on a person, and anathema. Epitemia, or excommunication, is limited to a specified period of time—though it always depends on the repentance of the one penanced. The lifting of anathema, however, depends solely on the repentance of the one condemned, the two causes for which a person may be anathematized are heresy and schism. Anathematization is only a last resort, and must always be preceded by attempts to reason with the offender
Anathema
–
Anathema (in the sense of a curse) attributed to
Pope Gregory XI
48.
Gospel of Matthew
–
The Gospel According to Matthew is the first book of the New Testament. The narrative tells how the Messiah, Jesus, rejected by Israel, most scholars believe the Gospel of Matthew was composed between AD80 and 90, with a range of possibility between AD70 to 110. The title Son of David identifies Jesus as the healing and miracle-working Messiah of Israel, as Son of Man he will return to judge the world, an expectation which his disciples recognise but of which his enemies are unaware. As Son of God he is God revealing himself through his son, the gospel reflects the struggles and conflicts between the evangelists community and the other Jews, particularly with its sharp criticism of the scribes and Pharisees. The original versions of the Gospel of Matthew and the gospels are lost. The oldest relatively complete extant manuscripts of the Bible are the Codex Vaticanus and the Codex Sinaiticus, besides these, there exist manuscript fragments ranging from a few verses to whole chapters. P104 and P67 are notable fragments of Matthew, in the process of recopying, variations slipped in, different regional manuscript traditions emerged, and corrections and adjustments were made. The Gospel of Matthew is anonymous, the author is not named within the text, the consensus is that Papias does not describe the Gospel of Matthew as we know it, and it is generally accepted that Matthew was written in Greek, not in Aramaic or Hebrew. The majority view of scholars is that Mark was the first gospel to be composed. The author of Matthew did not, however, simply copy Mark, an additional 220 verses, shared by Matthew and Luke but not found in Mark, from a second source, a hypothetical collection of sayings to which scholars give the name Quelle, or the Q source. The author also had at his disposal the Greek scriptures, both as book-scrolls and in the form of collections, and, if Papias is correct. The majority view among scholars is that Matthew was a product of the last quarter of the 1st century, the Christian community to which Matthew belonged, like many 1st-century Christians, were still part of the larger Jewish community, hence the designation Jewish Christian to describe them. The author of Matthew wrote for a community of Greek-speaking Jewish Christians located probably in Syria, Matthew, alone among the gospels, alternates five blocks of narrative with five of discourse, marking each off with the phrase When Jesus had finished. The Gospel of Matthew begins with the words The Book of Genealogy of Jesus Christ, John baptizes Jesus, and the Holy Spirit descends upon him. Jesus prays and meditates in the wilderness for forty days, and is tempted by Satan and his early ministry by word and deed in Galilee meets with much success, and leads to the Sermon on the Mount, the first of the discourses. The sermon presents the ethics of the kingdom of God, introduced by the Beatitudes and it concludes with a reminder that the response to the kingdom will have eternal consequences, and the crowds amazed response leads into the next narrative block. From the authoritative words of Jesus the gospel turns to three sets of three miracles interwoven with two sets of two stories, followed by a discourse on mission and suffering. Opposition to Jesus comes to a head with accusations that his deeds are done through the power of Satan, Jesus in turn accuses his opponents of blaspheming the Holy Spirit
Gospel of Matthew
–
Books of the
New Testament
Gospel of Matthew
–
Papyrus
4, fragment of a flyleaf with the title of the Gospel of Matthew, ευαγγελιον κ̣ατ̣α μαθ᾽θαιον (euangelion kata Maththaion). Dated to late 2nd or early 3rd century, it is the earliest manuscript title for Matthew
Gospel of Matthew
–
37, a 3rd-century CE papyrus of
Matthew 26
Gospel of Matthew
–
The Evangelist Matthew Inspired by an Angel (
Rembrandt)
49.
Vote
–
Voting is a method for a group such as a meeting or an electorate to make a decision or express an opinion, usually following discussions, debates or election campaigns. Democracies elect holders of high office by voting, residents of a place represented by an elected official are called constituents, and those constituents who cast a ballot for their chosen candidate are called voters. In a democracy, a government is chosen by voting in an election, in a representative democracy voting is the method by which the electorate appoints its representatives in its government. In a direct democracy, voting is the method by which the electorate directly make decisions, turn bills into laws, a secret ballot has come to be the practice to prevent voters from being intimidated and to protect their political privacy. Voting usually takes place at a station, it is voluntary in some countries, compulsory in others. Different voting systems use different types of votes, a Plurality voting system does not require the winner to achieve a vote majority, or more than fifty percent of the total votes cast. In a voting system uses a single vote per race. A side effect of a vote per race is vote splitting, which tends to elect candidates that do not support centrism. An alternative to a system is approval voting. To understand why a vote per race tends to favor less centric candidates. If five marbles are assigned names and are placed up for election, the reason is that the three green marbles will split the votes of those who prefer green. In fact, in analogy, the only way that a green marble is likely to win is if more than sixty percent of the voters prefer green. If the experiment is repeated with other colors, the color that is in the majority will still rarely win, in other words, from a purely mathematical perspective, a single-vote system tends to favor a winner that is different from the majority. A development on the single system is to have two-round elections. The winner must receive a majority, which is more than half, if subsequent votes must be used, often a candidate, the one with the fewest votes or anyone who wants to move their support to another candidate, is removed from the ballot. An alternative to the Two-round voting system is the single round instant-runoff voting system as used in elections in Australia, Ireland. Voters rank each candidate in order of preference, votes are distributed to each candidate according to the preferences allocated. If no single candidate has 50% or more votes than the candidate with the least votes is excluded, the process repeating itself until a candidate has 50% or more votes
Vote
Vote
Vote
Vote
50.
Democratic process
–
Democracy, in modern usage, is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Democracy is sometimes referred to as rule of the majority, Democracy was originally conceived in Classical Greece, where political representatives were chosen by a jury from amongst the male citizens, rich and poor. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French, in the 5th century BC, to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, the term is an antonym to aristocracy, meaning rule of an elite. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically, the political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In 1906, Finland became the first government to harald a more inclusive democracy at the national level. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders, No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but legal equality, political freedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law, other uses of democracy include that of direct democracy. In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom which originated the Westminster system, in the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review, though the term democracy is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organisations. Majority rule is listed as a characteristic of democracy. Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the majority in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of a representative democracy is competitive elections that are substantively and procedurally fair, i. e. just. It has also suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. While representative democracy is sometimes equated with the form of government. Many democracies are constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. The word comes from demos, common people and kratos, strength, led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC
Democratic process
–
A woman casts her vote in the second round of the
2007 French presidential election.
Democratic process
–
Cleisthenes, "father of
Athenian democracy ", modern bust.
Democratic process
–
Magna Carta, 1215, England.
Democratic process
–
The establishment of
universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy.
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