1.
Boden, Sweden
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Boden is a locality and the seat of Boden Municipality in Norrbotten County, Sweden with 18,277 inhabitants in 2010. It is part of the area around coastal city Luleå some 36 kilometres southeast. The town of Boden started as a junction where the Northern Line met with the Ore Line from the rich iron ore fields in northern Sweden. The town experienced increased growth when the Boden Fortress was constructed in the beginning of the 20th century, the purpose of the fortress was to defend Sweden from a possible attack from the east, where Russia was considered the most dangerous threat. The first official writings about Boden, was in a 1500~ tax paper, Boden got the title of city in 1919. This title became obsolete in 1971 and Boden is now the seat of Boden Municipality, today Boden is still a military stronghold, and houses the largest garrison of the Swedish Army. The army and the municipality are the two largest employers in Boden, as the military is continuously disarming, with the five regiments united into one garrison, the population has decreased by 2,000 people over the past ten years. The famous Fällkniven knives are from Boden
2.
Norrbotten County
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Norrbotten County is the northernmost county or län of Sweden. It borders Västerbotten County to the southwest, the Gulf of Bothnia to the southeast and it also borders the counties of Nordland and Troms in Norway to the northwest, and Lapland Province in Finland to the northeast. The name Norrbotten is also used for a province of the same name, Norrbotten province covers only the eastern part of Norrbotten County – the inland mostly belongs to the Swedish Lapland province. The northern part of Norrbotten lies within the Arctic Circle, Norrbotten County exists on provinces of Norrbotten and about two thirds of Swedish Lapland. Norrbotten County covers almost one quarter of Swedens surface, but is sparsely inhabited and this is especially true for inland parts of Lapland. The climate is harsh, which is not surprising considering its northern location. However, the summer days allow crops to ripen within two to three months, and various grains are commonly grown and make up an important part of the industry. Besides grains, potatoes and turnips are also grown, the most important plant is however grass, used as hay for the livestock. Major rivers in Norrbotten County include the Torne River, Lule River, Kalix River, rivers shared with Västerbotten County include Skellefte River and Ume River. Other rivers that directly to the sea and that are at least 100 km long are the Sangis River, Råne River, Åby River. The county includes many islands in the Bay of Bothnia, which make up the Norrbotten archipelago and it is divided into the archipelagos of Piteå, Luleå, Kalix and Haparanda. The largest island is Rånön in the Kalix archipelago, the population has increased during the last hundred years. The estimated 2002 population was 250,000, in the 1912 census, the population was 166,641, and of this, around 120,000 belonged to the Norrbotten province part. Twenty years earlier, in 1892, the population was only 110,000, since the 1960s, however, most municipalities of the county have experienced a decrease in population figures, particularly in the inland. During the Middle Ages, Norrbotten was considered to be terra nullius, the area was sparsely populated by Sami, Kvens and different tribes/people related to the Finns. From the Middle Ages on, the Swedish kings tried hard to colonise and Christianise the area and this took time, however, even today, there are Finnish and Sami minorities living in the area, who have maintained their own culture and customs. Following the Finnish War in 1809, Västerbotten County was split between Sweden and Finland, with the part remaining within the Swedish borders. In 1810, the county was divided again when Norrbotten County was created out of the northern part, the coat of arms of Norrbotten County combines the arms of the provinces Västerbotten and Lappland and was granted in 1949
3.
Stockholm
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The city is spread across 14 islands on the coast in the southeast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago and the Baltic Sea. The area has settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC. It is also the capital of Stockholm County, Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP and it is an important global city, and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europes top ranking universities, such as the Stockholm School of Economics, Karolinska Institute and it hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is known for its decoration of the stations. Swedens national football arena is located north of the city centre, Ericsson Globe, the national indoor arena, is in the southern part of the city. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and hosted the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics otherwise held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residencies of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House. After the Ice Age, around 8,000 BCE, there were already a number of people living in the present-day Stockholm area. Thousands of years later, as the ground thawed, the climate became tolerable, at the intersection of the Baltic Sea and lake Mälaren is an archipelago site where the Old Town of Stockholm was first built from about 1000 CE by Vikings. They had a positive impact on the area because of the trade routes they created. Stockholms location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne, the earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word meaning fortification, the second part of the name means islet, and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. Stockholms core, the present Old Town was built on the island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid 13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League, Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk, Visby, Reval, and Riga during this time
4.
Nobel Prize in Literature
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Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here work refers to an authors work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year, the academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the worlds most prestigious literature prize, many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has become seen as a political one - a peace prize in literary disguise, whose judges are prejudiced against authors with different political tastes to them. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for Swedish professors, as of 2016,16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, Nobels vague wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word translates as either idealistic or ideal. The Nobel Committees interpretation has varied over the years, in recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that the Storting approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, the Royal Swedish Academy was to award the Prize in Literature. Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature and it is not permitted to nominate oneself. Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and as of 2011 about 220 proposals are returned and these proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates, by May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature
5.
Harry Martinson
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Harry Martinson was a Swedish author, poet and former sailor. In 1949 he was elected into the Swedish Academy and he was awarded a joint Nobel Prize in Literature in 1974 together with fellow Swede Eyvind Johnson for writings that catch the dewdrop and reflect the cosmos. The choice was controversial, as both Martinson and Johnson were members of the academy and had partaken in endorsing themselves as laureates and he has been called the great reformer of 20th century Swedish poetry, the most original of the writers called proletarian. Martinson was born in Jämshög, Blekinge County in south-eastern Sweden, at a young age he lost both his parents whereafter he was placed as a foster child in the Swedish countryside. At the age of sixteen Martinson ran away and signed onto a ship to spend the years sailing around the world visiting countries such as Brazil. A few years later lung problems forced him to set ashore in Sweden where he travelled around without a steady employment, at the age of 21, he was arrested for vagrancy in Lundagård park, Lund. In 1929, he debuted as a poet, together with Artur Lundkvist, Gustav Sandgren, Erik Asklund and Josef Kjellgren he authored the anthology Fem unga, which introduced Swedish Modernism. His poetry combined an acute eye for, and love of nature and his popular success as a novelist came with the semi-autobiographical Nässlorna blomma in 1935, about hardships encountered by a young boy in the countryside. It has since translated into more than thirty languages. From 1929 to 1940, he was married to Moa Martinson and he travelled to the Soviet Union in 1934. He and Moa were divorced due to her criticism of his lack of political commitment, Moa became a writer, Harry married Ingrid Lindcrantz in 1942. One of his most noted works is the poetic cycle Aniara, the book was published in 1956 and became an opera in 1959 composed by Karl-Birger Blomdahl. The cycle has been described as a story of mans fragility. He took his life on 11 February 1978 at the Karolinska University Hospital in Stockholm by cutting his stomach open with a pair of scissors in what has been described as a hara-kiri-like manner, the 100th anniversary of Martinsons birth was celebrated around Sweden in 2004. The joint selection of Eyvind Johnson and Martinson for the Nobel Prize in 1974, was controversial as both were on the Nobel panel. Graham Greene, Saul Bellow and Vladimir Nabokov were the candidates that year. The sensitive Martinson found it hard to cope with the following his award. Archived from the original on 4 July 2013, a translators look at Flowering Nettles Swedish book review Harry Martinson at Find a Grave
6.
Swedish Academy
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The Swedish Academy, founded in 1786 by King Gustav III, is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. It is known for making the decision on who will be the laureate for the Nobel Prize in Literature. The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786 by King Gustav III, modelled after the Académie française, it has 18 members. The motto of the Academy is Talent and Taste, the primary purpose of the Academy is to further the purity, strength, and sublimity of the Swedish language. To that end the Academy publishes two dictionaries, the first is a one-volume glossary called Svenska Akademiens ordlista. The second is a dictionary, edited on principles similar to those of the Oxford English Dictionary. The SAOL has reached its 14th edition while the first volume of the SAOB was published in 1898 and, as of 2014, the building now known as the Stockholm Stock Exchange Building was built for the bourgeoisie. The bottom floor was used as an exchange and the upper floor was used for balls, New Years Eve parties. When the academy was founded, the ballroom was the biggest room in Stockholm that could be heated and thus used in the winter, the academy has had its annual meeting there every year since, attended by members of the Swedish royal family. However, it was not until 1914 the academy gained the right to use the floor as their own for all eternity. It is here that the Academy meets and, amongst other business, the latter makes it arguably one of the most influential literary bodies in the world. Dag Hammarskjölds former farm at Backåkra, close to Ystad in southern Sweden, was bought in 1957 as a residence by Hammarskjöld. The south wing of the farm is reserved as a retreat for the 18 members of the Swedish Academy. Since 1901, the Academy has annually decided who will be the laureate for the Nobel Prize in Literature, the Swedish Academy annually awards nearly 50 different prizes and scholarships, most of them for domestic Swedish authors. Common to all is that they are awarded without competition and without application, the Dobloug Prize, the largest of these at $40,000, is a literature prize awarded for Swedish and Norwegian fiction. Swedish, Stora Priset, literally the Big Prize, was instituted by King Gustav III, the prize, which consists of a single gold medal, is the most prestigious award that can be awarded by the Swedish Academy. It has been awarded to, among others, Selma Lagerlöf, Herbert Tingsten, Astrid Lindgren, Evert Taube, the Academy awards around 50 prizes each year. A person does not have to apply nor compete for the prizes, full list of awards The current permanent secretary of the Academy is Sara Danius, who was preceded by Peter Englund
7.
Log driving
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Log driving is a means of moving logs from a forest to sawmills and pulp mills downstream using the current of a river. It was the transportation method of the early logging industry in Europe. Later, bigger circular sawmills were developed in the reaches of a river. In the broader, slower stretches of a river, the logs might be bound together into timber rafts, in the smaller, wilder stretches of a river, rafts couldnt get through, so masses of individual logs were driven down the river like huge herds of cattle. The log drive was one step in a process of lumber-making in remote places. There the logs were decked onto rollways, in the spring when snow thawed and water levels rose, the logs were rolled into the river, and the drive commenced. To ensure that logs drifted freely along the river, men called log drivers or river pigs were needed to guide the logs, the drivers typically divided into two groups. The more experienced and nimble men comprised the jam crew or beat crew and they watched the spots where logs were likely to jam, and when a jam started, tried to get to it quickly and dislodge the key logs before many logs stacked up. If they didnt, the river would keep piling on more logs, millions of board feet of lumber could back up for miles upriver, requiring weeks to break up, with some lumber possibly lost if it was shoved far enough into the shallows. So when the jam crew saw a jam start, they rushed to it and tried to break it up, using peaveys and this job required some understanding of physics, strong muscles, and extreme agility. The jam crew was a dangerous occupation, with the drivers standing on the moving logs. Many drivers lost their lives by falling and being crushed by the logs, each crew was accompanied by an experienced boss often selected for his fighting skills to control the strong and reckless men of his team. The overall drive was controlled by the boss who moved from place to place to coordinate the various teams to keep logs moving past problem spots. Stalling a drive near a saloon often created a cascade of drunken personnel problems, a larger group of less experienced men brought up the rear, pushing along the straggler logs that were stuck on the banks and in trees. They spent more time wading in icy water than balancing on moving logs and they were called the rear crew. Other men worked with them from the bank, pushing logs away with pike poles, others worked with horses and oxen to pull in the logs that had strayed furthest out into the flats. Bateaux ferried log drivers using pike poles to dislodge stranded logs while maneuvering with the log drive, a wannigan was a kitchen built on a raft which followed the drivers down the river. The wannigan served four meals a day to fuel the men working in cold water and it also provided tents and blankets for the night if no better accommodations were available
8.
Saw mill
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A sawmill or lumber mill is a facility where logs are cut into lumber. Prior to the invention of the sawmill, boards were rived and planed, the earliest known mechanical mill is the Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor dating back to the 3rd century AD. Other water-powered mills followed and by the 11th century they were widespread in Spain and North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, the circular motion of the wheel was converted to a reciprocating motion at the saw blade. Generally, only the saw was powered, and the logs had to be loaded and moved by hand, an early improvement was the development of a movable carriage, also water powered, to move the log steadily through the saw blade. Scrap lumber from the mill provided a source of fuel for firing the boiler, the arrival of railroads meant that logs could be transported to mills rather than mills being built besides navigable waterways. Besides the sawn timber, use is made of all the by-products including sawdust, bark, wood chips, a sawmills basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago, a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end. After trees are selected for harvest, the step in logging is felling the trees. Branches are cut off the trunk, logs are taken by logging truck, rail or a log drive to the sawmill. Logs are scaled either on the way to the mill or upon arrival at the mill, debarking removes bark from the logs. Decking is the process for sorting the logs by species, size, a sawyer uses a head saw to break the log into cants and flitches. Trimming squares the ends at typical lumber lengths, drying removes naturally occurring moisture from the lumber. This can be done with kilns or air-dried, planing smooths the surface of the lumber leaving a uniform width and thickness. Shipping transports the lumber to market. The Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis and it is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism. Water-powered stone sawmills working with cranks and connecting rods, but without gear train, are attested for the 6th century AD at the Eastern Roman cities Gerasa. The earliest literary reference to a working sawmill comes from a Roman poet, at one point in the poem he describes the shrieking sound of a watermill cutting marble. Marble sawmills also seem to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia around 370/390 AD, sawmills became widespread in medieval Europe again, as one was sketched by Villard de Honnecourt in c. They are claimed to have introduced to Madeira following its discovery in c.1420
9.
Movie theatre
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A movie theater or movie theatre is a venue, usually a building, that contains an auditorium for viewing films, for entertainment. Most, but not all, movie theaters are commercial operations catering to the general public, Some movie theaters, however, are operated by non-profit organizations or societies which charge members a membership fee to view films. The film is projected with a projector onto a large projection screen at the front of the auditorium while the dialogue, sounds. Since the 1970s, subwoofers have used for low-pitched sounds. In the 2010s, most movie theaters are equipped for digital cinema projection, removing the need to create, a great variety of films are shown at cinemas, ranging from animated films for children, blockbusters for general audiences and documentaries for patrons who are interested in non-fiction topics. The smallest movie theaters have a viewing room with a single screen. In the 2010s, most movie theaters have multiple screens, the largest theater complexes, which are called multiplexes—a design developed in the U. S. in the 1960s—have up to 25 screens. The audience members sit on padded seats which in most theaters are set up on a sloped floor. Movie theaters typically sell soft drinks, popcorn and candy and some theaters also sell hot fast food, in some jurisdictions, movie theaters are licensed to sell alcoholic drinks. A movie theater may also be referred to as a theatre, movie house, film house. In the US, theater has long been the preferred spelling, while in the UK, Canada, the latter terms, as well as their derivative adjectives cinematic and kinematic, ultimately derive from Greek κινῆμα, κινήματος —movement, motion. In the countries where those terms are used, the theatre is usually reserved for live performance venues. Colloquial expressions, mostly applied to motion pictures and motion picture theaters collectively, include the silver screen, specific to North American term is the movies, while specific terms in the UK are the pictures, the flicks and for the facility itself the flea pit. A screening room is a theater, often a private one. Open air place in ancient times for viewing spectacles and plays, the term theater comes from the Old French word theatre, from the 12th century and. The use of the theatre to mean a building where plays are shown dates from the 1570s in the English language. The earliest precursors to movies were magic lantern shows, magic lanterns used a glass lens, a shutter and a powerful lamp to project images from glass slides onto a white wall or screen. The invention of the Argand lamp in the 1790s, limelight in the 1820s, the magic lantern could project rudimentary moving images, which was achieved by the use of various types of mechanical slides
10.
Anarchist
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
11.
Brand (magazine)
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Brand is a magazine on anarchism that has been published since 1898 making it the oldest continuously published anarchist magazine and the second oldest in general. It takes its name from the Swedish word for fire, several notable people have written for Brand, examples are Gustav Hedenvind-Eriksson, Hinke Bergegren, Ivan Oljelund, Moa Martinson, Harry Martinson, C. J. Brand have been in trouble with the police on some occasions, the first case was in 1906 and was due to the laws enacted by Karl Staaff that made it illegal to promote pacifism. The laws were known as Staaflagarna or Lex Hinke who served ten months for breaking the law, in 1908 Einar Håkansson was accused of blasphemy for an article he published in Brand, but he died before it was possible to charge him. In 1910 Hinke Bergegren was sent to jail for two months due to a series on birth control and the brochure Kärlek utan barn on the same subject. He was acquitted three times in Stockholm until he was sentenced in Gothenburg, in 1916 the then editor of Brand Ivan Oljelund was arrested for promoting pacifism, i. e. for violation of the Staaf laws. Oljelund was sentenced to 18 months of labor, but the sentence was later reduced to 15 months. During his time at Långholmen Prison the magazine was edited by C J Björklund, on June 19,1999 Hans Regner charged the magazine with sedition due to an article on female self-defense. August 31,2000 Brand was charged again, also this time for sedition following a humoristic article on how to make your riot a success
12.
Proletarian writer
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Proletarian literature refers here to the literature created by working-class writers mainly for the class-conscious proletariat. This different emphasis may reflect a difference between Russian, American and other traditions of writing, with that of Britain. The British tradition was not especially inspired by the Communist Party, but had its roots in the Chartist movement, the proletariat are citizens of the working class. The proletarian novel is a subgenre of the novel, written by workers mainly for other workers and it overlaps and sometimes is synonymous with the working-class novel, socialist novel, social problem novel, propaganda or thesis novel, and socialist realism novel. The proletarian novel may comment on events, systems and theories. Proletarian literature is created especially by communist, socialist and anarchist authors and it is about the lives of poor, and the period 1930 to 1945 in particular produced many such novels. However, there were works before and after these dates, in Britain the term working class literature, novel etc. is more generally used. The intention of the writers of literature is to lift the workers from the slums. As such it is a form of political fiction, the most important American working-class writers gathered in the First American Writers Congress of 1935. The League of American Writers was backed by the Communist Party USA, in the United States, Mike Gold, author of Jews Without Money, was the first to promote proletarian literature in Max Eastmans magazine The Liberator and later in The New Masses. The Communist party newspaper, The Daily Worker also published literature, as did numerous other magazines, including The Anvil, edited by Jack Conroy, Blast. Other examples of American proletarian writing include B, Writers like John Steinbeck, Theodore Dreiser, and John Dos Passos, who wrote about the working class, but who came from more well-to-do backgrounds, are not included here. An important movement In the first years of the Russian Revolution and this was something quite different from the later, traditional and realist proletarian novel of the Stalin years. In the 1930s Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia and its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who had laid the foundations of this style with his works The Mother and his play The Enemies. Gorky described the lives of people in the lowest strata and on the margins of society, revealing their hardships, humiliations, and brutalization. However, he did not come from a family and neither did another prominent writer in the early years after the Russian Revolution of 1917. However, Nikolay Ostrovsky is an important writer, of the early Soviet era and his novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature, with tens of millions of copies printed in many languages around the world. The book is an autobiography of Ostrovskys life, who had a difficult working-class childhood and became a Komsomol member in July 1919
13.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
14.
Here Is Your Life
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When the father of the young Olof Persson becomes ill, he starts taking jobs as a working class Swede. His first job is log driving, where he meets a man named August, August tells Olof about death, and a flashback tale with Augusts wife chasing their twin sons, all of who are now deceased, is played. Olof finds a dead moth while working and he picks it up and pretends that it is alive, flying it through the air. After Olof’s father dies, Olof takes a job at a sawmill, the sawmill workers were sitting around telling stories about women, and then some of the workers harass Olof. Olof primarily works outside of the mill, transporting logs with a boy named Oskar, Oskar gets injured when a log falls on him, and he later dies in the hospital. After this incident, Olof asks for a position at the mill. He starts to read a lot of novels and books about philosophy, later on, he speaks out against his boss and quits the sawmill job. Then, Olof takes a job at a cinema selling candy and he becomes interested in a girl named Maria, who he later sees with another boy. He makes friends with a boy named Fredrik and they talk about books and philosophy, and explore together. Olof visits home and his mother asks questions about the security of his new job, when Olof has an accident while selling candy, he asks for a new job. He starts working for a touring projectionist named Mr. Larsson and they travel to participate in the circus. Mr. Larsson introduces Olof to Olivia, the “queen” of a shooting gallery. Olof works for a blacksmith in between touring and the cinema and he meets Maja, the blacksmith’s daughter, they sleep together in the field. Olof starts going to meetings concerning communism and its place working-class Sweden, when he goes back to the cinema, Olof’s boss gets mad that he was handing out “socialist rags. ”He goes back on tour and works for Olivia. Olof continues visiting home and going to communist meetings, later on, Olof starts working for the railroad company. He works with a man named Niklas, and they have similar opinions about capitalism and they both proclaim their pro-socialist opinions to their boss, Byberg. Olof spares food for hobos on the train, and starts leading communist meetings, at a party, Olof gets very drunk, throws up, and falls down. Back with the circus, Olivia gives Olof a final speech of sorts about giving up, a scene with a bird flying that was shown at the beginning, with characteristic music, is repeated
15.
Fascism
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Fascism /ˈfæʃɪzəm/ is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, fascism is usually placed on the far-right within the traditional left–right spectrum. Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought changes to the nature of war, society, the state. The advent of war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. A military citizenship arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war, Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature, and views political violence, war, and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the goal of achieving autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies. Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, the descriptions neo-fascist or post-fascist are sometimes applied more formally to describe parties of the far right with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th century fascist movements. The Italian term fascismo is derived from fascio meaning a bundle of rods and this was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates. According to Mussolinis own account, the Fascist Revolutionary Party was founded in Italy in 1915, in 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in Milan, which became the Partito Nazionale Fascista two years later. The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity, a rod is easily broken. Similar symbols were developed by different fascist movements, for example, historians, political scientists, and other scholars have long debated the exact nature of fascism. Each interpretation of fascism is distinct, leaving many definitions too wide or narrow, according to many scholars, fascism—especially once in power—has historically attacked communism, conservatism and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the far right. Roger Griffin describes fascism as a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a form of populist ultranationalism. Griffin describes the ideology as having three components, the rebirth myth, populist ultra-nationalism and the myth of decadence. Fascism is a revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis. Fascist Philosophies vary by application, but remain distinct by one theoretic commonality, all traditionally fall into the far-right sector of any political spectrum, catalyzed by afflicted class identities over conventional social inequities. John Lukacs, Hungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues there is no such thing as generic fascism. He claims that National Socialism and Communism are essentially manifestations of populism, Fascism was influenced by both left and right, conservative and anti-conservative, national and supranational, rational and anti-rational
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Nazism
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National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Allegory
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As a literary device, an allegory is a metaphor whose vehicle may be a character, place or event, representing real-world issues and occurrences. Many ancient religions are based on astrological allegories, that is, allegories of the movement of the sun, in classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the Cave in Platos Republic and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa. One of the examples of allegory, Platos Allegory of the Cave. In this allegory, Plato describes a group of people who have lived chained in an all of their lives. The people watch shadows projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire behind them and begin to ascribe forms to these shadows, using language to identify their world. He tries to tell the people in the cave of his discovery, also allegorical is Ezekiel 16 and 17, wherein the capture of that same vine by the mighty Eagle represents Israels exile to Rome. Allegory has an ability to freeze the temporality of a story, Mediaeval thinking accepted allegory as having a reality underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as the facts of surface appearances, if, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ. This text also demonstrates the frequent use of allegory in religious texts during the Mediaeval Period, following the tradition, since meaningful stories are nearly always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories which the author may not have recognised. This is allegoresis, or the act of reading a story as an allegory. S, lewis and A Kingdom Far and Clear, The Complete Swan Lake Trilogy by Mark Helprin. The story of the apple falling onto Isaac Newtons head is another famous allegory and it simplified the idea of gravity by depicting a simple way it was supposedly discovered. It also made the scientific revelation well known by condensing the theory into a short tale. According to Henry Littlefields 1964 article, L. Yet, George MacDonald emphasised in 1893 that, A fairy tale is not an allegory, I much prefer history – true or feigned– with its varied applicability to the thought and experience of readers. I think that many confuse applicability with allegory, but the one resides in the freedom of the reader, and this further reinforces the idea of forced allegoresis, as allegory is often a matter of interpretation and only sometimes of original artistic intention. Like allegorical stories, allegorical poetry has two meanings – a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning, some unique specimens of allegory can be found in the following works, Edmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene, The several knights in the poem actually stand for several virtues. Nathaniel Hawthorne – Young Goodman Brown, The Devils Staff symbolises defiance of God, the characters names, such as Goodman and Faith, ironically serve as paradox in the conclusion of the story. Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Scarlet Letter, The scarlet letter symbolises many things, the characters, while developed with interiority, are allegorical in that they represent ways of seeing the world. George Orwell – Animal Farm, The pigs stand for political figures of the Russian Revolution, lászló Krasznahorkai - The Melancholy of Resistance and the film Werckmeister Harmonies, It uses a circus to describe an occupying dysfunctional government
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Odysseus
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Odysseus, also known by the Latin name Ulysses, was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homers epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homers Iliad and other works in that same epic cycle. Husband of Penelope, father of Telemachus, and son of Laërtes and Anticlea, Odysseus is renowned for his brilliance, guile, and versatility and he is most famous for the Odyssey, ten eventful years he took to return home after the decade-long Trojan War. The name has several variants, in Greek the character was called Olysseus, Oulixeus, Oulixes, hence, there may originally have been two separate figures, one called something like Odysseus, the other something like Ulixes, who were combined into one complex personality. The etymology of the name is unknown, ancient authors linked the name to the Greek verbs odussomai to be wroth against, to hate, or to oduromai to lament, bewail. Homer in references and puns, relates it to various forms of this verb and it has also been suggested that the name is of non-Greek origin, probably not even Indo-European, with an unknown etymology, R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin. In Book 19 of the Odyssey, where Odysseuss early childhood is recounted, Euryclea tries to guide him to naming the boy Polyaretos, for he has much been prayed for. Autolycus apparently in a sardonic mood, decided to give the child a name that would commemorate his own experience in life. Because I got odium upon myself before coming here, let the childs name be Odysseus to signify this. The pun was prophetic as well as commemorative, Odysseus often receives the patronymic epithet Laertiades, son of Laërtes. In the Iliad and Odyssey there are several epithets used to describe Odysseus and his name and stories were adopted into Etruscan religion under the name Uthuze. Hence, Odysseus was the great-grandson of the Olympian god Hermes, according to the Iliad and Odyssey, his father is Laertes and his mother Anticlea, although there was a non-Homeric tradition that Sisyphus was his true father. The rumor went that Laertes bought Odysseus from the conniving king, Odysseus is said to have a younger sister, Ctimene, who went to Same to be married and is mentioned by the swineherd Eumaeus, whom she grew up alongside, in Book 15 of the Odyssey. Homers Iliad and Odyssey portray Odysseus as a hero, but the Romans. In Virgils Aeneid, written between 29 and 19 BC, he is referred to as cruel Odysseus or deceitful Odysseus. Turnus, in Aeneid ix, reproaches the Trojan Ascanius with images of rugged, forthright Latin virtues, declaring, You shall not find the sons of Atreus here, nor need the frauds of sly Ulysses fear. While the Greeks admired his cunning and deceit, these qualities did not recommend themselves to the Romans, who possessed a rigid sense of honour. His attempts to avoid his sacred oath to defend Menelaus and Helen offended Roman notions of duty, the majority of sources for Odysseus pre-war exploits—principally the mythographers Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus—postdate Homer by many centuries
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Graham Greene
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Henry Graham Greene OM CH, better known by his pen name Graham Greene, was an English novelist regarded by some as one of the great writers of the 20th century. Combining literary acclaim with widespread popularity, Greene acquired an early in his lifetime as a major writer. He was shortlisted, in 1966 and 1967, for the Nobel Prize for Literature, through 67 years of writings, which included over 25 novels, he explored the ambivalent moral and political issues of the modern world, often through a Catholic perspective. Greene was born in Berkhamsted in Hertfordshire into a large, influential family that included the owners of the Greene King Brewery and he later boarded at Berkhamsted School in Hertfordshire, where his father taught and became headmaster. Unhappy at the school, he attempted several times. He went up to Balliol College, Oxford, to study history, after graduating, Greene worked first as a private tutor and then as a journalist – first on the Nottingham Journal and then as a sub-editor on The Times. He converted to Catholicism in 1926 after meeting his future wife, later in life he took to calling himself a Catholic agnostic, or even at times a Catholic atheist. He published his first novel, The Man Within, in 1929 and he supplemented his novelists income with freelance journalism, and book and film reviews. His 1937 film review of Wee Willie Winkie, commented on the sexuality of the nine-year-old star and this provoked Twentieth Century Fox to sue, prompting Greene to live in Mexico until after the trial was over. While in Mexico, Greene developed the ideas for The Power, Greene had a history of depression, which had a profound effect on his writing and personal life. In a letter to his wife, Vivien, he told her that he had a character profoundly antagonistic to ordinary life, and that unfortunately. William Golding described Greene as the chronicler of twentieth-century mans consciousness. He died in 1991, at age 86, of leukaemia, Henry Graham Greene was born in 1904 in St. John’s House, a boarding house of Berkhamsted School, Hertfordshire, where his father was housemaster. He was the fourth of six children, his brother, Hugh, became Director-General of the BBC, and his elder brother, Raymond. Charles Greene was second master at Berkhamsted School, where the headmaster was Dr Thomas Fry, another cousin was the right-wing pacifist Ben Greene, whose politics led to his internment during World War II. In his childhood, Greene spent his summers with his uncle, Sir William, in Greenes description of his childhood, he describes his learning to read there, It was at Harston I found quite suddenly I could read — the book was Dixon Brett, Detective. Graham also attended the school as a boarder, bullied and profoundly depressed, he made several suicide attempts, including, as he wrote in his autobiography, by Russian roulette and by taking aspirin before going swimming in the school pool. In 1920, aged 16, in what was a step for the time, he was sent for psychoanalysis for six months in London
21.
Vladimir Nabokov
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Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov was a Russian-American novelist and entomologist. His first nine novels were in Russian, and he achieved prominence after he began writing English prose. He was a finalist for the National Book Award for Fiction seven times, Nabokov was an expert lepidopterist and composer of chess problems. Nabokov was born on 22 April 1899, in Saint Petersburg, b to a wealthy and his father was a leader of the pre-Revolutionary liberal Constitutional Democratic Party and authored numerous books and articles about criminal law and politics. His cousins included the composer Nicolas Nabokov and his paternal grandfather, Dmitry Nabokov, had been Russias Justice Minister in the reign of Alexander II. His paternal grandmother was the Baltic German Baroness Maria von Korff, Vladimir was the familys eldest and favorite child, with four younger siblings, Sergey, Olga, Elena and Kiril. Sergey would be killed in a Nazi concentration camp in 1945, Olga is recalled by Ayn Rand as having been a supporter of constitutional monarchy who had first awakened Rands interest in politics. Nabokov spent his childhood and youth in Saint Petersburg and at the country estate Vyra near Siverskaya and his childhood, which he had called perfect and cosmopolitan, was remarkable in several ways. The family spoke Russian, English, and French in their household and he relates that the first English book his mother read to him was Misunderstood by Florence Montgomery. In fact, much to his fathers chagrin, Nabokov could read. While the family was nominally Orthodox, they felt no religious fervor, Nabokovs adolescence was also the period in which his first serious literary endeavors were made. In 1916, Nabokov had his first collection of published, Stikhi. At the time, Nabokov was attending Tenishev school in Saint Petersburg and they lived at a friends estate and in September 1918 moved to Livadiya, at the time part of the Ukrainian Republic, Nabokovs father became a minister of justice in the Crimean Regional Government. After the withdrawal of the German Army and the defeat of the White Army and they settled briefly in England and Vladimir enrolled in Trinity College, Cambridge, first studying zoology, then Slavic and Romance languages. His examination results on the first part of the Tripos, taken at the end of year, were a starred first. He sat the second part of the exam in his third year, Nabokov feared that he might fail the exam, but his script was marked second-class. His final examination result was second-class, and his BA conferred in 1922, Nabokov later drew on his Cambridge experiences to write several works, including the novels Glory and The Real Life of Sebastian Knight. In 1920, Nabokovs family moved to Berlin, where his set up the émigré newspaper Rul. Nabokov followed them to Berlin two years later, after completing his studies at Cambridge
22.
Saul Bellow
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Saul Bellow was a Canadian-American writer. For his literary work, Bellow was awarded the Pulitzer Prize, the Nobel Prize for Literature, and he is the only writer to win the National Book Award for Fiction three times and he received the National Book Foundations lifetime Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters in 1990. His best-known works include The Adventures of Augie March, Henderson the Rain King, Herzog, Mr. Sammlers Planet, Seize the Day, Humboldts Gift, widely regarded as one of the 20th centurys greatest authors, Bellow has had a huge literary influence. Bellow said that of all his characters Eugene Henderson, of Henderson the Rain King, was the one most like himself, Bellow grew up as an insolent slum kid, a thick-necked rowdy, and an immigrant from Quebec. As Christopher Hitchens describes it, Bellows fiction and principal characters reflect his own yearning for transcendence, Bellows protagonists, in one shape or another, all wrestle with what Corde called the big-scale insanities of the 20th century. This transcendence of the unutterably dismal is achieved, if it can be achieved at all, through a ferocious assimilation of learning and an emphasis on nobility. Saul Bellow was born Solomon Bellows in Lachine, Quebec, two years after his parents, Lescha and Abraham Bellows, emigrated from Saint Petersburg, Russia, Bellows family was Lithuanian-Jewish, his father was born in Vilnius. Bellow celebrated his birthday in June, although he may have born in July. Of his familys emigration, Bellow wrote, The retrospective was strong in me because of my parents and they were both full of the notion that they were falling, falling. They had been prosperous cosmopolitans in Saint Petersburg and my mother could never stop talking about the family dacha, her privileged life, and how all that was now gone. She was working in the kitchen, there had been servants in Russia. But you could always transpose from your humiliating condition with the help of a sort of embittered irony, when Bellow was nine, his family moved to the Humboldt Park neighborhood on the West Side of Chicago, the city that formed the backdrop of many of his novels. Bellows father, Abraham, had become an onion importer and he also worked in a bakery, as a coal delivery man, and as a bootlegger. Bellows mother, Liza, died when he was 17 and he was left with his father and brother Maurice. His mother was religious, and wanted her youngest son, Saul. But he rebelled against what he called the suffocating orthodoxy of his religious upbringing. Bellows lifelong love for the Bible began at four when he learned Hebrew, Bellow also grew up reading William Shakespeare and the great Russian novelists of the 19th century. In Chicago, he took part in studies at the Anthroposophical Society of Chicago
23.
Jorge Luis Borges
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Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo KBE was an Argentine short-story writer, essayist, poet and translator, and a key figure in Spanish-language literature. Borges works have contributed to literature and the fantasy genre. However, some critics consider Borges to be a predecessor and not actually a magical realist and his late poems dialogue with such cultural figures as Spinoza, Camões, and Virgil. In 1914, Borges family moved to Switzerland, where he studied at the Collège de Genève, the family travelled widely in Europe, including Spain. On his return to Argentina in 1921, Borges began publishing his poems and he also worked as a librarian and public lecturer. In 1955, he was appointed director of the National Public Library and he became completely blind by the age of 55, as he never learned braille, he became unable to read. Scholars have suggested that his progressive blindness helped him to create innovative literary symbols through imagination, in 1961, he came to international attention when he received the first Formentor prize, which he shared with Samuel Beckett. In 1971, he won the Jerusalem Prize and his work was translated and published widely in the United States and Europe. Borges himself was fluent in several languages and he dedicated his final work, The Conspirators, to the city of Geneva, Switzerland. Writer and essayist J. M. Coetzee said of him, He, more than anyone, renovated the language of fiction, Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo was born into an educated middle-class family on 24 August 1899. They were in comfortable circumstances but not wealthy enough to live in downtown Buenos Aires so the family resided in Palermo, Borgess mother, Leonor Acevedo Suárez, came from a traditional Uruguayan family of criollo origin. Her family had been involved in the European settling of South America and the Argentine War of Independence. His 1929 book, Cuaderno San Martín, includes the poem Isidoro Acevedo, commemorating his grandfather, Isidoro de Acevedo Laprida, a soldier of the Buenos Aires Army. A descendant of the Argentine lawyer and politician Francisco Narciso de Laprida, de Acevedo Laprida fought in the battles of Cepeda in 1859, Pavón in 1861, de Acevedo Laprida died of pulmonary congestion in the house where his grandson Jorge Luis Borges was born. Borgess own father, Jorge Guillermo Borges Haslam was a lawyer, Borges Haslam was born in Entre Rios of Spanish, Portuguese, and English descent, the son of Francisco Borges Lafinur, a colonel, and Frances Ann Haslam, an Englishwoman. Borges Haslam grew up speaking English at home, the family frequently traveled to Europe. Borges Haslam wed Leonor Acevedo Suarez and was father of the painter Norah Borges. At age nine, Jorge Luis Borges translated Oscar Wildes The Happy Prince into Spanish and it was published in a local journal, but his friends thought the real author was his father
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Swedish language
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Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
25.
Nils Ahnlund
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Nils Ahnlund was a Swedish historian. He was professor of history at the then-Stockholm University College 1928–1955 and he was the father of physician Hans Olof Ahnlund, literary scientist Knut Ahnlund and the grandfather of journalist and writer Nathan Shachar. Nils Ahnlund was born in Uppsala as the eldest son of theologian Olof Ahnlund, in 1893 his father was appointed vicar in Umeå, and that is where Nils finished his secondary education. Thereafter he enrolled at Uppsala University, where he became a disciple of Harald Hjärne. His research mainly focused on the time of Swedish Empire, between 1926 and 1926 he worked at Svenska Dagbladet, where he had a promising career ahead of him. However, he chose the path and became the first professor of history at Stockholm University College in 1928. During World War II, he participated in the public debate and he was also made a member of several nordic academic societies as well as vice president of the Comité International des Sciences Historiques
26.
Gunnar Reiss-Andersen
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Gunnar Reiss-Andersen was a Norwegian lyric poet and author. After completing the Examen artium with emphasis in Latin in 1916 he went into the military and trained, there he followed his inclination towards the arts, painting portraits. He subsequently studied painting in Copenhagen and Paris, for several years he worked as an artist, illustrator, and the art reviewer for the Arbeiderbladet newspaper in Oslo. In 1921 he debuted as a poet with his poetry collection titled Indvielsens aar. In 1942 he was forced to flee to Sweden to avoid arrest by the Gestapo and he achieved a wide following in Norway by serving as one of the voices for the resistance, along with Nordahl Grieg and Arnulf Øverland. His poetry written during the war, which had previously circulated illegally, was published in Norway as a collection in the spring of 1945, during his stay in Sweden, he was exposed to modernistic Swedish poetry and the influence of this genre became obvious in his post-war work. In 1962, King Haakon awarded him the rank Knight, First Class in the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav, after 1963 he also received an honorary salary from the publishing house, Gyldendal in recognition for his contributions. Reiss-Andersen married Elizabeth Waage in 1921, and in 1925 he married Tordis Castberg Anker and they had a son, Helge Reiss-Andersen. Gunnar Reiss-Andersen was also the father of Dag Halvorsen, who was a journalist and foreign correspondent, and of Gry Waage, a Norwegian journalist. He is the grandfather to another well-known Norwegian, Berit Reiss-Andersen. Reiss-Andersen died on 30 July 1964 and is buried in Larvik
27.
Inge Krokann
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Inge Krokann was a Norwegian writer. Because his writing is so tied in the use of dialect and idiosyncratic nynorsk, his works are largely inaccessible. He worked as a teacher most of his life, though he was disabled by disease at an early age and his most famous work is I Dovre Sno, an epic story of the Loe family in the Middle Ages. He was born in Oppdal, and died in Gausdal, gjenom fonna,2 volumes, Gyldendal,1931. Då bøndene reiste seg, Gyldendal,1937, det store hamskiftet i bondesamfunnet, Samlaget,1942. Gyldendals Endowment for 1942 Melsom-prisen 1942 Dobloug Prize 1954
28.
Herman Wildenvey
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Herman Wildenvey, born Herman Theodor Portaas, was one of the most prominent Norwegian poets of the twentieth century. During his lifetime he published 44 books of his own poetry, in addition to translations of William Shakespeare, Ernest Hemingway, Wildenvey was born in Mjøndalen, near the city of Drammen. His childhood home, from which he got his birthname, was called Portåsen, in 1912, he married Jonette Kramer Andreassen, who took the name Gisken upon the wedding. On 28 June 1904 the SS Norge ran aground on Hasselwood Rock, close to Rockall, according to Sebaks comprehensive account, the final death toll was 635, among them 225 Norwegians. The 160 survivors spent up to eight days in open lifeboats before rescue, several more people died in the days that followed rescue as a result of their exposure to the elements and drinking the salt water. Herman Wildenvey was among the survivors, after living some years in Oslo and Copenhagen, the couple settled in the small coastal town of Stavern in 1923, where they built their home Hergisheim in 1927. The couple lived there for the rest of their lives, in 1955, four years before he died, Herman Wildenvey was honoured with title of Commander of the Royal Order of St. Olav in merit of his writing. He died in his town of Stavern. Direct translations of Norwegian titles shown in parentheses, gilhooley 1942 Aisōpos, Aesops Fables Gyldendals Endowment for 1935 The Wildenvey society
29.
Tarjei Vesaas
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Tarjei Vesaas was a Norwegian poet and novelist. Born in Vinje, Telemark, Vesaas is widely considered to be one of Norways greatest writers of the twentieth century and he was nominated for a Nobel prize, thirty times. Vesaas spent much of his youth in solitude, seeking comfort and he was guilt-ridden by his refusal to take over the family farm, and this guilt permeates much of his authorship. The destruction he witnessed after World War I made an impression on him. He married the writer Halldis Moren Vesaas and moved back to his district of Vinje in 1934. His authorship covers almost 50 years, from 1923 to 1970, written in Nynorsk, his work is characterized by simple, terse, and symbolic prose. His stories are often about simple rural people that undergo a psychological drama. Commonly dealing with such as death, guilt, angst, and other deep and intractable human emotions. His debut was in 1923 with Children of Humans, but he had his breakthrough in 1934 with The Great Cycle and his mastery of the nynorsk language, landsmål, has contributed to its acceptance as a medium of world class literature. He was mentioned as being considered for the Nobel Prize for Literature on three separate occasions, several of his books have been translated into English – many of them published by Peter Owen Publishers– among them Spring Night, The Birds, Through Naked Branches, and The Ice Palace. 4, ed. S. R. Serafin,1999, Columbia Dictionary of Modern European Literature, edgerton,1980, Tarjei Vesaas, Kenneth Chapman,1970
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Johan Falkberget
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Johan Falkberget, born Johan Petter Lillebakken, was a Norwegian author. He was nominated for the Nobel prize in literature, Johan Falkberget was born on the Falkberget farm in the Rugldal valley in the Norwegian copper mining municipality of Røros. In 1891, he began to write his Christianus Sextus trilogy and he formally changed his surname for writing purposes in 1893, from Lillebakken to Falkberget—the name of the farm he then lived on. His first work was published in 1902, in 1906 he quit his job as a miner and found a job as editor of the newspaper «Nybrott» in Ålesund. In 1908 he traveled to Fredrikstad and edited «Smaalenes Socialdemokrat» and he then received a government-sponsored scholarship and traveled to Kirkenes. From 1909 till 1922 his primary residence and workplace was in Kristiania, in 1922 he returned to Røros and lived on the Ratvolden farm, less than 1 km from the Falkberget farm. His Ratvolden house is now a museum, while living there, he represented the Norwegian Labour Party for Sør-Trøndelag in the Storting from 1931 to 1933. Since he grew up in an area and began his career as a miner, his works drew extensively on his experiences with the people. His breakthrough work in 1923 was a novel titled «Den fjerde nattevakt» or The Fourth Night Watch and this was followed by his «Christianus Sextus» trilogy, set in the 1720s, in which the mining culture is also a central theme. After a long and productive life, he died on 5 April 1967 and is buried in the plot in the upper churchyard at Røros. The miners toil and rhythm of life became the fulcrum of Falkbergets literature, many of his works are not available in English translation. Those that are, have noted with the English equivalent title next to the Norwegian title. Gyldendals Endowment for 1939 nominated for the Nobel prize thirty-six times
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Aksel Sandemose
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Aksel Sandemose was a Danish-Norwegian writer. He was born in Denmark in 1899 to a Danish father and he is the grandfather of illustrator and childrens writer Iben Sandemose. In his youth, he worked as a teacher, journalist, sailor, in 1930, Sandemose moved to Norway, and lived in Nesodden, south of Oslo. After Nazi Germany occupied Norway during World War II, he was forced to flee to neighboring Sweden in 1941 due to his association with the Norwegian resistance, after the war, he moved back to Norway, and settled in Søndeled. He died in Copenhagen in 1965, and was buried in Oslo, Sandemose was one of six finalists for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1963. In his 1933 novel En flykting krysser sitt spor, Sandemose introduced the concept of the Law of Jante, a Norwegian Air Shuttle Boeing 737, registration LN-DYP was named in memory of Sandemose, with a picture of him on the tail. Pejlinger i Aksel Sandemoses forfatterskab by Steen Andersen Aksel Sandemose and Canada, A Scandinavian Writers Perception of the Canadian Prairies in the 1920s by Christopher S. Hale Sandemosearkivet
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Halldis Moren Vesaas
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Halldis Moren Vesaas was a Norwegian poet, translator and writer of childrens books. She established herself as one of the leading Norwegian writers of her generation and she was born on a family farm near Trysil in Hedmark county, Norway. Her father was the Norwegian story writer, poet, and playwright and she was the eldest and only girl in a family of five children. She attended the college in Elverum 1925-1928, and then held various jobs in Hamar. In 1930 she moved to Switzerland, where she worked for three years as secretary, in April 1934, she married the Norwegian author, Tarjei Vesaas. They settled on the Midtbø farm in Vinje in Telemark County where her husband worked as a teacher and she debuted in 1929 at 22 years old with a collection of poetry, Harp and Dagger. Her more notable books of poetry would include Speech of Troubled Times, The Tree, In a Different Forest and she composed and translated for the theater, especially Det Norske Teatret in Oslo, wrote articles on various topics and was an external publishing consultant. She sat on the board of the Riksteatret, in 1938, her first childrens book translation was published. Her writing won great acclaim in Norway for her brave and personal expressions of life in its several stages, youth, marriage, motherhood, widowhood. She was awarded the Mads Wiel Nygaards Endowment in 1977 and she was appointed Commander of the Order of St. Olav in 1984. She was also a Knight of the National Order of Merit, Frances second-highest order
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Inger Hagerup
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Inger Hagerup was a Norwegian author, playwright and poet. She is considered one of the greatest Norwegian poets of the 20th century, Inger Johanne Halsør was born in Bergen, Norway. Her father died when she was five years old, for several years, her family moved around, until they settled in Nordfjord and later in Volda. In 1931, she married Anders Askevold Hagerup, who was a teacher, translator and they settled at Haugerud, Oslo, and became the parents of two distinguished Norwegian authors, Klaus Hagerup and Helge Hagerup. Her son, Klaus Hagerup wrote extensively about his mother in Alt er så nær meg, Inger Hagerup is mostly known for her lyric poetry, but has also been recognized for writing many important theatrical pieces. Hagerup published her first poetry collection, Jeg gikk meg vill i skogene, while studying in Trondheim she was also a member of the Communist organisation Mot Dag. Both Inger Hagerup and her husband Anders participated in activities during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany. She was known for opposing the German occupation, writing many lyrics against what she saw as a brutal and careless enemy, the latter was inspired by an incident that occurred in the Second World War. The Nazis retaliated against locals after a successful British raid-attack in March 1941 in the Lofoten Islands, many Norwegians can recite from memory the first lines, De brente våre gårder. La våre hjerter hamre det om og om igjen, in 1944 she was awarded the Gyldendals Endowment, the Sarpsborg Prize in 1955 and in 1962 Inger Hagerup was recognized with the Dobloug Prize. She died in Fredrikstad, Østfold on 6 February 1985 and her poem Två tungor has been sung by Fred Åkerström on his 1972 album of that name, and by Sofia Karlsson on her 2007 album Visor från vinden. Jeg gikk meg vill i skogene,1939 Flukten til Amerika,1942 Videre, Stockholm 1944, Oslo 1945 Den syvende natt,1947 Sånn vil du ha meg
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Johan Borgen
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Johan Collett Müller Borgen was a Norwegian author, journalist and critic. He was married to Annemarta Borgen, under the pseudonym of Mumle Gåsegg he wrote shorter articles in the newspaper Dagbladet, particularly during World War II. His articles were ironic and derogatory of the Nazi government, in the end though, he was caught and sent to the prison camp Grini. His best-known work is the novel Lillelord, Borgen was editor of the literary magazine Vinduet 1954-1959. 1945 Gyldendals Endowment 1955 Norwegian Critics Prize for Literature 1965 Dobloug Prize 1965 Bokhandlerprisen for Lillelord 1967 Nordic Councils Literature Prize
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Rolf Jacobsen (poet)
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Rolf Jacobsen could be said to be the first modernist writer in Norway. Jacobsens career as a writer spanned more than fifty years and he is one of Scandinavia’s most distinguished poets, who launched poetic modernism in Norway with his first book, Jord og jern in 1933. Jacobsens work has translated into over twenty languages. The central theme in his work is the balance between nature and technology – he was called the Green Poet in Norwegian literature. Rolf Jacobsen was born in Oslo, as the son of Martin Julius Jacobsen, at the age of six he moved with his family to Åsnes, where Martin Jacobsen had obtained a post as a school dentist. Rolf was educated by his mother, who had completed one year of teachers training, in 1920 he moved to Oslo and entered a private school. During these years his uncle, who was a railway engineer, jacobson continued his studies at the University of Oslo for five years without graduating. In 1927 he served in the Norwegian army for six weeks, from 1937 to 1939 he was a board member of Hedmark Labour Party. Jacobsens Jord og jern, written in verse, introduced the urban world, racing cars, airplanes. Because of the choice of his subjects Jacobsens work was connected to Marinetti and Futurism, Jacobsens diverse literary and other artistic influences included the Poetic Edda, Karel Čapeks play R. U. R. and Carl Sandburgs poetry. The title of the collection also suggests a relationship between nature and technology. In 1934 Jacobsen returned to Åsnes to take care of his father and he had joined a socialist intellectual group, Clarté, and in Åsnes he became a member of the Labor Party Leadership for Hedmark County. In Åsnes Jacobsen worked for the daily newspaper Kongsvinger Arbeiderblad, which was supported by Labor, Jacobsens second collection of poems, Vrimmel, revealed his underlying dismay at modern civilization. Jacobsen rejected Marinettis manifesto, We wish to glory war, but predicted the ominous emergence of the gas masks and machine guns. After Vrimmel, Jacobsen was silent as a poet for 16 years, in 1940 Jacobsen married Petra Tendø, they had two sons. While his parents marriage did not succeed, Jacobsens own marriage was harmonious and his wife died in 1985 and in his last book, Nattåpent, Jacobsen published tender and mournful poems about their life together, Whoever loves for years / hasnt lived in vain. During World War II, when Norway was under German military occupation, Jacobsen signed and published, in Kongsvinger Arbeiderblad and he was also a member of the Norwegian National Socialist Party. After the war, Jacobsen was convicted of treason and sentenced to three and a half years at hard labor, after the war and hardships, Jacobsen settled at Abelsethgården in the city of Hamar
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Olav H. Hauge
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Olav Håkonson Hauge was a Norwegian poet. He was born in Ulvik and lived his life there. He was also inspired by classical Chinese poetry, e. g. in his poem Tao Chien in the collection Spør vinden, hauges first poems were published in 1946, all in a traditional form. He later wrote modernist poetry and in concrete poetry that inspired other, younger Norwegian poets. A well-known example, in the Norwegian original, Katten sit i tunet når du kjem, Det er han som er varast i garden. In English translation, The cat is sitting out front when you come and he is the most sensitive one here. The American author Robert Hedin translated Hauge in 2001 in the collection The Bullfinch Rising from the Cherry Tree, Poems of Olav H. Hauge and in Leaf-huts and Snow-houses in 2004. Robert Bly and Robert Hedin together translated Hauge in 2008 in The Dream We Carry, Selected, words from Glor i oska were used as lyrics for the Solefald song Song til stormen off of their 2010 album, Norrøn Livskunst. Dropar i austavind, Drops in the East Wind Spør vinden, janglestrå, Gleanings Regnbogane ABC,1986 Mange års røynsle med pil og boge. Brev 1970-1975 Det er den draumen, Its the Dream Dagbok 1924-1994 Skogen stend, men han skiftar sine tre. Aforismar i utval The Dream We Carry, Selected and Last Poems of Olav H. Hauge Olav H. Hauge at NRK Forfatter Olav H. Hauge at Dagbladet Forfatter Olav H. Hauge at Aftenposten Alex
