1.
Postcard
–
A postcard or post card is a rectangular piece of thick paper or thin cardboard intended for writing and mailing without an envelope. Shapes other than rectangular may also be used, there are novelty exceptions, such as wood postcards, made of thin wood, and copper postcards sold in the Copper Country of the U. S. state of Michigan, and coconut postcards from tropical islands. In some places, one can send a postcard for a lower fee than for a letter, stamp collectors distinguish between postcards and postal cards. While a postcard is usually printed by a company, individual or organization. The worlds oldest postcard was sent in 1840 to the writer Theodore Hook from Fulham in London, the study and collecting of postcards is termed deltiology. Cards with messages had been created and posted by individuals since the beginning of postal services. The earliest known picture postcard was a design on card, posted in Fulham in London by the writer Theodore Hook to himself in 1840. He probably created and posted the card to himself as a joke on the postal service, since the image is a caricature of workers in the post office. In 2002 the postcard sold for a record £31,750, in Britain, postcards without images were issued by the Post Office in 1870, and were printed with a stamp as part of the design, which was included in the price of purchase. These cards came in two sizes, the larger size was found to be slightly too large for ease of handling, and was soon withdrawn in favour of cards 13mm shorter. The first known printed picture postcard, with an image on one side, was created in France in 1870 at Camp Conlie by Léon Besnardeau, Conlie was a training camp for soldiers in the Franco-Prussian war. While these are certainly the first known picture postcards, there was no space for stamps, in the following year the first known picture postcard in which the image functioned as a souvenir was sent from Vienna. The first advertising card appeared in 1872 in Great Britain and the first German card appeared in 1874, Cards showing images increased in number during the 1880s. Images of the newly built Eiffel Tower in 1889 and 1890 gave impetus to the postcard, Early postcards often showcased photography of nude women. These were commonly known as French postcards, due to the number of them produced in France. The first American postcard was developed in 1873 by the Morgan Envelope Factory of Springfield and these first postcards depicted the Interstate Industrial Exposition that took place in Chicago. Later in 1873, Post Master John Creswell introduced the first pre-stamped Postal Cards, Postcards were made because people were looking for an easier way to send quick notes. The first postcard to be printed as a souvenir in the United States was created in 1893 to advertise the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, initially, the United States government prohibited private companies from calling their cards postcards, so they were known as souvenir cards
2.
Strand, London
–
Strand is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, Central London. The roads name comes from the Old English strond, meaning the edge of a river, the street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries, with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river. These included Essex House, Arundel House, Somerset House, Savoy Palace, Durham House, the aristocracy moved to the West End over the 17th century, following which the Strand became well known for coffee shops, restaurants and taverns. The street was a point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century. At the east end of the street are two churches, St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes. Several authors, poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand, including Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson, the street has been commemorated in the song Lets All Go Down the Strand, now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall. The street is the link between the two cities of Westminster and London. It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square, parallel to the River Thames, traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych, connected at both ends to the Strand. The road marks the boundary of the Covent Garden district. The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway, then in 1185 as Stronde and it is formed from the Old English word strond, meaning the edge of a river. Initially it referred to the bank of the once much wider Thames. The name was applied to the road itself. In the 13th century it was known as Densemanestret or street of the Danes, Strand Bridge was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction, it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo. London Bus routes 6,23,139 and 176 all run along the Strand, as do numerous night bus services. During Roman Britain, what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester, known as Iter VIII on the Antonine Itinerary, and it was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD, and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually moved the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, and the area returned to fields. In the Middle Ages, the Strand became the route between the separate settlements of the City of London and the royal Palace of Westminster. The landmark Eleanors Cross was built in the 13th century at the end of the Strand at Charing Cross by Edward I commemorating his wife Eleanor of Castile
3.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
4.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
5.
Exeter Exchange
–
The Exeter Exchange was a building on the north side of the Strand in London, with an arcade extending partway across the carriageway. It is most famous for the menagerie that occupied its upper floors for over 50 years, Exeter Exchange was built in 1676, on the site of the demolished Exeter House, London residence of the Earls of Exeter, almost opposite the Savoy Hotel. Around the same time, the nearby Burleigh Street and Exeter Street were laid out, the Exeter Exchange originally housed small shops on the ground floor, and rooms above which were let to the Land Bank. Over time, the traders on the floor were replaced by offices. From 1773, the rooms were let to a series of impresarios who operated a menagerie in competition with the Royal Menagerie at the Tower of London. The menagerie at the Exeter Exchange at various times included lions, tigers, monkeys, the roaring of the big cats could be heard in the street below, occasionally scaring horses that passed by. The menagerie was established by Thomas Clark but was purchased in 1793 by Gilbert Pidcock and it subsequently passed into the ownership of Stephani Polito. Both Pidcock and Polito were operators of travelling circuses, who used the Exeter Exchange as winter quarters for their animals, the menagerie was a popular visitor attraction. It was visited by Wordsworth and Byron, artists such as Edwin Landseer, Polito died in 1814, and the menagerie was acquired by one of his former employees, Edward Cross. Cross renamed the collection the Royal Grand National Menagerie, and employed a doorkeeper who was dressed as a Yeoman of the Guard and his bad-tempered elephant, Chunee, was shot there in March 1826 by soldiers from Somerset House. Exeter Hall was built on the site, opening in 1831, the site is now occupied by the Strand Palace Hotel. History of Covent Garden, In And Around Covent Garden,2004, Destruction of a Furious Elephant Destruction of the Noble Elephant The Exeter Exchange, The Strand, London
6.
John Peter Gandy
–
John Peter Gandy RA, later John Peter Deering, was a British architect. Gandy was the youngest of the ten children of Thomas Gandy and his wife, Sophia and his older brothers included the painter Joseph Michael Gandy ARA and the architect Michael Gandy. Their father Thomas worked at Whites Club, St Jamess, London, in 1805 John Peter Gandy was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools, where he was awarded their silver medal in 1806. He exhibited at the Royal Academy between 1805 and 1833 and his early exhibits included A Design for the Royal Academy and two drawings, An Ancient City and The Environs of an Ancient City. He was a pupil of James Wyatt from 1805 to 1808 and, in 1810 his was the winning design for a new Bethlem Hospital, though it was never built. He was granted leave from the Barrack Office from 1811 to 1813 to accompany Sir William Gell as his architectural draughtsman on an expedition to Greece on behalf of the Society of Dilettanti. The write-up of the trip was published in 1817 as The Unedited Antiquities of Attica, Gell and Gandy also published Pompeiana, which came to be the standard work on the excavations at Pompeii. Gandy was elected a member of the Society of Dilettanti in 1830, Gandys other London buildings included the Greek Revival St Marks Church, North Audley Street, and Exeter Hall, in The Strand. He remodelled the courtyard of Burghley House, Northamptonshire and made alterations at Shrubland Park, though he was regarded as an authority on Greek architecture and produced mostly neo-classical designs, there were exceptions, such as the hospital at Stamford, in the Tudor Gothic style. He was elected ARA in 1826 and RA in 1838, with Wilkins support, in 1828 Gandys friend Henry Deering bequeathed him the Lee estate, near Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire. Gandy took the name of Deering and, gradually giving up his profession as an architect and he was elected as a Conservative Member of Parliament for Aylesbury at the 1847 general election, but a petition led to his election being declared void in 1848. He was High Sheriff of Buckinghamshire in 1840, burnet, G. W. Deering, John Peter. Gandy afterwards Deering, John Peter, H. M. Colvin, A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 1600–1840, 3rd edn, 387–8 A. Felstead, J. Franklin, and L. Pinfield, eds. Directory of British architects, 1834–1900, 2nd edn, ed. A. Brodie, R. Windsor Liscombe, William Wilkins, 1778–1839 Algernon Graves, A dictionary of artists who have exhibited works in the principal London exhibitions of oil paintings from 1760 to 1880, new edn. The Builder,8,130 S. C,33,448 Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by John Deering Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
7.
Joseph Gandy
–
Joseph Michael Gandy ARA was an English artist, visionary architect and architectural theorist, most noted for his imaginative paintings depicting Sir John Soanes architectural designs. He worked extensively with Soane both as draughtsman and creative partner from 1798 until 1809 when he set up his own practice, Joseph Gandy was the son of Thomas Gandy and Sophia née Adams. He was the brother of the architects Michael Gandy and John Peter Gandy and he married, in 1801, Eleanor Susannah Baptist née Webb, daughter of Thomas Webb and Catherine née Wiggington. Gandy built little in his career, having a reputation as an individual to deal with. However his work included the Phoenix Fire and Pelican Life Insurance Offices in London, Doric House at Sion Hill in Bath, commercially he was a failure and served two terms in a debtors prison, but his published and exhibited work was largely a critical and popular success. In 1821 he published two articles in the Magazine of Fine Arts on The Philosophy of Architecture and he intended to expand upon this subject in an eight-volume work entitled Art, Philosophy and Science of Architecture, of which his unpublished manuscript survives. His paintings show a dramatic use of two-point perspective and architectural precision, Gandy died in a private asylum in Plympton, then on the outskirts of Plymouth where he had been placed by his family in 1839. Many of his paintings can be seen in the Pictures Room of Sir John Soanes Museum in London, Joseph Gandy, Designs for Cottages, Cottage Farms, and Other Rural Buildings, Including Entrance Gates and Lodges. Joseph Gandy, The rural architect, consisting of designs for country buildings, accompanied with ground plans, estimates. London, John Harding,1806 Joseph Gandy in the shadow of the Enlightenment, The annual Soane Lecture, Joseph Gandy, An Architectural Visionary in Georgian England, Brian Lukacher,2006. Joseph Gandy, Designs for Cottages,1805 Let there be light The Tragic Genius of Joseph Michael Gandy Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
8.
Marquess of Exeter
–
Marquess of Exeter is a title that has been created twice, once in the Peerage of England and once in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The first creation came in the Peerage of England in 1525 for Henry Courtenay, for more information on this creation, which was forfeited in 1538, see the Earl of Devon. The title is associated with the Cecil family, descended from the courtier Richard Cecil of the parish of Stamford Baron St Martin in Northamptonshire. His only son, Sir William Cecil, was a prominent statesman and served as Secretary of State, Lord High Treasurer, in 1571 he was created Baron Burghley, in the County of Northampton, in the Peerage of England. His son from his marriage to Mildred Cooke, Sir Robert Cecil, was created Earl of Salisbury in 1605 and is the ancestor of the Marquesses of Salisbury. Lord Burghley was succeeded by his son from his first marriage to Mary Cheke, Thomas, in 1605 Thomas Cecil was created Earl of Exeter in the Peerage of England. Thomas was succeeded by his eldest son William Cecil, the second Earl and he served as Lord Lieutenant of Northamptonshire. Lord Exeter married as his first wife Elizabeth, 16th Baroness de Ros and their son William succeeded his mother in the barony at the age of one. However, he died childless during his fathers lifetime, Lord Exeter had no other sons and was succeeded by his nephew, the third Earl. He was the son of the Hon, Sir Richard Cecil, second son of the first Earl. He represented Peterborough in the Short Parliament and his son, the fourth Earl, was Lord Lieutenant of Northamptonshire. He was succeeded by his son, the fifth Earl and he sat as Member of Parliament for Northamptonshire. His son, the sixth Earl, represented Rutland in Parliament and his second son, the eighth Earl, briefly represented Stamford in the House of Commons. His eldest son, the ninth Earl, was Member of Parliament for Rutland and he was childless and was succeeded by his nephew, the tenth Earl. He was the son of the Hon. Thomas Chambers Cecil, Lord Exeter represented Stamford in Parliament for sixteen years. In 1801 he was created Marquess of Exeter in the Peerage of the United Kingdom and his son, the second Marquess, was a Tory politician and notably served as Lord Chamberlain of the Household and Lord Steward of the Household. He was succeeded by his son, the third Marquess and he was a Conservative politician and held office as Vice-Chamberlain of the Household and Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms. His eldest son, the fourth Marquess, represented Northamptonshire North in the House of Commons and he was succeeded by his son, the fifth Marquess
9.
Savoy Hotel
–
The Savoy Hotel is a luxury hotel located in the Strand in the City of Westminster in central London, England. Built by the impresario Richard DOyly Carte with profits from his Gilbert and Sullivan opera productions and it was the first in the Savoy group of hotels and restaurants owned by Cartes family for over a century. The hotel became Cartes most successful venture and its bands, Savoy Orpheans and the Savoy Havana Band, became famous, and other entertainers included George Gershwin, Frank Sinatra, Lena Horne and Noël Coward. Winston Churchill often took his cabinet to lunch at the hotel, the hotel is now managed by Fairmont Hotels and Resorts. It has been called Londons most famous hotel and it has 268 rooms and panoramic views of the River Thames across Savoy Place and the Thames Embankment. The hotel is a Grade II listed building, the House of Savoy was the ruling family of Savoy, descended from Humbert I, Count of Sabaudia, who became count in 1032. The name Sabaudia evolved into Savoy, Count Peter of Savoy was the maternal uncle of Eleanor of Provence, queen-consort of Henry III of England, and came with her to London. King Henry III made Peter Earl of Richmond and, in 1246, Peter gifted the palace and the manor of the Savoy to the Congregation of Canons of the Great Saint Bernard, and the palace became the Great Hospital of St Bernard de Monte Jovis in Savoy. The manor was purchased by Queen Eleanor, who gave the site to her second son, Edmund. Edmunds great-granddaughter, Blanche, inherited the site and her husband, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, built a magnificent palace that was burned down by Wat Tylers followers in the Peasants Revolt of 1381. King Richard II was still a child, and his uncle John of Gaunt was the power behind the throne, in about 1505, Henry VII planned a great hospital for pouer, nedie people, leaving money and instructions for it in his will. The hospital was built in the ruins and licensed in 1512. Drawings show that it was a magnificent building, with a dormitory, dining hall, Henry VIIs hospital lasted for two centuries, but suffered from poor management. The sixteenth-century historian Stow noted that the hospital was being misused by loiterers, vagabonds, in 1702, the hospital was dissolved, and the hospital buildings were used for other purposes. Part of the old palace was used as a prison in the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century, the old buildings were demolished. Opened in 1889, the hotel was designed by architect Thomas Edward Collcutt, Carte chose the name Savoy to commemorate the history of the property. His investors in the venture were, in addition to his relatives, Carl Rosa, George Grossmith, François Cellier, George Edwardes, Augustus Harris and his friend, the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan, was a shareholder and sat on the Board of Directors
10.
Corinthian order
–
The Corinthian order is the last developed of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric order which was the earliest, followed by the Ionic order, when classical architecture was revived during the Renaissance, two more orders were added to the canon, the Tuscan order and the Composite order. The Corinthian, with its offshoot the Composite, is the most ornate of the orders, characterized by slender fluted columns and elaborate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves and it was employed in southern Gaul at the Maison Carrée, Nîmes and at the comparable podium temple at Vienne. Other prime examples noted by Mark Wilson Jones are the order of the Basilica Ulpia and the arch at Ancona the column of Phocas. The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth, however, according to the architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor Callimachus, probably an Athenian, who drew acanthus leaves growing around a votive basket. Its earliest use can be traced back to the Late Classical Period, the earliest Corinthian capital was found in Bassae, dated at 427 BC. In its proportions, the Corinthian column is similar to the Ionic column, though it is more slender, the abacus upon the capital has concave sides to conform to the outscrolling corners of the capital, and it may have a rosette at the center of each side. Corinthian columns were erected on the top level of the Roman Colosseum, holding up the least weight and their height to width ratio is about 10,1. One variant is the Tivoli Order, found at the Temple of Vesta, the Tivoli Orders Corintinan Capital has two rows of Acanthus and its abacus is decorated with oversize fleuron in the form of hibiscus flowers with pronounced spiral pistils. The column flutes have flat tops, the frieze exhibits fruit swag suspended between bucrania. Above each swag is a rosette, the cornice does not have modillions. Indo-Corinthian capitals are capitals crowning columns or pilasters, which can be found in the northwestern Indian subcontinent and these capitals are typically dated to the 1st centuries of our era, and constitute important elements of Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara. The classical design was adapted, usually taking a more elongated form. Indo-Corinthian capitals also incorporated figures of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas, usually as central figures surrounded, the Corinthian architrave is divided in two or three sections, which may be equal, or they may bear interesting proportional relationships, one with another. Above the plain, unadorned architrave lies the frieze, which may be carved with a continuous design or left plain. At the Capitol the proportions of architrave to frieze are exactly 1,1, above that, the profiles of the cornice moldings are like those of the Ionic order. If the cornice is deep, it may be supported by brackets or modillions. The Corinthian column is almost always fluted, if it is not, it is often worth pausing to unravel the reason why
11.
Protestant Reformation Society
–
George Bourne was a 19th-century American abolitionist and editor credited as the first public proclaimer of immediate emancipation without compensation of American slaves. George was born on June 13,1780 in Westbury, Wiltshire, in 1804 he migrated to New York and became the editor and co-owner of the Baltimore Daily Gazette in 1806. He migrated in 1810 to Virginia and became a Presbyterian minister, in 1816, he wrote and printed at home The Book and Slavery Irreconcilable by a citizen of Virginia. In his journalistic career, he wrote over twenty-two books including biographies of Rev John Wesley and his book on Thomas Jefferson and his Presidency has been lost. He was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society and he also was the editor of various publications dealing with anti-slavery and poperism most notably the Christian Intelligencer at the time of his death in New York City on November 20,1845. His father, Samuel Bourne, was for thirty years a deacon of the Congregational Church at Westbury and he studied at the seminary at Homerton, London. Being a staunch Nonconformist, and inclined in favor of a form of government, he wrote articles which attracted attention. He took part in the discussions regarding slavery and slave-trade, along with the Wilberforces, Clarksons, Buxtons. In the year 1802 he paid a visit to the United States to ascertain for himself the propriety of making this the field for ministerial labors, notably he wrote Cursory Remarks of the United States of America which is in the Library of Congress. He determined to return and settle here, believing that in this favored land greater freedom of conscience, at that time Dissenters were still compelled to use the clergy of the Church of England for certain services. After his return to England, he married Mary Stibbs Bath, Somerset. She to belong to the congregation of the Rev William Jay. They were married in St James’ Church, in Bristol, September 6,1804, and shortly after sailed for New York. ”Bournes first settlement was at Baltimore, where also for some years he edited the Baltimore Daily Gazette. About the year 1809, he removed to New Glasgow, Virginia, and thence to Port Republic, Virginia and he afterward removed to Harrisonburg, Rockingham County, Virginia, where he originated and became Secretary of the Religious Tract Society, and witnessed the system of American slavery. Believing himself ordained to preach the truth, he failed not to denounce the evils of the system publicly and privately and his steadfast opposition to the system of slavery was a constant offense to the slave-owners, who determined to get him away from Virginia. He was the object of persistent persecution, in 1815, he presented an overture to the General Assembly raising the question of whether Presbyterians who owned slaves could be Christians. Upon his return home to Harrisonburg, his presbytery voted his deposition from the ministry, i. e. de-frocking, removal from the ministry, in 1816, he published The Book and Slavery Irreconcilable, the most critical American anti-slavery book of its day. The theological importance of the book was that Bourne identified slaveholding as a sin, in his protest in 1815, he had cited I Timothy 1,10, which links whoremongers and man-stealers. The Westminster Larger Catechism cites this verse in listing crimes against the Ten Commandments and this document has been one of the three official standards of American Presbyterianism from its formation in 1720
12.
Gordon Riots
–
The Gordon Riots of 1780 began as an anti-Catholic protest in London against the Papists Act of 1778, which was intended to reduce official discrimination against British Catholics. The protest evolved into riots and looting, the Popery Act 1698 had imposed a number of penalties and disabilities on Roman Catholics in England, the 1778 Act eliminated some of these. An initial peaceful protest led on to widespread rioting and looting and was the most destructive in the history of London, painted on the wall of Newgate prison was the proclamation that the inmates had been freed by the authority of His Majesty, King Mob. The term King Mob afterwards denoted an unruly and fearsome proletariat, the Riots came at the height of the American War of Independence, when Britain was fighting American rebels, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic. They led to unfounded fears that the riots had been an attempt by France. The stated intention of the Papists Act of 1778 was, as its preamble notes and it absolved Catholics from taking the religious oath when joining the British Armed Forces as well as granting a few and limited liberties. There were strong expedient reasons for this change, British military forces at the time were stretched very thinly in what had become a global American War of Independence, with conflicts ongoing with France, Spain, and the new United States. The recruitment of Catholic people would be a significant help to address this shortfall of manpower, the 1698 anti-Catholic laws had largely been ignored for many years and were rarely enforced. Because of this, many leading Catholics were opposed to the repeal of the Act and it was also pointed out that large numbers of Catholics, recruited in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands, were already serving in the military. In spite of this, the government decided to press ahead with the Bill, the Protestant Association of London had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon. Lord George Gordon became its President in 1779, in an effort to force the repeal of the Papists Act, an articulate propagandist, though eccentric, Gordon inflamed the mob with fears of Papism and a return to absolute monarchical rule. He implied that Catholics in the military would, given a chance, join forces with their co-religionists on the Continent, the success in obstructing the law in Scotland led Gordon to believe he could enjoy similar success in the rest of Britain. Early in 1780 Gordon had several audiences with King George III but was unable to convince him of what he saw as the dangers of the Act, George III initially humoured Gordon, but grew increasingly irritated with him and eventually refused any future audiences. On 29 May 1780, Gordon called a meeting of the Protestant Association, after the first march to Parliament, further riots occurred involving groups whose grievances were nationalistic, economic, or political, rather than religious. As Rudé noted, there was no attack on the Catholic community. Voting in parliamentary elections was restricted by a property threshold, so most Londoners were unable to vote, another suggested cause was Britains weakened international position, which had arisen from the countrys isolation in Europe and the disappointing news coming from the ongoing war. Some rioters were against the continuation of the war, and many strongly supported American independence, in many cases a mix of issues blended together and drove people to take part in the rioting. On 2 June 1780 a huge crowd, estimated at 40,000 to 60,000 strong, many carried flags and banners proclaiming No Popery, and most wore blue cockades which had become the symbol of their movement
13.
Trinitarian Bible Society
–
The arguments came into the open during the Annual Meeting in May 1831 of the Society. The membership voted six to one to retain the status quo. Ultra-dispensationalist E. W. Bullinger was clerical secretary of the Society from 1867 until his death in 1913, activities during his secretariat include, Completion of a Hebrew version of the New Testament under contract with Christian David Ginsburg after the death of Isaac Salkinson. The first edition was published in 1885, publication of Ginsburgs first edition of the Old Testament along with his Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible in 1897. Formation of the Brittany Evangelical Mission Society under Pasteur LeCoat and translation of the Bible into the Breton language, distribution of Spanish language Bibles in Spain after the Spanish Revolution of 1868. The Society provides Bibles and Christian literature to the world and they have chapters all over the world. Their consider their primary function is to translate and disseminate worldwide Bibles in languages other than English. The translation of Bibles into non-English languages is based on the Hebrew Masoretic Text and Greek New Testament edition of the Textus Receptus compiled by F. H. A. Scrivener and published in 1894. The Society sells copies of the King James Version of the Bible, as well as Scriptures in other languages and these Scriptures are printed by the Society itself. They also sell or give away Scripture-based Christian literature, such as tracts and childrens items in English, the Society produces a magazine, The Quarterly Record, and sponsors meetings during which the Societys work and issues surrounding translation and text are discussed. The Trinitarian Bible Society has been associated with the King-James-Only Movement, however, the Society stated The Trinitarian Bible Society does not believe the Authorised Version to be a perfect translation, only that it is the best available translation in the English language. Translations from the languages are likewise to be considered the written Word of God in so far as these translations are accurate as to the form. Translations made since New Testament times must use words chosen by uninspired men to translate God’s words, for this reason no translation of the Word of God can have an absolute or definitive status. The final appeal must always be to the languages, in the Traditional Hebrew. Trinitarian Bible Society Biography of Malcolm Watts who currently heads the society
14.
South Australian Company
–
The formation of the company followed considerable lobbying by the South Australian Association, a group consisting of philanthropists, radical thinkers, dissenters and merchants. After a years of negotiation, false starts, changes and amendments to suggested charters, the British Parliament finally gave approval and passed the South Australian Act on 15 August 1834. The founding Board of directors were George Fife Angas, Raikes Currie, Charles Hindley M. P. James Hyde, Henry Kingscote, John Pirie, Alderman, Christopher Rawson, John Rundle M. P. They developed a settlement at Kingscote on Kangaroo Island, in July 1836, the Company provided basic infrastructure for the new colony, as well as sold or leased land to immigrants who came to settle. The first Resident Commissioner was James Hurtle Fisher, James Ruddell Todd 1899–1923 Henry Joslin Directors 1836-18. Henry Waymouth 1880–1911 Major General Sir Stanley De A. C. Clarke, 1889–1919 Sir John H. Kennaway, Bart. Attorneys in South Australia William Bartley 1850–1906 Sir Samuel Davenport, K. C. M. G, 1876–1923 John Warren Bakewell Local Board of Advice, Adelaide 1841–1885 William Bartley 1841-18. Edward Stephens 1856–1870 William Bakewell, M. P, crown Solicitor 1876–1923 John Warren Bakewell 1886-1930+ Joseph Fisher 1894–1932 Sir John Lancelot Stirling K. C. M. G. Accountants Edward Stephens Edward Robert Simpson From 1872, the South Australian Company occupied offices on North Terrace on the corner of Gawler Place, the new building, Gawler Chambers, was completed in 1914. Pearse, Malcolm, Australias Early Managers Australia Pacific Economic and Business History Conference, Wellington, New Zealand, February 2010
15.
South Australia
–
South Australia is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country, with a total land area of 983,482 square kilometres, it is the fourth-largest of Australias states and territories. Other population centres in the state are relatively small, the state comprises less than 8 percent of the Australian population and ranks fifth in population among the six states and two territories. The majority of its people reside in Adelaide, most of the remainder are settled in fertile areas along the south-eastern coast and River Murray. The states colonial origins are unique in Australia as a settled, planned British province. Official settlement began on 28 December 1836, when the colony was proclaimed at the Old Gum Tree by Governor John Hindmarsh, as with the rest of the continent, the region had been long occupied by Aboriginal peoples, who were organised into numerous tribes and languages. The first British settlement to be established was Kingscote, Kangaroo Island, on 26 July 1836, the guiding principle behind settlement was that of systematic colonisation, a theory espoused by Edward Gibbon Wakefield that was later employed by the New Zealand Company. The goal was to establish the province as a centre of civilisation for free immigrants, promising civil liberties, although its history is marked by economic hardship, South Australia has remained politically innovative and culturally vibrant. Today, it is known for its wine and numerous cultural festivals. The states economy is dominated by the agricultural, manufacturing and mining industries, the state has an increasingly significant finance sector as well. Evidence of human activity in South Australia dates back as far as 20,000 years, with flint mining activity, in addition wooden spears and tools were made in an area now covered in peat bog in the South East. Kangaroo Island was inhabited long before the island was cut off by rising sea levels, thijssen named his discovery Pieter Nuyts Land, after the highest ranking individual on board. The complete coastline of South Australia was first mapped by Matthew Flinders, the land which now forms the state of South Australia was claimed for Britain in 1788 as part of the colony of New South Wales. Although the new colony included almost two-thirds of the continent, early settlements were all on the eastern coast and it took more than forty years before any serious proposal to establish settlements in the south-western portion of New South Wales were put forward. In 1834, the British Parliament passed the South Australia Act 1834, the act stated that 802,511 square kilometres would be allotted to the colony and it would be convict-free. In contrast to the rest of Australia, terra nullius did not apply to the new province, although the patent guaranteed land rights under force of law for the indigenous inhabitants it was ignored by the South Australian Company authorities and squatters. Settlement of seven vessels and 636 people was made at Kingscote on Kangaroo Island. The first immigrants arrived at Holdfast Bay in November 1836, the Colonisation Commissioners intended to establish a police service as soon as misconduct within the increasing population warranted it
16.
Anti-Slavery Society
–
The Anti-Slavery Society was the everyday name of two different British organisations. The first was founded in 1823 and was committed to the abolition of slavery in the British Empire and its official name was the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions. This objective was achieved in 1838 under the terms of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. The elimination of slavery throughout the world was frequently in the mind of early abolitionists, the Slave Trade Act 1807 made the slave trade illegal in the British Empire. The first British organisation to refer to itself as the Anti-Slavery Society was founded in Britain in 1823, founding members included William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson. Its official name was the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions and its work included supporting the first account of slavery to be published by a Black woman, Mary Prince, The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave. The publishers were sued by the family from which she had escaped, the book was much sought after, running into three editions in the year of its publication. A wide range of views emerged among the members, the latter group, including Joseph Sturge and many others, publicly campaigned throughout Britain. The idea was to engender public pressure for a new act to outlaw slavery, rather than continue the gradualism of Whitehalls negotiations. In 1831 George Stephen and Joseph Sturge formed a group within the Anti-Slavery Society. This campaign, and public pressure, led to the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, in response to the new legislation, other members of the Anti-Slavery Society considered their work over. The original purpose, as reflected in the name of the society, had, they thought, largely under the guidance of Joseph Sturge, the committee duly formed a new society, British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society on 17 April 1839. It became widely known as the Anti-Slavery Society, as had the earlier society, the first secretary was John Harfield Tredgold, the first treasurer, George William Alexander of Stoke Newington. Thomas Clarkson was the key speaker, and the Convention attracted people from nations around the world where slavery was practiced, Convention leaders refused to seat the women delegates from America, and prominent male abolitionists such as Thomas Knight were outraged. He went on to form his own society, in the 1850s, under Louis Chamerovzow, the society helped John Brown write and publish his autobiography a decade before the American Civil War ended slavery in the United States. In 1909, the society merged with the Aborigines Protection Society to form the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society, whose prominent member was Kathleen Simon, in 1990 the name was changed to Anti-Slavery International. American Anti-Slavery Group Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade Anti-Slavery International Anti-Slavery Society Convention 1840 Anti-Slavery Society
17.
YMCA
–
The Young Mens Christian Association is a worldwide organisation based in Geneva, Switzerland, with more than 57 million beneficiaries from 125 national associations. It was founded on 6 June 1844 by George Williams in London and aims to put Christian principles into practice by developing a body, mind. These three angles are reflected by the different sides of the triangle—part of all YMCA logos, from its inception, it grew rapidly and ultimately became a worldwide movement founded on the principles of Muscular Christianity. YMCAs continue to be religious organisations, many national or local organisations de-emphasise this aspect, the different local YMCAs are voluntarily affiliated through their national organisations. The national organisations in turn are part of both an Area Alliance and the World Alliance of YMCAs, the World Alliances main motto is empowering young people. It was associated with industrialisation and the movement of people to cities to work. The YMCA combined preaching in the streets and the distribution of religious tracts with a social ministry, philanthropists saw them as places for wholesome recreation that would preserve youth from the temptations of alcohol, gambling, and prostitution and that would promote good citizenship. The YMCA was founded by George Williams, a London draper and he and his colleagues were concerned about the lack of healthy activities for young men in major cities, the options available were usually taverns and brothels. By 1851, there were YMCAs in the United Kingdom, Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United States. In 1855,99 YMCA delegates from Europe and North America met in Paris at the First World Conference of YMCAs and they discussed joining together in a federation to enhance cooperation amongst individual YMCA societies. This marked the beginning of the World Alliance of YMCAs, the conference adopted the Paris Basis, a common mission for all present and future national YMCAs. Its motto was taken from the Bible, That they all may be one, in 1865 The Fourth World Conference of YMCAs, held in Germany, affirmed the importance of developing the whole individual in body, mind, and spirit. The concept of work through sports, a new concept for the time, was also recognised as part of this muscular Christianity. Today the YMCA is more focused on inspiring youths and their families to exercise, in 1878, World Alliance of YMCAs offices were established in Geneva, Switzerland. Later, in 1900, North American YMCAs, in collaboration with the World Alliance, set up centres to work with emigrants in European ports, as millions of people were leaving for the USA. In 1885, Camp Baldhead, the first residential camp in the United States and North America, was established by A. Sanford and Sumner F. Dudley, both of whom worked for the YMCA. The camp, originally located near Orange Lake in New Jersey, moved to Lake Wawayanda in Sussex County the following year, by 1910, the YMCA was an early influence upon scouting, including the Boy Scouts of America and German Scouting. Edgar M. Robinson, a Chicago-area YMCA administrator, briefly left the YMCA to become the BSAs first director, the Blue Ridge Association for Christian Conferences and Training was formed in 1907, and shortly thereafter built the Blue Ridge Assembly conference centre
18.
Hector Berlioz
–
Hector Berlioz was a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts. Berlioz made significant contributions to the orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works, and he also composed around 50 songs. His influence was critical for the development of Romanticism, especially in composers like Richard Wagner, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Franz Liszt, Richard Strauss. Hector Berlioz was born in France at La Côte-Saint-André in the département of Isère, Louis was an agnostic, with a liberal outlook, his mother, Marie-Antoinette, was a devout Roman Catholic. He had five siblings in all, three of whom did not survive to adulthood, the other two, Nanci and Adèle, remained close to Berlioz throughout his life. Berlioz was not a prodigy, unlike some other famous composers of the time, he began studying music at age 12, writing small compositions. As a result of his fathers discouragement, he never learned to play the piano and he became proficient at guitar, flageolet and flute. He learned harmony from textbooks alone—he was not formally trained, the majority of his early compositions were romances and chamber pieces. While yet at age twelve, as recalled in his Mémoires, he experienced his first passion for a woman and he also began to visit the Paris Conservatoire library, seeking out scores of Glucks operas and making personal copies of parts of them. He recalled in his Mémoires his first encounter with Luigi Cherubini, Cherubini attempted to throw the impetuous Berlioz out of the library since he was not a formal music student at that time. Berlioz also heard two operas by Gaspare Spontini, a composer who influenced him through their friendship, and whom he later championed when working as a critic, from then on, he devoted himself to composition. He was encouraged in his endeavors by Jean-François Le Sueur, director of the Royal Chapel, in 1823, he wrote his first article—a letter to the journal Le corsaire defending Spontinis La vestale. Despite his parents disapproval, in 1824 he formally abandoned his studies to pursue a career in music. This work was rehearsed and revised after the rehearsal but not performed until the following year, Berlioz later claimed to have burnt the score, but it was re-discovered in 1991. Later that year or in 1825, he began to compose the opera Les francs-juges, the work survives only in fragments, the overture has been much recorded and is sometimes played in concert. In 1826 he began attending the Conservatoire to study composition under Jean-François Le Sueur and he also submitted a fugue to the Prix de Rome, but was eliminated in the primary round. Winning the prize would become an obsession until he won it in 1830
19.
J. Lyons and Co.
–
J. Lyons & Co. was a market dominant British restaurant chain, food manufacturing, and hotel conglomerate founded in 1884. The company began as collaboration between the professional artist Joseph Lyons and his brothers in law, Isidore and Montague Gluckstein, in 1894 the company started a teashop in Piccadilly, London, and from 1909 developed this into a chain of teashops known as Lyons Corner Houses. From the 1930s Lyons began to develop a range of teas, biscuits. Lyons, who founded the UKs Territorial Force, now known as the Army Reserve, was appointed to run the company. J. Lyons & Co. was a pioneer in introducing computers to business, between 1951 and 1963, the company manufactured and sold a range of LEO computers. The company was a food manufacturer, with factories at Cadby Hall in Hammersmith. To the public, J. Lyons & Co. were best known for their chain of tea shops which opened from 1894 and finally closed in 1981, the tea shops were slightly more up market than their ABC counterparts. They were notable for their design, from the 1920s Oliver P. Until the 1940s they had a certain chic, but by the 1950s and 60s they were quick stops for busy shoppers where one could drink a cup of tea. The tea shops always had a counter at the front. The Corner Houses, which first appeared in 1909 and remained until 1977, were noted for their art deco style, in addition, they possessed hairdressing salons, telephone booths, theatre booking agencies and at one period a twice-a-day food delivery service. On the other floors were several restaurants, each with a different theme, for a time the Corner Houses were open 24 hours a day, and at their peak each branch employed around 400 staff. They featured window displays designed by Kay Lipton and, in the post-war period, between 1896 and 1965 Lyons owned the Trocadero, which was similar in size and style to the Corner Houses. As well as the tea shops and Corner Houses, Lyons ran other large restaurants such as the Angel Cafe Restaurant in Islington and its chains have included Steak Houses, Wimpy Bars, Baskin-Robbins and Dunkin Donuts. The artist Kay Lipton designed all the windows for the Corner Houses under the jurisdiction of Mr. Norman Joseph the Director post-war. The Regent Palace Hotel, Glasshouse Street, London was operated by Strand Hotels Limited, Strand Hotels also operated the Cumberland Hotel, Kingsley Hotel, Park Court Hotel, Windsor Hotel, Whites Hotel and the Strand Palace Hotel after the inception of Strand Hotels Limited. The last London hotel that operated until the demise of the group in the mid-70s was the Tower Hotel situated by Tower Bridge in London. In 1938, Lyons purchased the Bee Bee Biscuit Company, which manufactured biscuits from its factories in Blackpool
20.
Strand Palace Hotel
–
The Strand Palace Hotel is a large hotel on the north side of the Strand, London, England, positioned close to Covent Garden, Aldwych, Trafalgar Square and the River Thames. The hotel was built after Exeter Hall was demolished in 1907 and it opened in 1909 and was refurbished in the Art Deco style during the 1930s, but has now been modernised. Strand Hotel Limited was incorporated on 31 October 1907, with some 4,000 shareholders, created by the Salmon & Gluckstein families, it was established to fund the building of the Strand Palace Hotel. J Lyons & Co acquired shares in this enterprise in 1922, after extensive redevelopment, the hotel became an art deco showcase, and re-opened in 1928, boasting 980 bedrooms. The same year, some not-so-prominent changes were being made behind the scenes, two secondhand coal-fired steam boilers, salvaged from World War I battleships, were installed in the boiler house. The rear of the property was occupied by the Winter Garden Restaurant, the Winter Garden Restaurant had a large domed ceiling and could seat over 500 guests, which were served by over one hundred staff. Due to its number of bedrooms, the hotel became popular with American forces before they were sent into action in World War II. Indeed, the hotel was, in fact, commissioned as an official U. S. rest, once again, the hotel became an important social venue, as Londoners and war-weary soldiers jived and jitterbugged long into the night. Over the years, many of these service personnel have returned to relive memories, the post-war era saw the Strand Palace Hotel implement a number of improvements. The introduction of private bathrooms in all guest rooms in 1958 reduced the number of rooms at the hotel to 786. The increased number of bathroom facilities meant that boilers had to be installed. In 1968, the front hall and ground floor restaurants, including the Winter Garden, were redesigned, the revolving doors and other parts of the foyer designed by Oliver P. Bernard were removed in this redesign, but were of fine quality and historic interest. The pieces were dismantled and stored in the museums Battersea depot, the doors were exhibited in 2003 in the museums major exhibition Art Deco, 1910-1939, following reconstruction. In 1976, Forte bought the lease of the Strand Palace Hotel from the Lyons Hotel Group, over the next ten years, minor refurbishment took place throughout the hotel. In 1985, a more in-depth refurbishment was undertaken on all floors of the new hotel and this included new furniture, new bathrooms, London and Regional Properties took over the hotel in 2006
21.
Freemasons' Hall, London
–
It is in Great Queen Street between Holborn and Covent Garden and has been a Masonic meeting place since 1775. There have been three Masonic buildings on the site, with the current incarnation being opened in 1933. Parts of the building are open to the daily, and its preserved classic Art Deco style, together with its regular use as a film. In 1775 the premier Grand Lodge purchased a house fronting the street, behind which was a garden, a competition was held for the design of a Grand Hall to link the two houses. The front house was the Freemasons Tavern, the house was to become offices. The winning design was by Thomas Sandby and it is an imposing Art Deco building, covering two and one quarter acres. Initially known as the Masonic Peace Memorial, the name was changed to Freemasons Hall at the outbreak of the World War II in 1939, the financing for building the hall was raised by the Masonic Million Memorial Fund. This fund raised over £1 million and it is a Grade II* listed building. Many non-Masonic organisations also use the Grand Temple for numerous events as diverse as Fashion shows, bronze doors, each weighing one and a quarter tonnes, open on to a Chamber 123 feet long,90 feet wide and 62 feet high capable of seating 1,700. A large pipe organ is installed, built by the leading British organ builders Henry Willis & Sons, from the province of Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire, Brother Luke Howard was passed in the Second Degree on the 25th March 2017. A historic moment for for the province as its first ceremony within the Grand Temple, Masons from around the province came in attendance to witness Bro Lukes passing upon which he was entrusted with the knowledge of the Second Degree. In addition to the Grand Temple, there are a further 23 masonic temples, or meeting rooms, within the building, used by Lodges, all are highly ornate in their various art deco styles, and no two are identical. Amongst the temples which are of note, Temple No 1 was very large. However, the temple was converted into a space, by removing the furnishings. In addition to these 23 Temples, and the Grand Temple, there are very simple and plain temples reserved for Lodges of Instruction. Unlike the Grand Temple the other 23 temples are not normally open to the public, as they are in constant demand by private London Lodges, approximately 1800 lodges and chapters meet regularly in London, and a high proportion of these meet at Freemasons Hall. The Library and Museum is a Charitable Trust and is registered with the Charity Commission, the Library and Museum is open to the general public from Monday to Friday 10am–5pm and entry is free of charge. The Museum has a collection of objects with Masonic decoration, including clocks, furniture, glassware, jewellery, porcelain, pottery, regalia, displayed items include belongings of famous Freemasons such as King Edward VII and Winston Churchill
22.
British and Foreign Bible Society
–
The Society was formed on 7 March 1804 by a group of people including William Wilberforce and Thomas Charles to encourage the wider circulation and use of the Scriptures. Many young girls had walked long distances to Rev Thomas Charles to get copies of the Bible, later the story was told of one of them - a young girl called Mary Jones who walked over 20 miles to get a Bible in Bala, Gwynedd. BFBS was not the first Bible Society in the world, the first organisation in Britain to be called The Bible Society was founded in 1779 and now called the Naval, Military and Air Force Bible Society. The first BFBS translation project was the Gospel of John into Mohawk for Canada, in the British Isles BFBS reprinted Bibles in Welsh, Scots Gaelic and Manx Gaelic first produced by SPCK. The first Romani translation was the Gospel of Luke into the Caló language of Iberia, from the early days, the Society sought to be ecumenical and non-sectarian. This and another similar 1831 controversy about Unitarians holding significant Society offices resulted in a minority separating to form the Trinitarian Bible Society, the Bible Society extended its work to England, India, Europe and beyond. Protestant communities in many European countries date back to the work of nineteenth century BFBS Bible salesmen, auxiliary branches were set up all over the world, which later became Bible Societies in their own right, and today operate in co-operation as part of the United Bible Societies. The Bible Society is a non-denominational Christian network which works to translate, revise, print, during World War One Bible Society distributed more than nine million copies of Scripture, in over 80 languages, to combatants and prisoners of war on all sides of the war. Bible Society managed this despite immense challenges – supply shortages, rising costs, paper rationing, submarine blockades. Even greater than these physical difficulties was the emotional toll – former colleagues suddenly found themselves fighting on opposing sides, Bible salesmen throughout Europe were conscripted or volunteered into their respective armies. The Bible Society responded to the challenge and they printed New Testaments bound in khaki, stamped with a cross, for distribution via the Red Cross among sick and wounded soldiers, sailors and prisoners of war. On average between 6–7,000 volumes were sent out every working day for fighting men, the sick and wounded, that’s over four copies distributed each minute, day and night, for the duration of the war. Translation work never stopped – between August 1914 and November 1918, Bible Society printed Scriptures in 34 new languages and dialects and this meant on average there was one new version every seven weeks during the whole period of war. For many years the headquarters of the society was in London, in 1972 its address was 146, Queen Victoria Street, by 1972 it had published or distributed whole Bibles or parts of the Bible in 1,431 languages. At that time it was distributing 173 million copies each year, the Society is working to circulate the Scriptures across the world, in the church and through the culture. The strategy of Bible Society centres on Bible availability, accessibility and credibility - what it calls the ‘lifecycle’ of the Bible and these strategic approaches encompass all of its activity, translation, production, distribution, literacy, engagement and advocacy. It includes its Chinese Collection which is the largest collection of Chinese Scriptures anywhere in the world, since the societys move to Swindon in 1985 the library has been located in the library of the University of Cambridge. Its work is organised into two categories, domestic and international, the Society is part of an international fellowship of over 140 Bible Societies around the world, known as the United Bible Societies
23.
Church Mission Society
–
Founded in 1799, CMS has attracted over nine thousand men and women to serve as mission partners during its 200-year history. The society has given its name CMS to a number of daughter organisations around the world. The Baptist Missionary Society was formed in 1792 and the London Missionary Society was formed in 1795 to represent various evangelical denominations and their number included Charles Simeon, Basil Woodd, Henry Thornton, Thomas Babington and William Wilberforce. Wilberforce was asked to be the first president of the society, the treasurer was Henry Thornton and the founding secretary was Thomas Scott, a biblical commentator. Many of the founders were involved in creating the Sierra Leone Company. In 1802 Josiah Pratt was appointed secretary, a position he held for until 1824, the first missionaries went out in 1804. They came from the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg and had trained at the Berlin Seminary, the name Church Missionary Society began to be used and in 1812 the society was renamed The Church Missionary Society. The West Africa mission was extended to Sierra Leone, Samuel Ajayi Crowther, a Yoruba by birth, was selected to accompany the missionary James Schön on the Niger expedition of 1841. Crowther was the missionary to Yorubaland in 1844 and the Niger in 1857. West Indies, The CMS started work in Antigua and expanded to other islands, by 1838 the CMS had congregations of 8,000, with 13 ordained missionaries,23 lay teachers and 70 schools. In about 1848 a shortage of funds resulted in the CMS withdrawing from the West Indies, New Zealand, The Revd Samuel Marsden became the chaplain of the penal colony at Paramatta, Australia in 1874. India, William Carey, the founder of the Baptist Missionary Society was the pioneer of the Evangelical, the CMS Mission in India began in 1814 when 7 missionaries arrived, two were placed at Chennai, two at Bengal and three at Travancore. The Indian missions were extended in the years to a number of locations including Agra, Meerut district, Varanasi, Mumbai, Tirunelveli, Kolkata, Telugu Country. While the Revolt of 1857 resulted in damage to the missions in the North West Provinces, after the revolt the CMS expanded its missions to Oudh, Allahbad, the Santhal people, and to Kashmir. Sri Lanka, Four CMS missionaries were sent to Ceylon in 1817, in 1850 a mission station was established at Colombo. In 1822 the CMS appointed West to head the mission in what was known as the Red River Colony in what is now the province of Manitoba. He was succeeded in 1823 by the Revd David Jones who was joined by the Revd W. Cockram, the mission worked among the Cree, Ojibwe, Chippewa, and Gwichin of the upper west Great Plains. Egypt and Ethiopia, Five missionaries were sent to Egypt in 1825, the missionaries were expelled from Abyssinia in 1844 following the Siege of Khartoum and the death of General Gordon
24.
Coronation Chair
–
It was commissioned in 1296 by King Edward I to contain the coronation stone of Scotland – known as the Stone of Scone – which had been captured from the Scots who kept it at Scone Abbey. The chair was named after Edward the Confessor, and was kept in his shrine at Westminster Abbey. The high-backed, Gothic-style armchair was carved from oak at some point between the summer of 1297 and March 1300 by the carpenter Walter of Durham. At first, the king ordered for the chair to be made of bronze, the chair is the oldest dated piece of English furniture made by a known artist. Monarchs used to sit on the Stone of Scone itself until a wooden platform was added in the 17th century, gilded lions added in the 16th century form the legs to the chair, they were all replaced in 1727. One of the four lions was given a new head for George IVs coronation in 1821, a lost image of a king, maybe Edward the Confessor or Edward I, with his feet resting on a lion was also painted on the back. Today, its appearance is of aged and brittle wood, in the 18th century, tourists could sit on the chair for a small payment to one of the vergers. Early tourists and choirboys of the abbey carved their initials and other graffiti into the chair, sir Gilbert Scott, the Gothic revival architect and antiquary, described the chair as a magnificent piece of decoration, but sadly mutilated. At 5,40 pm on 11 June 1914, the chair was the object of a bomb thought to have been organised by the Suffragettes. A corner of the chair was broken off in the explosion, over the eight centuries of its existence the chair has only been removed from Westminster Abbey twice. On Christmas Day 1950, Scottish Nationalists broke into the abbey and it was recovered in time for Queen Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953. Since 1996, it has kept at Edinburgh Castle in Scotland on the proviso that it be returned to England for use at coronations. Between 2010 and 2012, the chair was cleaned and restored by a team of experts in full view of the public at the abbey and it may be noted that other chairs are used throughout the coronation ceremony. On occasions when the wife of a king – a queen consort – is crowned, unlike the Coronation Chair, these other chairs and thrones tend to be made new for each coronation. Afterwards, they have often placed in the Throne Rooms of royal palaces. The Chair of Estate from the 1953 coronation can be found in the Throne Room of Buckingham Palace, along with those of George VI and his consort Queen Elizabeth. The 1953 Homage Throne is kept in the Garter Throne Room of Windsor Castle and those of George V and Queen Mary may be seen in the Throne Room at the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. Westminster Stone theory Chair of St Peter Media related to Coronation Chair at Wikimedia Commons History of the Coronation Chair at Westminster Abbey
25.
George Finch-Hatton, 10th Earl of Winchilsea
–
George William Finch-Hatton, 10th Earl of Winchilsea, 5th Earl of Nottingham was an English politician known for duelling with Prime Minister Wellington. George William, the son, was educated at Westminster School and Christs College, Cambridge. His cousin, George Finch, 9th Earl of Winchilsea and fourth earl of Nottingham, having died on 2 August 1826, he succeeded to these peerages. He presided at a large and influential meeting held on Penenden Heath, Kent, on 10 October 1828. In his place in the House of Lords he violently opposed almost every measure which was brought forward. Occasionally he took the chair at May meetings at Exeter Hall, the Catholic Relief Bill of 1829 encountered his most vehement hostility, and ultimately led to a duel with the Duke of Wellington. The duke replied with a challenge, the meeting took place in Battersea Fields on 21 March 1829, the duke being attended by Sir Henry Hardinge, and his opponent by Edward Boscawen, 4th Viscount Falmouth. The duke fired and missed, he claimed he did so on purpose, however, the duke was known as a poor shot and accounts differ as to whether he purposefully missed. Winchilsea kept his arm by his side at the command to fire then quite deliberately raised his arm in the air and he then apologised for the language of his letter. It is almost certain that Winchilsea and Falmouth had agreed on their course of action and he was a very frequent speaker in the Lords, and strenuously opposed the Reform Bill and other Whig measures. Winchilsea was married three times, Georgiana Charlotte, on 26 July 1814, eldest daughter of James Graham, 3rd Duke of Montrose, she died at Haverholme Priory 13 February 1835. Together they had, George Finch-Hatton, 11th Earl of Winchilsea Emily Georgiana, on 15 February 1837, second daughter of Sir Charles Bagot, G. C. B. She died at Haverholme Priory 10 July 1848 Fanny Margaretta, on 17 October 1849, eldest daughter of Edward Royd Rice of Dane Court, Kent. Together they had, Murray Finch-Hatton, 12th Earl of Winchilsea Henry Finch-Hatton, 13th Earl of Winchilsea He died at Haverholme Priory, near Sleaford and he was responsible for the phrase Kentish Fire meaning prolonged derisive cheering. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Finch-Hatton
26.
Anti-Corn Law League
–
The Corn Laws were taxes on imported grain designed to keep prices high for cereal producers in Great Britain. The laws indeed did raise food prices and became the focus of opposition from groups who had far less political power than rural Britain. The corn laws imposed steep import duties, making it too expensive for anyone to import grain from other countries, the laws were supported by Conservative landowners and opposed by Whig industrialists and workers. The League was responsible for turning public and elite opinion against the laws and it was a large, nationwide middle-class moral crusade with a utopian vision. Second, it would relieve the condition of England question by cheapening the price of food, third, it would make English agriculture more efficient by stimulating demand for its products in urban and industrial areas. Fourth, it would introduce through mutually advantageous international trade a new era of international fellowship, the only barrier to these four beneficent solutions was the ignorant self-interest of the landlords, the bread-taxing oligarchy, unprincipled, unfeeling, rapacious and plundering. The League was founded in 1838 by Richard Cobden and John Bright, Cobden was the chief strategist, Bright was its great orator. The League was controlled by a handful of rich sponsors, the main tactic of the league was to defeat protectionists at by-elections by concentrating its financial strength and campaign resources. The idea was that it would gain nationwide publicity from a handful of election campaigns every year, the strategy resulted in numerous defeats, which the League blamed on the tyrannical power of the landlords. The tactic also required very expensive subsidies so that League supporters would have a 40 shilling freehold, in any case the League had no capability of contesting 150–200 seats in a general election. Furthermore, Peel neutralized the Leagues strategy by ramming repeal through Parliament without a general election, many of its procedures were innovative, while others were borrowed from the anti-slavery movement. It became the model for reform movements. The League played little role in the act in 1846 when Sir Robert Peel led the successful battle for repeal. Many of its members continued their activism in the Liberal Party. Manchester capitalism Canada Corn Act Meat riots Briggs, Asa, the Making of Modern England 1783–1867, The Age of Improvement pp. 312–25, short interpretive history Edsall, Nicholas C. Richard Cobden, independent radical Halévy, Elie. Victorian years, 1841–1895 pp. 3–150, narrative history Hinde, Richard Cobden, A Victorian Outsider Howe, Anthony. The Anti-League and the Corn Law Crisis of 1846, mcCord, Norman, The Anti-Corn Law League 1838–1846. Economic History Review 17#2 pp. 134–42. in JSTOR, the opposition to the League Pickering, Paul A
27.
Church's Ministry Among Jewish People
–
The Churchs Ministry Among Jewish People is an Anglican missionary society founded in 1809. In 1809 they formed the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews, the missionary Joseph Frey is often credited with the instigation of the break with the London Missionary Society. A later missionary was C. W. H. Pauli, abbreviated forms such as the London Jews Society or simply The Jews Society were adopted for general use. In 1811, a field on the Cambridge Road in Bethnal Green. A school, training college and a called the Episcopal Jews Chapel were built here. The complex was named Palestine Place, in 1813, a Hebrew-Christian congregation called Benei Abraham started meeting at the chapel in Palestine Place. This was the first recorded assembly of Jewish believers in Jesus, the London Jews Society was the first such society to work on a global basis. In 1836, two missionaries were sent to Jerusalem, Dr. Albert Gerstmann, a physician, and Melville Bergheim, a pharmacist, by 1844, it had become a 24-bed hospital. In its heyday, the society had over 250 missionaries and it supported the creation of the post of Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem in 1841, and the first incumbent was one of its workers, Michael Solomon Alexander. The society was active in the establishment of Christ Church, Jerusalem, in 1863, the society purchased property outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem. In 1897, they opened a hospital on the site, designed by architect Arthur Beresford Pite, today, the building houses the Anglican International School Jerusalem, which is operated by the society. In 1914, the society was described as. the oldest, largest, richest, most enterprising, and best organized of its type, of these,82 were converts from Judaism. About 5,000 Jews have been baptized by the society since its foundation and its principal organs are the Jewish Missionary Intelligence and the Jewish Missionary Advocate. The organisation is one of the official mission agencies of the Church of England. It currently has branches in the United Kingdom, Israel, Ireland, the USA, Canada, South Africa, Hong Kong, the societys historic archives are stored by the Bodleian Library in Oxford England. A history of the society was published in 1991, the organisation is one of the ten official mission agencies of the Church of England. It currently has branches in the United Kingdom, Israel, Ireland, France, the organisation marked its bicentenary in 2009 with four special church services around the United Kingdom. The missionary focus of CMJ attracts criticism from the Jewish community who regard such activities as highly detrimental to Jewish-Christian relations, for example, Rabbi Shmuel Arkush of Operation Judaism, a Jewish organisation dedicated to opposing missionaries, has called for CMJ to be disbanded
28.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
