1.
Place de la Concorde
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The Place de la Concorde is one of the major public squares in Paris, France. Measuring 8.64 hectares in area, it is the largest square in the French capital and it is located in the citys eighth arrondissement, at the eastern end of the Champs-Élysées. The place was designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel in 1755 as a moat-skirted octagon between the Champs-Elysées to the west and the Tuileries Garden to the east, decorated with statues and fountains, the area was named Place Louis XV to honor the king at that time. At the north end, two magnificent identical stone buildings were constructed, separated by the rue Royale, these structures remain among the best examples of Louis Quinze style architecture. Initially, the building served as the French Naval Ministry. Shortly after its construction, the building became the opulent home of the Duc dAumont. It was later purchased by the Comte de Crillon, whose family resided there until 1907, the famous luxury Hôtel de Crillon, which currently occupies the building, took its name from its previous owners. During the French Revolution the statue of Louis XV of France was torn down, the new revolutionary government erected the guillotine in the square, and it was here that King Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793. In 1795, under the Directory, the square was renamed Place de la Concorde as a gesture of reconciliation after the turmoil of the French Revolution. After the Bourbon Restoration of 1814, the name was changed back to Place Louis XV, after the July Revolution of 1830 the name was returned to Place de la Concorde and has remained that way since. To the west of the Place is the famous Champs-Élysées, to the east of the Place are the Tuileries Gardens. The Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume and the Musée de lOrangerie, the eastern one houses the French Naval Ministry, and the western one is the Hôtel de Crillon. The Rue Royale leads to the de la Madeleine. The center of the Place is occupied by a giant Egyptian obelisk decorated with hieroglyphics exalting the reign of the pharaoh Ramesses II and it is one of two the Egyptian government gave to the French in the 19th century. The other one stayed in Egypt, too difficult and heavy to move to France with the technology at that time, in the 1990s, President François Mitterrand gave the second obelisk back to the Egyptians. The obelisk once marked the entrance to the Luxor Temple, the self-declared Khedive of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, offered the 3, 300-year-old Luxor Obelisk to France in 1829. It arrived in Paris on 21 December 1833, three years later, on 25 October 1836, King Louis Philippe had it placed in the center of Place de la Concorde. The obelisk, a granite column, rises 23 metres high, including the base
Place de la Concorde
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Place de la Concorde as seen from the Eiffel Tower
Place de la Concorde
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Place de la Concorde
Place de la Concorde
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The old plaque, for "Place Louis XVI", and replacement plaque at the corner of
Hôtel de Crillon.
Place de la Concorde
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The Fountain of River Commerce and Navigation, one of the two
Fontaines de la Concorde (1840) on the Place de la Concorde. Behind: the Hôtel de Crillon; to the left: the embassy of the United States.
2.
Guillotine
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A guillotine is an apparatus designed for efficiently carrying out executions by beheading. The device consists of a tall, upright frame in which a weighted and angled blade is raised to the top, the condemned person is secured with stocks at the bottom of the frame, positioning the neck directly below the blade. The blade is released, to fall swiftly and forcefully decapitating the victim with a single pass so that the head falls into a basket below. The name dates from period, but similar devices had been used elsewhere in Europe over several centuries. The guillotine continued to be used long after the revolution and remained Frances standard method of execution until the abolition of capital punishment in 1981. The last person to be executed in France was Hamida Djandoubi, the use of beheading machines in Europe long predates such use in the French revolution in 1792. An early example of the principle is found in the High History of the Holy Grail, although the device is imaginary, its function is clear. The text says, Within these three openings are the set for them. And behold what I would do to them if their three heads were therein, even thus will I cut off their heads when they shall set them into those three openings thinking to adore the hallows that are beyond. The Halifax Gibbet was a structure of two wooden uprights, capped by a horizontal beam, of a total height of 4.5 metres. The blade was an axe head weighing 3.5 kg, attached to the bottom of a wooden block that slid up. This device was mounted on a square platform 1.25 metres high. It is not known when the Halifax Gibbet was first used, the first recorded execution in Halifax dates from 1280, the machine remained in use until Oliver Cromwell forbade capital punishment for petty theft. It was used for the last time, for the execution of two criminals on a day, on 30 April 1650. Holinsheds Chronicles of 1577 included a picture of The execution of Murcod Ballagh near to Merton in Ireland 1307 showing a similar execution machine, the Maiden was constructed in 1564 for the Provost and Magistrates of Edinburgh, and was in use from April 1565 to 1710. One of those executed was James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, in 1581, Schmidt recommended using an angled blade as opposed to a round one. On 10 October 1789, physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin proposed to the National Assembly that capital punishment always take the form of decapitation by means of a simple mechanism, sensing the growing discontent, Louis XVI banned the use of the breaking wheel. A committee was formed under Antoine Louis, physician to the King, Guillotin was also on the committee
Guillotine
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Historic replicas (1:6 scale) of the two main types of French guillotines: Model 1792, left, and Model 1872 (state as of 1907), right
Guillotine
–
A replica of the
Halifax Gibbet on its original site, 2008, with St Mary's Catholic church, Gibbet Street, in the background
Guillotine
–
The original
Maiden of 1564, now on display at the
National Museum of Scotland in
Edinburgh
Guillotine
–
Portrait of
Guillotin
3.
Henry Essex Edgeworth
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Henry Essex Edgeworth, also known as LAbbé Edgeworth de Firmont, was an Irish Catholic priest and confessor of Louis XVI. He was born in Edgeworthstown, County Longford, Ireland, the son of Robert Edgeworth and his mother Martha Ussher is often referred to as a granddaughter of Archbishop Ussher, but was in fact drawn from a different branch of that family. When he was four, his father converted to Roman Catholicism, resigned his living and emigrated to Toulouse. In 1769, after his father’s death, he went to Paris to be trained for the priesthood, on taking orders he assumed the additional surname of de Firmont, from the family estate of Firmount near Edgeworthstown. Though he originally studied with a view to becoming a missionary, he decided to remain in Paris, through his father and the Archbishop of Paris he became vicar-general of the diocese of Paris and friend of the royal family and stayed with them during the French Revolution. In 1791 he became confessor to the Princess Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI, and earned the respect even of the sans-culottes by his courage and devotion. ”It is said that at the moment of the execution, the confessor uttered the celebrated words, “Son of St Louis, ascend to heaven”. In spite of the danger he now ran, Edgeworth refused to leave France so long as he could be of any service to Madame Elizabeth, with whom he managed to correspond. Henrys brother, Ussher, who resided near Edgeworthstown, along with there, were keen for him to return to Ireland. Louis XVIII wrote his epitaph, a copy of which, together with a letter of condolence, was sent by Louis orders to Mr Ussher Edgeworth in Ireland. Edgeworths Mémoires, edited by CS Edgeworth, were first published in English, and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Edgeworth de Firmont, Henry Essex. Stephen, Leslie, ed. Edgeworth De Firmont, Henry Essex, JBA Hanet-Clery, Journal de ce qui s’est passe, etc. AH du D de Beauchesne, Vie de Madame Elisabeth, Edgeworth, memoirs of the Abbé Edgworth, Containing the Last Hours of Louis XVI. Jean Charles Dominique de Lacretelle, Précis historique de la Révolution française
Henry Essex Edgeworth
–
The Abbé Edgeworth.
4.
Royal seal
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A seal is a device for making an impression in wax, clay, paper, or some other medium, including an embossment on paper, and is also the impression thus made. The original purpose was to authenticate a document, a wrapper for one such as a modern envelope, the seal-making device is also referred to as the seal matrix or die, the imprint it creates as the seal impression. In most traditional forms of dry seal the design on the matrix is in intaglio. The design on the impression will reverse that of the matrix and this will not be the case if paper is embossed from behind, where the matrix and impression read the same way, and both matrix and impression are in relief. However engraved gems were carved in relief, called cameo in this context. The process is essentially that of a mould and these pendent seal impressions dangled below the documents they authenticated, to which the attachment tag was sewn or otherwise attached. Some jurisdictions consider rubber stamps or specified signature-accompanying words such as seal or L. S. to be the equivalent of, i. e. an equally effective substitute for. In Europe, although coats of arms and heraldic badges may well feature in such contexts as well as on seals, the study of seals is known as sigillography or sphragistics. Seals were used in the earliest civilizations and are of importance in archaeology. In ancient Mesopotamia carved or engraved cylinder seals in stone or other materials were used and these could be rolled along to create an impression on clay, and used as labels on consignments of trade goods, or for other purposes. They are normally hollow and it is presumed that they were worn on a string or chain round the neck, many have only images, often very finely carved, with no writing, while others have both. From Ancient Egypt seals in the form of signet-rings, including some with the names of kings, have been found, recently, seals have come to light in South Arabia datable to the Himyarite age. One example shows a name written in Aramaic engraved in reverse so as to read correctly in the impression, from the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC until the Middle Ages, seals of various kinds were in production in the Aegean islands and mainland Greece. In the Early Minoan age these were formed of stone and ivory. By the Middle Minoan age a new set for seal forms, motifs, hard stone requires new rotary carving techniques. The Late Bronze Age is the par excellence of the lens-shaped seal and the seal ring. These were a luxury art form and became keenly collected. His collection fell as booty to Pompey the Great, who deposited it in a temple in Rome, engraved gems continued to be produced and collected until the 19th century
Royal seal
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Present-day impression of a Late Bronze Age seal
Royal seal
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Town seal (matrix) of
Náchod from 1570
Royal seal
–
Mesopotamian limestone
cylinder seal and impression—worship of
Shamash
Royal seal
–
A Baiwen name seal, read up-down-right-left: Ye Hao Min Yin (lit. "Seal of Ye Haomin")
5.
Antoine Joseph Santerre
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Antoine Joseph Santerre was a businessman and general during the French Revolution. The Santerre family moved from Saint-Michel-en-Thiérache to Paris in 1747 where they purchased a brewery known as the Brasserie de la Magdeleine, Antoine Santerre married his third cousin Marie Claire Santerre, daughter of a wealthy bourgeois brewer, Jean François Santerre, from the Cambrai in March 1748. The couple had six children, Antoine Joseph being the 3rd, the others were Marguerite, born in 1750, Jean Baptiste, born in 1751, Armand Théodore, born in 1753, followed by François and Claire. The future generals father died in 1770, his mother just months later and his elder brother and sister, Marguerite and Jean Baptiste took charge of the household and family business, helping their mother raise the younger children, they never married. Armand Théodore went into the business, and owned a factory in Essonnes. François, known as François Santerre de la Fontinelle, had breweries in Sèvres, Chaville and Paris and Claire, Antoine Joseph was sent to school at the collèges des Grassins, followed by history and physics under M. M. His interest in physics led advances in production that pushed breweries out of their infancy. In 1770 Antoine Joseph was emancipated, and 2 years later, in that same year he married his childhood sweetheart, the daughter of his neighbour, Monsieur Francois, another wealthy brewer. Antoine Joseph was 20 years old and Marie François was sixteen, Marie died the following year from an infection derived from a fall during her 7th month of pregnancy. Years later Antoine Joseph married Marie Adèlaïde Deleinte with whom he had three children, Augustin, Alexandre and Theodore and his generosity won great popularity in the Faubourg St. Antoine. When the French Revolution erupted in 1789, he was given command of a battalion of the Parisian National Guard, after the Champ de Mars Massacre on 17 July 1791, a warrant was issued for his arrest and Santerre went into hiding. He emerged again the year to lead the people of the Faubourg St. Louis XVI was officially removed as king soon after. Santerre was appointed by the National Convention to serve as the jailer of the former king and he escorted Louis XVI through the some eighty-thousand armed men and countless citizens down the streets of Paris to the guillotine. There are differing accounts of his conduct at the execution itself, according to some, he ordered a drum roll half way through the kings speech in order to drown out his voice. Others say that it was actually General J. F. Berruyer – the man in command of the execution – who ordered the roll. Santerres family maintained, however, that he actually silenced the drums so that Louis could speak to the people, Santerre was promoted to General of a division of the Parisian National Guard in July 1793. When the revolts broke out in the Vendée, Santerre took command of a force sent in to put a stop to the rebellions and he was not as successful as a military commander in the field, his first military operation saw the defeat of the Republican forces at Saumur. After the battle, reports circulated that Santerre himself had been killed, nor was Santerre popular among the sans-culottes he commanded
Antoine Joseph Santerre
–
Early life [edit]
6.
National Guard (France)
–
The National Guard was originally a French militia which existed from 1789 until 1872, including a period of official disbandment from 1827 to 1830. It was separate from the French Army and existed both for policing and as a military reserve, for most of its history the National Guard, particularly its officers, were widely viewed as loyal to middle-class interests. This had rapidly spread anger and violence throughout Paris, the National Assembly declared the formation of a Bourgeois Militia on 13 July. In the early morning of the day, the search for weapons for this new militia led to the storming of the Hotel des Invalides. Lafayette was elected to the post of commander in chief of the Bourgeois Militia on 15 July, similar bodies were spontaneously created in the towns and rural districts of France in response to widespread fears of chaos or counter-revolution. When the French Guards mutinied and were disbanded during the same month, the officers of the National Guard were elected. Under the law of 14 October 1791, all active citizens and their role was the maintenance of law and order and, if necessary, the defence of the territory. Following a nationwide scheme decided on in September 1791, the National Guard was organised on the basis of district or canton companies, five of these neighbourhood units made up a battalion. Eight to ten battalions comprised a legion, districts might also provide companies of veterans and young citizens, respectively drawn from volunteers of over 60 or under 18. Where possible, there was provision for mounted detachments and artillerymen, the citizens kept their weapons and their uniforms at home, and set forth with them when required. This combination of colours matched those of the revolutionary tricolour, the former Guet royal had held responsibility for the maintenance of law and order in Paris from 1254 to 1791, when the National Guard took over this role. In fact, the last commander of the Guet royal, de La Rothière, was elected to head the National Guard in 1791, in the summer of 1792, the fundamental character of the guard changed. After 9 Thermidor, year II, the new government of the Thermidorian Reaction placed the National Guard under the control of conservative leadership. The Paris National Guard thereafter ceased to play a significant political role, napoleon did not believe that the middle-class National Guard would be able to maintain order and suppress riots. Therefore, he created a Municipal Guard of Paris, a full-time gendarmerie which was strongly militarised, however, he did not abolish the National Guard, but was content to partially disarm it. He kept the force in reserve and mobilised it for the defence of French territory in 1809 and 1814, between 1811 and 1812 the National Guard, was organized in cohorts to distinguish it from the regular army, and for home defence only. By a skilful appeal to patriotism, and judicious pressure applied through the prefects, with the invasion of France by allied Austrian, Prussian, Russian and British armies in 1814, the National Guard was suddenly called on to provide support for regular Imperial forces. Existing National Guard units, such as those of Paris, were deployed as defence corps in their areas of recruitment, mass conscription was extended to age groups previously exempt from military service, to provide more manpower for the expanded National Guard
National Guard (France)
–
Philippe Lenoir, (1785–1867), French painter, in his National Guard uniform. By
Horace Vernet (1789–1863)
National Guard (France)
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Mssr. Hepp, commander of the National Guard of Strasbourg in 1790
National Guard (France)
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Soldiers of the Garde nationale of
Quimper escorting royalist rebels in
Brittany (1792). Painting by
Jules Girardet.
National Guard (France)
–
The national Guard of Paris at the
Battle of Paris, 1814
7.
Sans-culottes
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The sans-culottes, most of them urban labourers, served as the driving popular force behind the revolution. Though ill-clad and ill-equipped, they made up the bulk of the Revolutionary army during the years of the French Revolutionary Wars. The most fundamental political ideals of the sans-culottes were social equality, economic equality, the height of their influence spanned from the original overthrow of the monarchy in roughly 1789 to the Thermidorian Reaction in 1794. Several important leaders of the Enragés and Hébertists were imprisoned and executed by the revolutionary tribunals they had supported. After the defeat of the 1795 popular revolt in Paris, the sans-culottes ceased to play any political role in France until the July Revolution of 1830. The term sans-culottism, sans-culottisme in French, refers to this idealized image, many public figures and revolutionaries who were not strictly working class styled themselves citoyens sans-culottes in solidarity and recognition. However, in the immediately following the Thermidorian Reaction the sans-culottes. According to Sally Waller, part of the sans-culottes mantra was permanent anticipation of betrayal, the members of the sans-culottes were constantly on edge and fearing betrayal, which can be attributed to their violent and radical rebellion tactics. Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm observes that the sans-culottes were a shapeless, mostly urban movement of the poor, small craftsmen, shopkeepers, artisans, tiny entrepreneurs. He further notes they were organised notably in the political clubs of Paris. Hobsbawm writes that these were the actual demonstrators, rioters and constructors of street barricades, the Marxist historian Albert Soboul emphasized the importance of the sans-culottes as a social class, a sort of proto-proletariat that played a central role in the French Revolution. That view has been attacked by scholars who say the sans-culottes were not a class at all. Indeed, as one historian points out, Sobouls concept has not been used by scholars in any period of French history. For example, currently, the term culottes in French is now used to describe womens underpants, the term sans-culottes has been used to refer colloquially to mean not wearing underpants. Enragés Hébertists Descamisado Andrews, Richard Mowery. in JSTOR Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, a Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution, pp 393–99 Sonenscher, Michael. Sans-Culottes, An Eighteenth-Century Emblem in the French Revolution, a Revolution in Political Culture in McPhee, ed. A Companion to the French Revolution 435–453
Sans-culottes
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Idealized sans-culotte by
Louis-Léopold Boilly (1761–1845).
Sans-culottes
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(left) Sans-culotte, compare figures wearing culottes right.
8.
Jean, Baron de Batz
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Jean Pierre de Batz, Baron de Sainte-Croix, known as the Baron de Batz or de Bance, was a French royalist and businessman. He was born in Goutz-les-Tartas, and died in Chadieu, near Vic-le-Comte and his life and actions in the service of Louis XVI inspired several popular novelists, including Baroness Orczy, Rafael Sabatini and more recently Juliette Benzoni. Under the Constituent Assembly, de Batzs reputation as a financier led to his 28 May 1790 appointment to the liquidation committee and it appears that de Batz conducted liquidations of fraudulent debts, sold to his friends who then reimbursed him. On his own account, de Batz advanced to Louis XVI a sum exceeding 500,000 livres. His best ally was the Minister of Finance, Étienne Clavière, on January 21,1793, de Batz tried in vain to raise the crowd in boulevard de Bonne Nouvelle to save the king from execution. Several royalists were killed, though de Batz managed to escape and he remained partially in hiding until he obtained a certificate of non-emigration in June 1793. At the end of October 1793, fraud was uncovered in the liquidation of the French East India Company, and de Batz was named as the leader of a vast conspiracy against the fledgeling republic. Chabot also asserted that de Batz had held talks with foreign bankers including Junius Frey and his brother Emmanuel Frey, Pierre-Jean Berthold de Prosly, Andres Maria de Guzman, and Jacob Pereira. At the time, de Batz was constantly traveling between the provinces and Switzerland, and learned that his friends and most of his relations had been arrested, denunciations were gathered to build an indictment and support the imaginary conspiracy. On 14 March 1794, Hébertistes, Clootz, Pereira and Prosly were guillotined, on April 5, Georges Danton and his friends were executed with Chabot, Basire, the abbot of Espagnac, Guzman, and the Frey brothers. Police files and de Batzs passport would later exonerate him, as de Batz was not in Paris at the time of the liquidation, returning to France, de Batz was involved in the royalist insurrection of 5 October 1795, and imprisoned. After the Coup of 18 Fructidor, he took refuge in Auvergne where he owned a castle, discovered, he was arrested, but escaped during his transfer to Lyon and fled to Switzerland. The French Consulate had him removed from the list of emigrants and he abandoned political activism, living in seclusion in Chadieu, near Vic-le-Comte, he died on 10 January 1822. Through his activities, this character sends many revolutionaries to the guillotine, fictionalizations of de Batz appear in several novels, Jean de Batz is the hero of a series of novels by Juliette Benzoni, The Game of Love and Death. The Baron de Batz appears in a few of The Scarlet Pimpernel series of books by Baroness Orczy and he also appears as a major character in Raphael Sabatinis novel, Scaramouche the Kingmaker, and a minor character in The Lost King. Jean de Batz is a character in the historic fiction novel Seed of Mischief by Willa Gibbs,1953. The book revolves around the Dauphin, Louis-Charles
Jean, Baron de Batz
–
Jean Pierre de Batz
9.
Charles Henri Sanson
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Charles-Henri Sanson, full title Chevalier Charles-Henri Sanson de Longval was the Royal Executioner of France during the reign of King Louis XVI, and High Executioner of the First French Republic. He administered capital punishment in the city of Paris for over forty years, Charles-Henri Sanson was the fourth in a six-generation family dynasty of executioners. His great-grandfather, a soldier in the French royal army named Charles Sanson of Abbeville, was appointed as Executioner of Paris in 1684, upon his death in 1695, the Sanson patriarch passed the office to his son, also named Charles. When this second Charles died, an official regency held the position until his son, Charles John Baptiste Sanson. The third Sanson served all his life as High Executioner, the eldest of his sons, Charles-Henri - known as The Great Sanson - apprenticed with his father for 20 years, and was sworn into the office on 26 December 1778. Charles-Henri Sanson was born in Paris to Charles-Jean-Baptiste Sanson and his first wife Madeleine Tronson and he had a strong aversion towards his familys business. As executioner he came to be known as Monsieur de Paris - Gentleman of Paris, on January 10,1765, he married his second wife, Marie-Anne Jugier. They had two sons, Henri, who became his successor, and Gabriel, who also worked in the family business. In 1757 Sanson assisted his uncle Nicolas-Charles-Gabriel Sanson with the gruesome execution of the Kings attempted assassin Robert-François Damiens. His uncle quit his position as executioner after this event, the majority of the executions were performed by Sanson and up to six assistants. He was the first executioner to use the guillotine, executing Nicolas Jacques Pelletier, for robbery and assault, the use of the guillotine transformed Sansons status under the revolutionary ideology from outcast to citizen, equal in rights and civil duties. Charles-Henri Sanson performed 2,918 executions, including Louis XVI, even though he was not a supporter of the monarchy, he was initially reluctant to execute the king but in the end performed the execution. As David Jordan notes, “No Monsieur de Paris had ever had the honor of executing a king and he had the duty to execute Louis XVI under the power of the sitting Provisional Government. Being the heir to a line of executioners, to refuse this duty would have brought shame to the name and danger himself. He experienced the stress of having to not only the king. But the execution of Louis XVI was of particular import, fearing rescue efforts, the streets of Paris were lined with troops as Louis’s carriage took its somber two hours to travel to the scaffold arriving at 10 am on January 21,1793. After Sanson efficiently cut his hair, Louis attempted to address the crowd but was silenced with a roll and Louis was executed, Sanson pulling his head from the basket to show to the crowd. ”Quite possibly, then. As David Adress notes, however, “With his spine severed already, it is unlikely that Louis could have uttered the ‘terrible cry’ that one account claims. ”The Queen, Marie Antoinette, was executed by his son Henri
Charles Henri Sanson
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Portrait of Charles-Henri Sanson
Charles Henri Sanson
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The "bourreau" under Louis XVI
10.
Georg Heinrich Sieveking
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Georg Heinrich Sieveking was a German merchant and follower of the Enlightenment. Together with his friend and business partner, Caspar Voght, he led one of the largest trading firms in the Hanseatic League during the half of the 18th century. In 1796, a few years before his death, Sieveking succeeded in abolishing the 1793 Hamburg-imposed Embargoes against Paris and his son Peter Niclaes followed him in the cloth trade, but went to Hamburg, where he became a citizen in 1747. Her first son, born in 1751, was named after him, in accordance with family tradition, he was designated to enter the merchant business, which actually also suited him due to his mathematical talent. On 1 August 1766 Sieveking joined the firm of the Hamburg Senator Voght as an apprentice, during his apprentice period he proved himself so diligent that Voght granted him a stake in the firm in 1771, alongside his own son, Caspar. After the Senators death in 1781, they continued the business of the firm together, at first under the name Caspar Voght & Co. then, after 1788. By Sievekings 40th birthday on 28 January 1791, Voght had granted him a third of all profits, on 1 July 1793, Caspar Voght transferred all activitied to Sieveking, apart from the trade with America, and dedicated himself to other pursuits. Instead of concentrating on a sector of trade, Voght und Sieveking traded a wide range of goods. Voght stated of himself, Ich war der erste Hamburger Kaufmann, der aus Mocca Kaffee, aus Baltimore Toback, aus Surinam Kaffee and it was Georg Heinrich Sieveking, however, who was the real driving force behind the business, which was run jointly until 1793. Whilst Voght crossed all of Europe on his travels, his partner Sieveking took care of running the business in Hamburg mostly on his own. Voght himself underlined this fact, when he wrote in a letter to all partners in July 1793 that his friend had been the sole decision-maker of the firm for some years. From an early age, Sieveking had shown a great interest in literature, alongside his childhood friends Johann Michael Hudtwalcker and Caspar Voght he composed poetry and prose, and performed plays with Hudtwalckers sisters. Sievekings wife Johanna Magdalena Sieveking maintained a salon in Hamburg. Some of the greatest role models of this circle around Sieveking were Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Sieveking further developed his Enlightenment ideas as a Freemason in the Hamburg Lodge St. Georg zur grünenden Fichte, and became its Worshipful Master in 1789. He is free who is guided by sensible reasons and not by outside force, freedom in the state does not mean independence from the laws, but safety from unreasonable laws and arbitrary interference in our rights by the authorities. Frei ist der, welcher in seiner Wahl durch vernünftige Gründe und nicht durch fremde Gewalt bestimmt ist, freiheit im Staate heißt nicht Unabhängigkeit von den Gesetzen, sondern Sicherheit vor unvernünftigen Gesetzen und eigenmächtigen Eingriffen der Obrigkeit in unsere Rechte. The most prominent amongst the 80 guests were Adolph Freiherr Knigge and he even suspected merely commercial motives in Sievekings and Voghts activities. After the Revolution in France had grown increasingly radicalised and the French King Louis XVI had been executed in January 1793, Sieveking came under increasing pressure in Hamburg
Georg Heinrich Sieveking
–
Painting by Martin Ferdinand Quadal; 1796; 70:54 cm
Georg Heinrich Sieveking
–
Sieveking
11.
Alexandre Dumas
–
Alexandre Dumas, also known as Alexandre Dumas, père, was a French writer. His works have translated into nearly 100 languages, and he is one of the most widely read French authors. His novels have been adapted since the twentieth century for nearly 200 films. Dumas last novel, The Knight of Sainte-Hermine, unfinished at his death, was completed by a scholar and published in 2005 and it was published in English in 2008 as The Last Cavalier. Prolific in several genres, Dumas began his career by writing plays and he also wrote numerous magazine articles and travel books, his published works totalled 100,000 pages. In the 1840s, Dumas founded the Théâtre Historique in Paris and his father, General Thomas-Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie, was born in the French colony of Saint-Domingue to a French nobleman and an enslaved African woman. At age 14 Thomas-Alexandre was taken by his father to France, Dumas fathers aristocratic rank helped young Alexandre acquire work with Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans. He later began working as a writer, finding early success, decades later, in the election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte in 1851, Dumas fell from favour and left France for Belgium, where he stayed for several years. Upon leaving Belgium, Dumas moved to Russia for a few years before going to Italy, in 1861, he founded and published the newspaper LIndipendente, which supported the Italian unification effort. In 1864, he returned to Paris, though married, in the tradition of Frenchmen of higher social class, Dumas had numerous affairs. In his lifetime, he was known to have at least four illegitimate or natural children and he acknowledged and assisted his son, Alexandre Dumas, to become a successful novelist and playwright. They are known as Alexandre Dumas père and Alexandre Dumas fils, among his affairs, in 1866, Dumas had one with Adah Isaacs Menken, an American actress then less than half his age and at the height of her career. The English playwright Watts Phillips, who knew Dumas in his life, described him as the most generous. He also was the most delightfully amusing and egotistical creature on the face of the earth and his tongue was like a windmill – once set in motion, you never knew when he would stop, especially if the theme was himself. Dumas Davy de la Pailleterie was born in 1802 in Villers-Cotterêts in the department of Aisne, in Picardy and he had two older sisters, Marie-Alexandrine and Louise-Alexandrine. Their parents were Marie-Louise Élisabeth Labouret, the daughter of an innkeeper, at the time of Alexandres birth, his father was impoverished. It is not known whether she was born in Saint-Domingue or in Africa, brought as a boy to France by his father and legally freed there, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas Davy was educated in a military school and joined the army as a young man. As an adult, Thomas-Alexandre used his mothers name, Dumas, as his surname after a break with his father, Dumas was promoted to general by the age of 31, the first soldier of Afro-Antilles origin to reach that rank in the French army
Alexandre Dumas
–
Dumas in 1855
Alexandre Dumas
–
General
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, father of Alexandre Dumas.
Alexandre Dumas
–
Château de Monte-Cristo
Alexandre Dumas
–
Dumas later in his career
12.
Victor Hugo
–
Victor Marie Hugo was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement. He is considered one of the greatest and best-known French writers, outside France, his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables,1862, and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame,1831. In France, Hugo is known primarily for his collections, such as Les Contemplations. He produced more than 4,000 drawings and also campaigned for causes such as the abolition of capital punishment. He is buried in the Panthéon in Paris and his legacy has been honoured in many ways, including his portrait being placed on French currency. Victor Hugo was the son of Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo and Sophie Trébuchet, his brothers were Abel Joseph Hugo. He was born in 1802 in Besançon in the region of Franche-Comté. On 19 November 1821, Léopold Hugo wrote to his son that he had conceived on one of the highest peaks in the Vosges Mountains. This elevated origin, he went on, seems to have had effects on you so that your muse is now continually sublime, Hugos childhood was a period of national political turmoil. Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor of the French two years after Hugos birth, and the Bourbon Monarchy was restored before his 13th birthday, since Hugos father was an officer, the family moved frequently and Hugo learned much from these travels. On a childhood trip to Naples, Hugo saw the vast Alpine passes and the snowy peaks, the magnificently blue Mediterranean. Though he was five years old at the time, he remembered the six-month-long trip vividly. They stayed in Naples for a few months and then headed back to Paris, at the beginning of her marriage, Hugos mother Sophie followed her husband to posts in Italy and Spain. Thereafter she dominated Hugos education and upbringing, as a result, Hugos early work in poetry and fiction reflect her passionate devotion to both King and Faith. It was only later, during the leading up to Frances 1848 Revolution. Young Victor fell in love and, against his mothers wishes, because of his close relationship with his mother, Hugo waited until after her death to marry Adèle in 1822. Adèle and Victor Hugo had their first child, Léopold, in 1823, on 28 August 1824, the couples second child, Léopoldine was born, followed by Charles on 4 November 1826, François-Victor on 28 October 1828, and Adèle on 24 August 1830. Hugos eldest and favourite daughter, Léopoldine, died aged 19 in 1843, on 4 September, she drowned in the Seine at Villequier, pulled down by her heavy skirts when a boat overturned
Victor Hugo
–
Woodburytype of Victor Hugo by
Étienne Carjat, 1876.
Victor Hugo
–
Illustration by
Luc-Olivier Merson for
Notre-Dame de Paris (1881), showing the recently restored
galerie des chimères.
Victor Hugo
–
Victor Hugo in 1853
Victor Hugo
–
Portrait of "
Cosette " by
Émile Bayard, from the original edition of
Les Misérables (1862)
13.
Freemasonry
–
The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
Freemasonry
–
Lodge in Palazzo Roffia,
Florence set out for French (Moderns) ritual
Freemasonry
–
The Masonic
Square and Compasses. (Found with or without the letter
G)
Freemasonry
–
Freemasons Hall, London, home of the
United Grand Lodge of England
Freemasonry
–
Freemasons' Hall, London, c. 1809
14.
Jacques de Molay
–
Jacques de Molay, also spelt Molai, was the 23rd and last Grand Master of the Knights Templar, leading the Order from 20 April 1292 until it was dissolved by order of Pope Clement V in 1307. Though little is known of his life and deeds except for his last years as Grand Master. Jacques de Molays goal as Grand Master was to reform the Order, as European support for the Crusades had dwindled, other forces were at work which sought to disband the Order and claim the wealth of the Templars as their own. King Philip IV of France, deeply in debt to the Templars, had Molay and many other French Templars arrested in 1307 and tortured into making false confessions. When Molay later retracted his confession, Philip had him burned upon a scaffold on an island in the River Seine in front of Notre Dame de Paris in March,1314. The sudden end of both the order of Templars and the dramatic execution of its last leader turned Molay into a legendary figure. His birth year is not certain, but judging by statements made during the trials, was probably around 1250. He was born, as most Templar knights were, into a family of minor or middle-ranking nobility and it is suggested that he was dubbed a knight at age 21 in 1265 and is known that he was executed in 1314, aged about 70. If correct, these lead to the belief that he was born about 1244. In 1265, as a man, he was received into the Order of the Templars in a chapel at the Beaune House, by Humbert de Pairaud. Another prominent Templar in attendance was Amaury de la Roche, Templar Master of the province of France, around 1270, Molay went to the East, although little is recorded of his activities for the next twenty years. After the Fall of Acre to the Egyptian Mamluks in 1291, Templars in Cyprus included Jacques de Molay and Thibaud Gaudin, their 22nd Grand Master. During a meeting assembled on the island in the autumn of 1291, Molay spoke of reforming the Order, Gaudin died around 1292 and, as there were no other serious contenders for the role at the time, Molay was soon elected. In spring 1293, he began a tour of the West to try to more support for a reconquest of the Holy Land. From his travels, he was able to secure authorization from some monarchs for the export of supplies to Cyprus, there was talk of merging the Templars with one of the other military orders, the Knights Hospitaller. The Grand Masters of both orders opposed such a merger, but pressure increased from the Papacy and it is known that Molay held two general meetings of his order in southern France, at Montpellier in 1293 and at Arles in 1296, where he tried to make reforms. In the autumn of 1296, Molay was back in Cyprus to defend his Order against the interests of Henry II of Cyprus, from 1299 to 1303, Molay was engaged in planning and executing a new attack against the Mamluks. For generations, there had been communications between the Mongols and Europeans towards the possibility of forging a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Mamluks, in 1299, the Ilkhanate again attempted to conquer Syria, having some preliminary success against the Mamluks in the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in December 1299
Jacques de Molay
–
Jacques de Molay
Jacques de Molay
–
Ordination of Jacques de Molay in 1265 as a Knight Templar, at the
Beaune commandery. Painting by Marius Granet (1777-1849).
Jacques de Molay
–
Chapel of the
Beaune commandery nowadays, where Jacques de Molay was ordinated.
Jacques de Molay
–
Ghazan, the Mongol ruler of the
Ilkhanate, sought a
Franco-Mongol alliance with the Crusaders against the Egyptian Mamluks, but was never able to successfully coordinate military actions
15.
Grand Master of the Knights Templar
–
While many Grand Masters chose to hold the position for life, abdication was not unknown. Some masters chose to leave for life in monasteries or diplomacy, Grand Masters often led their knights into battle on the front line and the numerous occupational hazards of battle made some tenures very short. Each country had its own Master, and the Masters reported to the Grand Master, the Grand Master controlled the actions of the order but he was expected to act the same way as the rest of the knights. After the Pope issued a Papal Bull on behalf of the Templars, the Grand Master was obliged to answer only to Rome
Grand Master of the Knights Templar
–
Saint Peter
Grand Master of the Knights Templar
–
Hugues de Payens, First Grand Master
Grand Master of the Knights Templar
–
Jacques de Molay, Last (23rd) Grand Master
16.
Philip IV of France
–
Philip IV, called the Fair or the Iron King, was King of France from 1285 until his death. By virtue of his marriage with Joan I of Navarre, he was also Philip I, Philip relied on skillful civil servants, such as Guillaume de Nogaret and Enguerrand de Marigny, to govern the kingdom rather than on his barons. Philip and his advisors were instrumental in the transformation of France from a country to a centralized state. Philip, who sought an uncontested monarchy, compelled his vassals by wars and his ambitions made him highly influential in European affairs. His goal was to place his relatives on foreign thrones, princes from his house ruled in Naples and Hungary. He tried and failed to make relative the Holy Roman Emperor. He began the advance of France eastward by taking control of scattered fiefs. To further strengthen the monarchy, he tried to control the French clergy and this conflict led to the transfer of the papal court to the enclave of Avignon in 1309. In 1306, Philip the Fair expelled the Jews from France and, in 1307, Friday 13th, Philip was in debt to both groups and saw them as a state within the state. His final year saw a scandal amongst the family, known as the Tour de Nesle Affair. His three sons were kings of France, Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV. A member of the House of Capet, Philip was born in the fortress of Fontainebleau to the future Philip III. He was the second of four born to the couple. His father was the heir apparent of France at that time, in August 1270, when Philip was two years old, his grandfather died while on Crusade, his father became king, and his elder brother Louis became heir apparent. Only five months later, in January 1271, Philips mother died after falling from a horse, a few months later, one of Philips younger brothers, Robert, also died. Philips father was crowned king at Rhiems on 15 August 1271. Six days later, he married again, Philips step-mother was Marie, in May 1276, Philips elder brother Louis died, and the eight year old Philip became crown prince. It was suspected that Louis had been poisoned, and that his stepmother, one reason for these rumours was the fact that the queen gave birth to her own eldest son in the same month as the death of the crown prince
Philip IV of France
–
Homage of Edward I (kneeling) to Philip IV (seated). As
Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was a vassal to the French king.
Philip IV of France
–
Sledgehammer denier during Philip the Fair
Philip IV of France
–
Templars burned at the stake
Philip IV of France
–
Tomb of Philip IV in the
Basilica of St Denis.
17.
Death by burning
–
Deliberately causing death through the effects of combustion, or effects of exposure to extreme heat, has a long history as a form of painful capital punishment. The best known type of executions of death by burning is when the condemned is bound to a wooden stake. For example, pouring substances such as molten metal onto a person, as well as enclosing persons within, or attaching them to, immersion in a heated liquid as a form of execution is considered distinct from death by burning, and classified as death by boiling. For burnings at the stake, if the fire was large, if the fire was small, however, the condemned would burn for some time until death from hypovolemia, heatstroke and/or simply the thermal decomposition of vital body parts. The 18th century BC law code promulgated by Babylonian king Hammurabi specifies several crimes in which death by burning was thought appropriate. Looters of houses on fire could be cast into the flames, furthermore, a man who began committing incest with his mother after the death of his father could be ordered by courts to be burned alive. In Ancient Egypt, several incidents of burning alive perceived rebels are attested, for example, Senusret I is said to have rounded up the rebels in campaign, and burnt them as human torches. Under the civil war flaring under Takelot II more than a years later, the Crown Prince Osorkon showed no mercy. On the statute books, at least, women committing adultery might be burned to death, jon Manchip White, however, did not think capital judicial punishments were often carried out, pointing to the fact that the pharaoh had to personally ratify each verdict. Then he was placed on a bed of thorns and burnt alive, whoever sees a veiled prostitute shall seize her. And bring her to the palace entrance and they shall pour hot pitch over her head. For the Neo-Assyrians, mass executions seem to have not only designed to instill terror and to enforce obedience. In Genesis 38, Judah orders Tamar—the widow of his son, tamar saves herself by proving that Judah is himself the father of her child. In the Book of Jubilees, the story is basically told, with some intriguing differences. In Genesis, Judah is exercising his power at a distance, whereas he. One pulled it one way, one the other until he opened his mouth, thereupon one ignites the wick and throws it in his mouth, and it descends to his bowels and sears his bowels. That is, the dies from being fed molten lead. The Mishnah is, however, a fairly late collections of laws, from about the 3rd century AD, and scholars believe it replaced the actual punishment of burning in the old biblical texts
Death by burning
–
The "
baptism by fire" of
Old Believer leader
Avvakum in 1682
Death by burning
–
Tanit with a lion's head
Death by burning
–
The burning of the
Cathar heretics
Death by burning
–
Burning of the
Knights Templar, 1314
18.
Church of the Madeleine
–
Léglise de la Madeleine is a Roman Catholic church occupying a commanding position in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. The Madeleine Church was designed in its present form as a temple to the glory of Napoleons army, to its south lies the Place de la Concorde, to the east is the Place Vendôme, and to the west Saint-Augustin, Paris. The closest métro station is Madeleine, the site in the suburban faubourg had been annexed to the city of Paris in 1722. Two false starts were made in building a church on this site, the reconstruction of the older church consecrated to Mary Magdalene was considered. In the meantime, the National Assembly was housed in the Palais Bourbon behind a colonnaded front that was inspired by the completed portico at the far end of the former rue Royale. Two curates who had sworn fealty to the Revolution held a memorial service at the church. With completion of the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in 1808, after the fall of Napoleon, with the Catholic reaction during the Restoration, King Louis XVIII determined that the structure would be used as a church, dedicated to Mary Magdalene. Vignon died in 1828 before completing the project and was replaced by Jacques-Marie Huvé, the July Monarchy rededicated the monument of repentance for Revolution as a monument of national reconciliation, and the nave was vaulted in 1831. In 1837 it was suggested that the building might best be utilised as a railway station. The funeral of Chopin at the Church of the Madeleine in Paris was delayed almost two weeks, until October 30,1849, Chopin had requested that Mozarts Requiem be sung. The Requiem had major parts for female voices, but the Church of the Madeleine had never permitted female singers in its choir, the Church finally relented, on condition that the female singers remain behind a black velvet curtain. During the Paris Commune of 1871, the curé of the church, Abbé Deguerry was one of those arrested and he was executed alongside Georges Darboy, the Archbishop of Paris and four other hostages on 24 May, as French government troops were retaking the city. The Madeleine is built in the Neo-Classical style and was inspired by the Maison Carrée in Nîmes and its fifty-two Corinthian columns, each 20 metres high, are carried around the entire building. The pediment sculpture of the Last Judgement is by Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire, and its size is 354 feet long and 141 feet wide. Inside, the church has a nave with three domes over wide arched bays, lavishly gilded in a decor inspired as much by Roman baths as by Renaissance artists. The Madeleine is a parish of the Archdiocese of Paris, masses and other religious services are celebrated daily. Funerals and weddings in Paris are still celebrated here, in the basement of the Church is The Foyer de la Madeleine. For a yearly fee of 5 Euros one can dine under the vaulted ceilings on a three course French meal served by volunteers for the price of 8.50 Euros
Church of the Madeleine
–
La Madeleine
Church of the Madeleine
–
The 1659 church on the
Turgot map of Paris (1736)
Church of the Madeleine
–
Guillaume-Martin Couture's project for the church (1777)
Church of the Madeleine
–
Sortant De La Madeleine, Paris by
Jean Béraud
19.
Gendarme (historical)
–
A gendarme was a heavy cavalryman of noble birth, primarily serving in the French army from the Late Medieval to the Early Modern periods of European history. The word gendarme derives originally from the French homme darmes, plural of which is gens darmes, the plural sense was later shortened to gendarmes and a singular made of this, gendarme. Like most fifteenth century sovereigns, the Kings of France sought to possess standing armies of professionals to fight their incessant wars and these methods, though improvements on the old annual 40-day service owed by knights, were also subject to strain over long campaigns. Men in these units signed a contract which kept them in the service of the unit for periods of one year or longer, eventually more ordinances would set the general guidelines for the organization of companies of gendarmes, the troops in which were accordingly called the gendarmes dordonnance. These later archers had armour less heavy than the gendarmes, and a light lance and this organization was provisional, however, and one of the mounted archers was commonly replaced by another non-combatant, a servant. In 1434, the pay for the members of the company was set as 120 livres for gendarmes,60 for coutilliers,48 for archers, gendarme unit organization evolved over time. By the 1550s, advances in firearm technology dictated that a body of 50 light cavalry armed with an arquebus be attached to each gendarme company, the heavy cavalrymen in these companies were almost invariably men of gentle birth, who would have served as knights in earlier feudal forces. In many ways they still closely resembled knights—wearing a complete suit of armour, they fought on horseback. A gendarme company was formed by the crown, the king appointing a magnate to raise the company and be its captain, in this way, the bonds between the crown and the magnates were maintained, as the kings patronage essentially bought the loyalty of the nobility. Likewise, appointment of individual gentlemen to a company was mostly accomplished by patronage and recommendation. Recruits preferred positions in companies stationed in their province. The total number of gendarmes in the companies varied over the decades and this was generally increased by another 1,000 lances in wartime. When conflict ended, the reduction came either in the number of companies, the gendarme companies were permanently stationed in towns in the provinces throughout France, subject to be summoned during wartime and concentrated in the Royal armies. Some became closely associated with the towns where they were stationed, if these garrison towns did not have sufficient resources to support the gendarmes present, as was often the case, individuals often found lodging in nearby areas. Men who were away for these reasons were to be back to the company by the captains when ordered to do so by the provincial governor. Long-term absence was a problem in the companies. The French ordinances established regular infantry forces as well, but these were less successful. These created twelve ordonnance companies, for a total of 1,200 gendarmes, there was a twenty-fifth lance in the escadre, that of the squadron commander
Gendarme (historical)
–
Early sixteenth century French gendarmes. Note the very complete plate armour for man and horse, the extremely heavy lance, and the military skirts, called
"bases", worn almost universally in the early 16th century.
Gendarme (historical)
–
French gendarmes.
20.
Vespers
–
Vespers is the sunset evening prayer service in the Orthodox, Western and Eastern Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran liturgies of the canonical hours. The word comes from the Greek ἑσπέρα and the Latin vesper and it is also referred to in the Anglican tradition as evening prayer or evensong. The term is used in some Protestant denominations to describe evening services. Vespers, also called Evening Prayer, takes place as dusk begins to fall, Evening Prayer gives thanks for the day just past and makes an evening sacrifice of praise to God. The general structure of the Roman Rite Catholic service of vespers is as follows, Vespers opens with the singing or chanting of the words Deus, Gloria Patri, et Filio, et Spiritui Sancto. Sicut erat in principio, et nunc et semper, et in saecula saeculorum, each psalm concludes with a doxology and is preceded and followed by an antiphon. After the psalms, there is a reading from the Bible, following the reading, there is a short responsory consisting of a verse, a response, the first half only of the Gloria Patri, and then the verse again. Then the participants sing the Magnificat — the canticle of the Blessed Virgin Mary from the Gospel of Luke 1, the Magnificat is always preceded by an antiphon, and followed by the Gloria and an antiphon. The preces are then said, followed by the Our Father, the office is frequently followed by Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. In the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, Daily Vespers is the form served on other days when Great Vespers is not served. Small Vespers is an abbreviated form of the service which is celebrated only on the afternoon before an All-Night Vigil. Since the liturgical day begins at sunset, Vespers is the first service of the day, the general structure of the service is as follows, Vespers opens with a blessing by the priest and then Come, let us worship. When part of an All-Night Vigil, the blessing that normally begins matins is used, when part of the Divine Liturgy, proemial Psalm, Bless the Lord, O my soul, O Lord my God, Thou hast been magnified exceedingly. The Great Litany A selection of psalms, called a kathisma is sung, on Saturday evening, it is the First Kathisma. Lord I have Cried is chanted in the tone of the week, starting with the last two verses of Psalm 141, stichera about the feast day are chanted alternately with the verses. The Entrance is made with the censer The hymn Phos Hilaron is sung, on feast days, there are three or more readings from the Old Testament, called Paroemia. The prayer Vouchsafe, O Lord, is read, the Litany of Fervent Supplication On major feast days, a Litiy will be served at this point. The clergy and the cantors will process to the back of the church in front of an icon of the feast or saint being commemorated
Vespers
–
Benedictine monks singing vespers on
Holy Saturday
Vespers
–
Incensing During Solemn Advent Vespers
Vespers
–
Orthodox
priest and
deacon making the
Entrance with the
censer at Great Vespers.
Vespers
–
Table set with five loaves, wheat, wine and oil for
artoklassia.
21.
Quicklime
–
Calcium oxide, commonly known as quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, caustic, alkaline, crystalline solid at room temperature, the broadly used term lime connotes calcium-containing inorganic materials, in which carbonates, oxides and hydroxides of calcium, silicon, magnesium, aluminium, and iron predominate. By contrast, quicklime specifically applies to the chemical compound calcium oxide. Calcium oxide that survives processing without reacting in building such as cement is called free lime. Both it and a chemical derivative are important commodity chemicals, Calcium oxide is usually made by the thermal decomposition of materials, such as limestone or seashells, that contain calcium carbonate in a lime kiln. This is accomplished by heating the material to above 825 °C, annual worldwide production of quicklime is around 283 million tonnes. China is by far the worlds largest producer, with a total of around 170 million tonnes per year, the United States is the next largest, with around 20 million tonnes per year. Approximately 1.8 t of limestone is required per 1.0 t of quicklime, quicklime has a high affinity for water and is a more efficient desiccant than silica gel. The reaction of quicklime with water is associated with an increase in volume by a factor of at least 2.5, the major use of quicklime is in the Basic oxygen steelmaking process. Its usage varies from about 30–50 kg/t of steel, the quicklime neutralizes the acidic oxides, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, to produce a basic molten slag. Ground quicklime is used in the production of aerated concrete blocks, quicklime and hydrated lime can considerably increase the load carrying capacity of clay-containing soils. They do this by reacting with finely divided silica and alumina to produce calcium silicates and aluminates, small quantities of quicklime are used in other processes, e. g. the production of glass, calcium aluminate cement, and organic chemicals. The hydrate can be reconverted to quicklime by removing the water by heating it to redness to reverse the hydration reaction, one litre of water combines with approximately 3.1 kilograms of quicklime to give calcium hydroxide plus 3.54 MJ of energy. This process can be used to provide a convenient portable source of heat, light, When quicklime is heated to 2,400 °C, it emits an intense glow. This form of illumination is known as a limelight, and was used broadly in theatrical productions prior to the invention of electric lighting, cement, Calcium oxide is a key ingredient for the process of making cement. As a cheap and widely available alkali, about 50% of the total quicklime production is converted to calcium hydroxide before use. Both quick- and hydrated lime are used in the treatment of drinking water, petroleum industry, Water detection pastes contain a mix of calcium oxide and phenolphthalein. Should this paste come into contact with water in a storage tank
Quicklime
Quicklime
–
Calcium oxide
22.
Basilica of Saint-Denis
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The Basilica of Saint Denis is a large medieval abbey church in the city of Saint-Denis, now a northern suburb of Paris. The building is of unique importance historically and architecturally as its choir, completed in 1144, the site originated as a Gallo-Roman cemetery in late Roman times. The archeological remains still lie beneath the cathedral, the people buried there seem to have had a faith that was a mix of Christian and pre-Christian beliefs, around 475 St. Genevieve purchased some land and built Saint-Denys de la Chapelle. In 636 on the orders of Dagobert I the relics of Saint Denis, the relics of St-Denis, which had been transferred to the parish church of the town in 1795, were brought back again to the abbey in 1819. Saint-Denis soon became the church of a growing monastic complex. In the 12th century the Abbot Suger rebuilt portions of the church using innovative structural. In doing so, he is said to have created the first truly Gothic building, the abbey church became a cathedral in 1966 and is the seat of the Bishop of Saint-Denis, Pascal Michel Ghislain Delannoy. Although known as the Basilica of St Denis, the cathedral has not been granted the title of Minor Basilica by the Vatican, Saint Denis, a patron saint of France, became the first bishop of Paris. A martyrium was erected on the site of his grave, which became a place of pilgrimage during the fifth and sixth centuries. Dagobert, the king of the Franks, refounded the church as the Abbey of Saint Denis, Dagobert also commissioned a new shrine to house the saints remains, which was created by his chief councillor, Eligius, a goldsmith by training. He composed a crest and a magnificent frontal and surrounded the throne of the altar with golden axes in a circle and he placed golden apples there, round and jeweled. He made a pulpit and a gate of silver and a roof for the throne of the altar on silver axes and he made a covering in the place before the tomb and fabricated an outside altar at the feet of the holy martyr. So much industry did he lavish there, at the kings request, the Basilica of St Denis ranks as an architectural landmark—as the first major structure of which a substantial part was designed and built in the Gothic style. Both stylistically and structurally, it heralded the change from Romanesque architecture to Gothic architecture, before the term Gothic came into common use, it was known as the French Style. As it now stands, the church is a cruciform building of basilica form. It has an aisle on the northern side formed of a row of chapels. The west front has three portals, a window and one tower, on the southern side. The eastern end, which is built over a crypt, is apsidal, surrounded by an ambulatory, the basilica retains stained glass of many periods, including exceptional modern glass, and a set of twelve misericords
Basilica of Saint-Denis
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West façade of Saint Denis
Basilica of Saint-Denis
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West façade of Saint Denis, before the dismantling of the north tower (c. 1844 – 1845)
Basilica of Saint-Denis
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15th-century painting by the
Master of Saint Giles, showing St Denis saying mass before
Charlemagne or
Charles Martel with what is thought to be a largely accurate view of the abbey with a
crux gemmata given by
Charles the Bald and gold altar frontal, both destroyed in the Revolution.
Basilica of Saint-Denis
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The north transept rose features the
Tree of Jesse.
23.
Louis XVIII of France
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Louis XVIII, known as The Desired, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1814 to 1824 except for a period in 1815 known as the Hundred Days. Until his accession to the throne of France, Louis held the title of Count of Provence as brother of King Louis XVI, on 21 September 1792, the National Convention abolished the monarchy and deposed King Louis XVI, who was later executed by guillotine. When the young Louis XVII, Louis XVIs son, died in prison in June 1795, during the French Revolution and Napoleonic era, Louis XVIII lived in exile in Prussia, the United Kingdom and Russia. When the Sixth Coalition finally defeated Napoleon in 1814, Louis was placed in what he, Napoleon escaped from his exile in Elba, however, and restored his French Empire. Louis XVIII fled and a Seventh Coalition declared war on the French Empire, defeated Napoleon, Louis XVIII ruled as king for slightly less than a decade. The Bourbon Restoration regime was a constitutional monarchy, as a constitutional monarch, Louis XVIIIs royal prerogative was reduced substantially by the Charter of 1814, Frances new constitution. Louis had no children, therefore, upon his death, the passed to his brother, Charles. Louis XVIII was the last French monarch to die while reigning, as his successor Charles X abdicated and both Louis Philippe I and Napoléon III were deposed. Louis Stanislas Xavier, styled Count of Provence from birth, was born on 17 November 1755 in the Palace of Versailles, the son of Louis, Dauphin of France and he was the grandson of the reigning King Louis XV. As a son of the Dauphin he was a Fils de France, Louis Stanislas was christened Louis Stanislas Xavier six months after his birth in accordance with Bourbon family tradition, being nameless before his baptism. By this act, he also a Knight of the Order of the Holy Spirit. The former died in 1761, leaving Louis Auguste as heir to their father until the Dauphins own premature death in 1765, the two deaths elevated Louis Stanislas to second in the line of succession, while Louis Auguste acquired the title Dauphin. Louis Stanislas found comfort in his governess, Madame de Marsan, Governess of the Children of France, as he was her favourite among his siblings. Louis Stanislas was taken away from his governess when he turned seven, Antoine de Quélen de Stuer de Caussade, Duke of La Vauguyon, a friend of his father, was named his governor. Louis Stanislas was an intelligent boy, excelling in classics and his education was of the same quality and consistency as that of his older brother, Louis Auguste, despite the fact that Louis Auguste was heir and Louis Stanislas was not. Louis Stanislas education was religious in nature, several of his teachers were men of the cloth. La Vauguyon drilled into young Louis Stanislas and his brothers the way he thought princes should know how to withdraw themselves, to like to work, and to know how to reason correctly. In the same month his household was founded, Louis was granted titles by his grandfather, Louis XV, Duke of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Perche
Louis XVIII of France
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Portrait by
Robert Lefèvre, c.1822
Louis XVIII of France
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Signature
Louis XVIII of France
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Portrait of the young Count of Provence
Louis XVIII of France
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Louis, Count of Provence
24.
Edme Gaulle
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Edme Gaulle was a French sculptor. He began by studying drawing with Francois Devosge at the school in Dijon and he and François Rude were two of the thirty sculptors charged with the sculpture of the colonne de la Grande Armée on place Vendôme in Paris. He was a consultant on the restoration of the bas-relief of the pediment of the Panthéon de Paris. This pediment was originally sculpted by his master Moitte in 1793 and was destroyed in 1822. He had made sketches of the pediment before its destruction. In 1831, he was made inspecteur conservateur of the Dépôt des marbres of the Ministry of Public Works, on île des cygnes, a marble statue of a kneeling Louis XVI, for the église de Saint-Denis, Praying Marie-Antoinette and Louis XVI
Edme Gaulle
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Funerary monuments (not tombs) of
Louis XVI and
Marie-Antoinette,
basilique Saint-Denis
Edme Gaulle
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The fatherland crowning illustrious men,
bas-relief on the pediment of the
Panthéon de Paris.
Edme Gaulle
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Pediment with the motto of the Panthéon
Edme Gaulle
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Bronze bull's head, fountainhead of Paris's marché des Blanc-Manteaux (1762-1841), 1819. H. 19 cm (7 ¼ in.)
25.
Marie Antoinette
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Marie Antoinette (/ˈmæriˌæntwəˈnɛt/, /ˌɑ̃ːntwə-/, /ˌɑ̃ːtwə-/, US /məˈriː-/, French, born Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna, was the last Queen of France and Navarre before the French Revolution. She was born an Archduchess of Austria, and was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I, in April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, heir apparent to the French throne, she became Dauphine of France. After eight years of marriage, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the family to take refuge at the Assembly. On 21 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, after a two-day trial begun on 14 October 1793, Marie Antoinette was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason, and executed by guillotine on Place de la Révolution on 16 October 1793. Maria Antonia was born on 2 November 1755, at the Hofburg Palace and she was the youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg Empire, and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria, King and Queen of Portugal, Archduke Joseph, shortly after her birth, she was placed under the care of the Governess of the Imperial children, Countess von Brandeis. Maria Antonia was raised with her older sister Maria Carolina. As to her relationship with her mother, it was difficult, despite the private tutoring she received, results of her schooling were less than satisfactory. At the age of ten she could not write correctly in German or in any language used at court, such as French. Under the teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Maria Antonia developed into a good musician and she learned to play the harp, the harpsichord and the flute. During the familys gatherings in the evenings, she would sing and she also excelled at dancing, had an exquisite poise, and loved dolls. Following the Seven Years War and the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy, on 14 May she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne. Upon her arrival in France, she adopted the French version of her name, a further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and, after the festivities, the day ended with the ritual bedding. The lack of consummation of the marriage plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for the seven years. The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was mixed, on the one hand, the Dauphine was beautiful, personable and well-liked by the common people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 was a resounding success, on the other hand, those opposed to the alliance with Austria, and others, for personal reasons, had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette. Madame du Barry, for example, was Louis XVs mistress and had political influence over him
Marie Antoinette
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Marie Antoinette with the Rose Portrait by
Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, 1783.
Marie Antoinette
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Archduchesses Maria Carolina (in blue dress) and Maria Antonia (in pink dress). Watercolor on ivory by Antonio Pencini, 1764. Vienna, Hofburg.
Marie Antoinette
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Maria Antonia aged 12 by
Martin van Meytens, c. 1767-1768.
26.
Chapelle expiatoire
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The Chapelle expiatoire is a chapel located in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, France. This chapel is dedicated to Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, fontaines assistant Louis-Hippolyte Lebas oversaw the construction. The chapel was constructed on the grounds of the former Madeleine Cemetery. King Louis XVIII shared the 3 million livres expense of building the Chapelle expiatoire with the Duchess of Angoulême, construction took ten years, and the chapel was inaugurated in 1826 in the presence of King Charles X. When he blessed the cornerstone of the Chapelle expiatoire, Hyacinthe-Louis de Quelen, Archbishop of Paris, the Chapelle expiatoire stands on a slight rise. There are two separated by a courtyard which is surrounded by an enclosed cloister-like precinct, a peristyle. The building on Rue Pasquier is the entrance, there is an inscription above the entrance, which reads, In the courtyard are cenotaphs to those who were known to be buried in this location. The chapel itself is entered through a pedimented portico, of a sombre Doric order. The cubic, semicylindrical and hemispheric volumes recall the central planning of High Renaissance churches as much as they do a Greco-Roman martyrium, white marble sculptures of the king and queen in ecstatic attitudes were made by François Joseph Bosio and Jean-Pierre Cortot. There is also a bas-relief by French sculptor François-Antoine Gérard showing the exhumation and removal of the remains of Louis XVI, the crypt contains a black and white marble altar intended to mark the place where the royal remains were found. The Chapelle expiatoire is without doubt the most uncompromising late neoclassical religious building of Paris, chateaubriand found it the most remarkable edifice in Paris. The chapels severe geometry is unrelieved by sculpture, as can be seen by the view from rue dAnjou, in 1862, the cypresses which surrounded the chapel were cut down, and a public park was created around the complex. In May 1871 The Commune demanded that the Chapel be torn down and this was never put into effect. Every January 21, a mass is held in the chapel to commemorate the death of Louis XVI. The Chapel was severely damaged by storm in 2009
Chapelle expiatoire
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Expiatory Chapel
Chapelle expiatoire
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Louis XVI Called to Immortality, Sustained by an Angel, by
François Joseph Bosio
Chapelle expiatoire
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Detail of the left wing
Chapelle expiatoire
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Mass in the chapel (1835)
27.
Charles X of France
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Charles X was King of France from 16 September 1824 until 2 August 1830. For most of his life he was known as the Count of Artois, an uncle of the uncrowned King Louis XVII, and younger brother to reigning Kings Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, he supported the latter in exile and eventually succeeded him. His rule of almost six years ended in the July Revolution of 1830, which resulted in his abdication, exiled once again, Charles died in 1836 in Gorizia, then part of the Austrian Empire. He was the last of the French rulers from the branch of the House of Bourbon. Charles Philippe of France was born in 1757, the youngest son of the Dauphin Louis and his wife, Charles was created Count of Artois at birth by his grandfather, the reigning King Louis XV. As the youngest male in the family, Charles seemed unlikely ever to become king and his eldest brother, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, died unexpectedly in 1761, which moved Charles up one place in the line of succession. He was raised in childhood by Madame de Marsan, the Governess of the Children of France. At the death of his father in 1765, Charless oldest surviving brother, Louis Auguste and their mother Marie Josèphe, who never recovered from the loss of her husband, died in March 1767 from tuberculosis. This left Charles an orphan at the age of nine, along with his siblings Louis Auguste, Louis Stanislas, Count of Provence, Clotilde, Louis XV fell ill on 27 April 1774 and died on 10 May of smallpox at the age of 64. His grandson Louis-Auguste succeeded him as King Louis XVI of France, in November 1773, Charles married Marie Thérèse of Savoy. The marriage, unlike that of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, was consummated almost immediately, in 1775, Marie Thérèse gave birth to a boy, Louis Antoine, who was created Duke of Angoulême by Louis XVI. Three years later, in 1778, Charles second son, Charles Ferdinand, was born, in the same year Queen Marie Antoinette gave birth to her first child, Marie Thérèse, quelling all rumours that she could not bear children. Charles was thought of as the most attractive member of his family and his wife was considered quite ugly by most contemporaries, and he looked for company in numerous extramarital affairs. According to the Count of Hézecques, few beauties were cruel to him, later, he embarked upon a lifelong love affair with the beautiful Louise de Polastron, the sister-in-law of Marie Antoinettes closest companion, the Duchess of Polignac. Charles also struck up a friendship with Marie Antoinette herself. The closeness of the relationship was such that he was accused by Parisian rumour mongers of having seduced her. As part of Marie Antoinettes social set, Charles often appeared opposite her in the theatre of her favourite royal retreat. They were both said to be very talented amateur actors, Marie Antoinette played milkmaids, shepherdesses, and country ladies, whereas Charles played lovers, valets, and farmers
Charles X of France
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Signature
Charles X of France
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Portrait by
Baron Gérard, c.1829
Charles X of France
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Charles Philippe with his younger sister Clotilde on a goat.
Charles X of France
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Charles as Count of Artois (1798).
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
