1.
Woodburytype
–
A Woodburytype is both a printing process and the print that it produces. In technical terms, the process is a rather than a photographic one. The process produces very high quality continuous tone images in monochrome, essentially, a Woodburytype is a molded copy of an original photographic carbon print. The process was introduced by Walter B, Woodbury and was in use during the final third of the 19th century, most commonly for illustrating fine books with photographic portraits. It was ultimately displaced by halftone processes that produced prints of quality but were much cheaper. A dichromate-sensitized sheet of gelatin is exposed to UV-rich light through a photographic negative and it is then soaked in warm water to dissolve the unhardened portion of the gelatin. The resulting relief image is pressed into a sheet of lead under about 5000 pounds per square inch of pressure. This creates a metal printing plate, which is used as a mold. It is filled with liquid pigmented gelatin and a sheet of paper is pressed down onto it, squeezing out the excess gelatin. After the gelatin has set sufficiently, the print is stripped from the mold, trimmed, the Woodburytype process was invented by Walter B. It was the first successful photomechanical process fully able to reproduce the delicate halftones of photographs and it produced true middle values and did not make use of a screen or other image deconstruction method. It was often considered the most perfect, most beautiful photomechanical process and inspired a number of books, magazines, like many practical inventions, the Woodburytype process was built on, or had features in common with, other inventions and discoveries. The photochemical formation of the relief dates back to the first carbon printing patent of Alphonse Poitevin. Alois Auer, in his 1853 book on printing, describes making printing plates by forcibly impressing soft low-relief objects, such as leaves. The ancient Egyptians made molds and used them to mass-produce small ceramic goods, a number of Woodburytype images were also printed for sale as individual images or as cartes-de-visite or cabinet cards. Woodbury himself and a number of other researchers continued to improve various aspects of the Woodburytype process. Several important variants of the Woodburytype process were developed and used on a very limited scale. The Woodburytype process was a unique photomechanical process as it was the only practical fully continuous-tone photomechanical process ever invented, Woodburytype prints made using only carbon black or other stable inorganic pigments as imaging material are superbly stable from light fading
2.
Cadenet
–
Cadenet is a commune in the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur region in southeastern France. Cadenet is a located on the southern slopes of the Luberon Massif. It is 57 km southeast of Avignon,59 km north of Marseille and 616 km as the flies from Paris. It is accessed from Lourmarin to the north by county main road 943, secondary county road 973 crosses the south of the village on an east–west axis and allows it to connect to Lauris to the west, and runs east to Villelaure and Pertuis. County roads 43,59,118 and 139 also pass through the town, a railway runs through the town on an east–west axis across the plains at the south end of the village. This is the line of the Cheval-Blanc in Pertuis, the village is situated on a hill overlooking the valley of the Durance, on the southern Luberon Massif, in mountainous terrain formed during the Early Cretaceous period. Several other hills lie to the east, including Castellar, the alluvial plains of the Durance lie to the south. The town lies on the perimeter of the Luberon Geological Nature Reserve because of the proximity to exceptional fossil sites, like all places situated along the river Durance, Cadenet had a Jewish community in the Middle Ages. In 1385 a remarkable lawsuit arose in Arles, relating to an alleged marriage, the plaintiff was Maestro Duran of Cadenet. These witnesses were convicted of perjury. The case was taken in turn before the colleges of Arles, Nîmes, Montpellier, and Perpignan. A Jew, Mosson of Cadenet by name, lived at Carpentras in 1404, INSEE This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Singer, Isidore, et al. eds. article name needed. New York, Funk & Wagnalls Company
3.
Aix-en-Provence
–
Aix-en-Provence, or simply Aix, is a city-commune in the south of France, about 30 km north of Marseille. It is in the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, the population of Aix numbers approximately 143,000. Its inhabitants are called Aixois or, less commonly, Aquisextains, Aix was founded in 123 BC by the Roman consul Sextius Calvinus, who gave his name to its springs, following the destruction of the nearby Gallic oppidum at Entremont. In the 4th century AD it became the metropolis of Narbonensis Secunda and it was occupied by the Visigoths in 477. In the succeeding century, the town was plundered by the Franks and Lombards. Aix passed to the crown of France with the rest of Provence in 1487, and in 1501 Louis XII established there the parliament of Provence, in the 17th and 18th centuries, the town was the seat of the Intendance of Provence. Current archeological excavations in the Ville des Tours, a suburb of Aix, have unearthed the remains of a Roman amphitheatre. The city slopes gently north to south and the Montagne Sainte-Victoire can easily be seen to the east. Aixs position in the south of France gives it a warm climate and it has an average January temperature of 5 °C and a July average of 23 °C. It has an average of 300 days of sunshine and only 91 days of rain, while it is partially protected from the Mistral, Aix still occasionally experiences the cooler and gusty conditions it brings. Unlike most of France which has a climate, Aix-en-Provence has a Mediterranean climate. The Cours Mirabeau is a thoroughfare, planted with double rows of plane-trees, bordered by fine houses. It follows the line of the old city wall and divides the town into two sections. The new town extends to the south and west, the old town, with its narrow, along this avenue, which is lined on one side with banks and on the other with cafés, is the Deux Garçons, the most famous brasserie in Aix. Built in 1792, it has been frequented by the likes of Paul Cézanne, Émile Zola, the Cathedral of the Holy Saviour is situated to the north in the medieval part of Aix. The archbishops palace and a Romanesque cloister adjoin the cathedral on its south side, the Archbishopric of Aix is now shared with Arles. Among its other public institutions, Aix also has the second most important Appeal Court outside of Paris, the Hôtel de Ville, a building in the classical style of the middle of the 17th century, looks onto a picturesque square. It contains some fine woodwork and tapestries, at its side rises a handsome clock-tower erected in 1510
4.
Jesuit
–
The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
5.
Aix Cathedral
–
Aix Cathedral in Aix-en-Provence in southern France is a Roman Catholic cathedral and the seat of the Archbishop of Aix-en-Provence and Arles. It is built on the site of the 1st century Roman forum of Aix and it is a national monument of France. The cathedral is located on the route of the Roman road, a fragment of a Roman wall and the columns of the baptistery seem to be the origin of the legend that the church was built on top of a Roman temple dedicated to Apollo. The historian Pitton claimed that the temple had been dedicated to a sun god, maximin built a modest chapel on the site of the present cathedral and dedicated it to the Holy Saviour. During the invasion of the Saracens in the 8th and 9th centuries, around the year 500, under the Bishop Basilius, a group of episcopal buildings was constructed on top of the old Roman forum, including a chapel, a baptistery and several other rooms. A second nave, dedicated to Saint Maximinus, was built in about 1165-1177 as the church of the canons, the choir of this church ended in a flat chevet wall, which connected by a door with the Sainte-Chapelle, part of the original 6th century episcopal buildings. The chapel was rebuilt in the 12th century, and when the Gothic nave was added, was incorporated into the cathedral and became the oratory of the Saviour. At the end of the 12th century and beginning of the 13th century, Aix became the capital of Provence, religious orders began to arrive, the Franciscans first, then the Dominicans, Carmelites, and Augustinians, building new churches, monasteries and convents. A surge of construction on the cathedral paralleled the growth of importance of Aix, two new wings of the transept, built in the Gothic style, were begun in about 1285-1290, and finished in 1316. Bay by bay, the old Romanesque church was transformed into a Gothic cathedral, the building of the new church was interrupted by the Black Death and then the Hundred Years War. Work did not resume for 130 years, until 1472, when the last bay was built, the façade took another thirty years, and the last statues were not put in place until 1513, at the beginning of the Renaissance. The original Romanesque front of Saint Marys nave was destroyed in the 15th century, and replaced with a new Gothic front, jacotin Paproche, from Picardy, sculpted the ten small prophets and twenty cherubim on the façade. Pierre Souquet created the two statues on the level, representing the first two bishops of Aix, traditionally named as Maximinus and Sidonius. The centrepiece of the façade is Saint Michael Crushing the Dragon, by Jean Paumier, the façade originally also included twelve statues of the apostles and six statues on the tympanum, which were destroyed during the French Revolution. The doors of the cathedral were commissioned by the chapter in 1505, the doors feature four figures in high relief of the major prophets of the Old Testament. Above the prophets are the figures of twelve Sybils, pagan fortune-tellers from antiquity, honoured by medieval Christian scholars for having forecast the birth, death, only the octagonal baptismal pool and the lower part of the walls remain from that period. The other walls and the dome were rebuilt in the Renaissance, a viewing hole in the floor reveals the bases of the porticoes of the Roman forum under the baptistery. The cloister was used by the canons, the priests who served the bishop and it was built at the end of the 12th century, at a time when canons were urged to live a more austere and more monastic communal life
6.
Luigi Cherubini
–
Luigi Cherubini was an Italian composer who spent most of his working life in France. His most significant compositions are operas and sacred music, Beethoven regarded Cherubini as the greatest of his contemporaries. Cherubini was born Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore Cherubini in Florence in 1760, there is uncertainty about his exact date of birth. Although 14 September is sometimes stated, evidence from baptismal records, perhaps the strongest evidence is his first name, Maria, which is traditional for a child born on 8 September, feast-day of the Nativity of the Virgin. His instruction in music began at the age of six with his father, Bartolomeo, considered a child prodigy, Cherubini studied counterpoint and dramatic style at an early age. By the time he was thirteen, he had composed several religious works, in 1780, he was awarded a scholarship by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to study music in Bologna and Milan. Cherubinis early opera serie used libretti by Apostolo Zeno, Metastasio and his music was strongly influenced by Niccolò Jommelli, Tommaso Traetta, and Antonio Sacchini, who were the leading composers of the day. The first of his two works, Lo sposo di tre e marito di nessuna, premiered at a Venetian theater in November 1783. Feeling constrained by Italian traditions and eager to experiment, Cherubini traveled to London in 1785 where he produced two opere serie and an opera buffa for the Kings Theatre. In the same year, he made an excursion to Paris with his friend the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, Cherubini received an important commission to write Démophoon to a French libretto by Jean-François Marmontel that would be his first tragédie en musique. Performances of Démophon were favorably received at the Grand Opéra in 1788, with Viottis help, the Théâtre de Monsieur in the Tuileries appointed Cherubini as its director in 1789. Three years later, after a move to the rue Feydeau and the fall of the monarchy and this position gave Cherubini the opportunity to read countless libretti and choose one that best suited his temperament. Cherubinis music began to show more originality and daring and his first major success was Lodoïska, which was admired for its realistic heroism. This was followed by Elisa, set in the Swiss Alps, Les deux journées, in which Cherubini simplified his style, was a popular success. These and other operas were premièred at the Théâtre Feydeau or the Opéra-Comique, feeling financially secure, he married Anne Cécile Tourette in 1794 and began a family of three children. The fallout from the French Revolution affected Cherubini until the end of his life, politics forced him to hide his connections with the former aristocracy and seek governmental appointments. Although Napoléon found him too complex, Cherubini wrote at least one work per year for more than a decade. He was appointed Napoléons director of music in Vienna for part of 1805 and 1806, in 1808 Cherubini was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands
7.
Conservatoire de Paris
–
The Conservatoire de Paris is a college of music and dance founded in 1795, now situated in the avenue Jean Jaurès in the 19th arrondissement of Paris, France. The Conservatoire offers instruction in music, dance, and drama, today the conservatories operate under the auspices of the Ministry of Culture and Communication. On 3 December 1783 Papillon de la Ferté, intendant of the Menus-Plaisirs du Roi, the school was instituted by a decree of 3 January 1784 and opened on 1 April with the composer François-Joseph Gossec as the provisional director. Piccinni refused the directorship, but did join the faculty as a professor of singing, the new school was located in buildings adjacent to the Hôtel des Menus-Plaisirs at the junction of the rue Bergère and the rue du Faubourg Poissonnière. In June, a class in dramatic declamation was added, in 1792, Bernard Sarrette created the École gratuite de la garde nationale, which in the following year became the Institut national de musique. On 3 August 1795, the government combined the École royale with the Institut national de musique, the combined organization remained in the facilities on the rue Bergère. The first 351 pupils commenced their studies in October 1796, a concert hall, designed by the architect François-Jacques Delannoy, was inaugurated on 7 July 1811. The hall, which exists today, was in the shape of a U. It held an audience of 1055, the acoustics were generally regarded as superb. The French composer and conductor Antoine Elwart described it as the Stradivarius of concert halls, in 1828 François Habeneck, a professor of violin and head of the Conservatorys orchestra, founded the Société des Concerts du Conservatoire. The Society held concerts in the hall almost continuously until 1945, the French composer Hector Berlioz premiered his Symphonie fantastique in the conservatorys hall on 5 December 1830 with an orchestra of more than a hundred players. The original library was created by Sarrette in 1801, after the construction of the concert hall, the library moved to a large room above the entrance vestibule. In the 1830s, Berlioz became a curator in the Conservatory library and was the librarian from 1852 until his death in 1869. He was succeeded as librarian by Félicien David, Sarrette was dismissed on 28 December 1814, after the Bourbon Restoration, but was reinstated on 26 May 1815, after Napoleons return to power during the Hundred Days. However, after Napoleons fall, Sarrette was finally compelled to retire on 17 November, in 1819, François Benoist was appointed professor of organ. Probably the best known director in the 19th century was Luigi Cherubini, Cherubini maintained high standards and his staff included teachers such as François-Joseph Fétis, Habeneck, Fromental Halévy, Le Sueur, Ferdinando Paer, and Anton Reicha. Cherubini was succeeded by Daniel-François-Esprit Auber in 1842, in 1852, Camille Urso, who studied with Lambert Massart, became the first female student to win a prize on violin. The Conservatory Instrument Museum, founded in 1861, was formed from the instrument collection of Louis Clapisson, the French music historian Gustave Chouquet became the curator of the museum in 1871 and did much to expand and upgrade the collection
8.
Beatus vir
–
Beatus vir, Blessed is the man. In Latin, are the first words in the Vulgate Bible of both Psalm 1 and Psalm 112. Altogether the phrase occurs 14 times in the Vulgate text, eight times in the Book of Psalms, Psalm 1 naturally begins the text of the Book of Psalms. In illuminated manuscript psalters this start was traditionally marked by a large Beatus initial for the B of Beatus, between them these often take up a whole page. Beatus initials have been significant in the development of manuscript painting, as the initial par excellence it stimulated the ornamentalizing impulse of the medieval artist to ever-increasing heights of fantasy. The 10th-century Anglo-Saxon Ramsey Psalter initial illustrated here is the first known to use the mask on the bar of the B. In psalters of the Early and High Middle Ages there were often similarly large initials at the start of Psalm 51 and Psalm 102, other divisions of text produced different groupings, of eight or ten groups, but all had a group beginning at Psalm 1. Often these initials were the only illumination in the manuscript. In bibles the first letter of each book was enlarged and illuminated in grand manuscripts. Greatly enlarged beautus initials go back as least as far as the Corbie Psalter, there were probably Insular examples but none have survived. Figures returned during the 11th century, in some elaborate later initials more scenes were shown, allowing typological comparisons between the Old and New Testaments. In some psalters after about 1200, especially English ones including both the Gorleston Psalter and Windmill Psalter, very large Bs allowed room for a Tree of Jesse, which included David. Authorized Version, Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, nor standeth in the way of sinners, but his delight is in the law of the Lord, and in his law doth he meditate day and night. The Vulgate text actually begins alleluia reversionis Aggei et Zacchariae beatus vir qui timet Dominum, translated as Praise the Lord. /Blessed is the man who fears the Lord in the Revised Standard Version, but settings normally ignore the first words, beginning at Beatus vir. Remarkably, a database of psalm settings by Italian composers of the 17th and 18th centuries lists 81 settings of Psalm 111, but none of Psalm 1. Today probably the best known is Claudio Monteverdis setting of 1640, SV268, from his Selva morale e spirituale, other examples include, Antonio Vivaldi, Beatus vir, the better known of his three settings, one now lost, RV598 is the other. Mozarts Vesperae de Dominica, third movement, Vulgate Psalm 111, alleluia reversionis Aggei et Zacchariae beatus vir qui timet Dominum in mandatis eius volet nimis potens in terra erit semen eius generatio rectorum benedicetur. Authorized Version Psalm 112, Praise ye the Lord, Blessed is the man that feareth the Lord, that delighteth greatly in his commandments
9.
Saint-Simonian
–
Saint-Simonianism was a French political and social movement of the first half of the 19th century, inspired by the ideas of Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon. Union of men engaged in work, the basis of true equality. For his last decade Saint-Simon concentrated on themes of political economy, in his last work however, Le Nouveau Christianisme, Saint-Simon reverted to more traditional ideas of renewing society through Christian brotherly love. He died shortly after its publication, for a brief period, the historian and writer Léon Halévy acted as secretary to the philosopher. Following Saint-Simons death in 1825, his followers began to differ as to how to promulgate his ideas, following this some of Enfantins followers visited North Africa or the Middle East in search of Messianic revelations, and the formal Saint-Simonian movement expired. It has also noted that Saint-Simonian ideas exerted a significant influence on new religious movements such as Spiritualism and Occultism since the 1850s. Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, London,1998, apostles of Modernity, Saint-Simonians and the Civilizing Mission in Algeria. St-Simon, Letters from an Inhabitant of Geneva to His Contemporaries at the Marxist Internet Archive Strube, socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism, A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularization in 19th-Century France. Religion,2016 The dictionary definition of Saint-Simonianism at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of Saint-Simonism at Wiktionary
10.
Romance (music)
–
The term romance has a centuries-long history. Applied to narrative ballads in Spain, it came to be used by the 18th century for simple lyrical pieces not only for voice, the Oxford Dictionary of Music states that generally it implies a specially personal or tender quality. Typically, a Classical piece or movement called a Romance is in triple rhythm, with three beats in the bar. Beethoven, two violin romances for violin and orchestra, No.1 G major, Op.40, No.2 in F major, Op.50 take the form of a loose theme, robert Schumann, Drei Romanzen, Op.94. Dmitri Shostakovich, Romance from The Gadfly Suite Jean Sibelius, Romances for piano Op 24, mozart subtitled the second movement of his piano concerto no.20 in D minor Romanze and his Horn Concerto has a Romance and Rondo. Robert Schumann was particularly fond of the title for lyrical piano pieces, georges Bizets Je crois entendre encore from The Pearl Fishers is labelled a romance in the score. Giuseppe Verdis Celeste Aida from Aida is labelled romanza. Lieder by Franz Schubert, D114, Romanze for voice and piano D144, Romanze for voice and piano D222, Lieb Minna for voice and piano D907, Romanze des Richard Löwenherz for voice, 3b of Schuberts Rosamunde is a Romanze. During the 19th century Alexander Alyabyev, Alexander Varlamov and Alexander Gurilyov developed the French variety of the romance as a category of Russian art song. Black Eyes is perhaps the best known example, among other notable examples of the Russian Romance are Shine, Shine, My Star and Along the Long Road. Henri Gougelot, La Romance française sous la Révolution et lEmpire, choix de textes musicaux
11.
Symphony
–
A symphony is an extended musical composition in Western classical music, most often written by composers for orchestra. Symphonies are scored for string, brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments which altogether number about 30–100 musicians, Symphonies are notated in a musical score, which contains all the instrument parts. Orchestral musicians play from parts which contain just the music for their instrument. A small number of symphonies also contain vocal parts, the word symphony is derived from the Greek word συμφωνία, meaning agreement or concord of sound, concert of vocal or instrumental music, from σύμφωνος, harmonious. The word referred to a variety of different things, before ultimately settling on its current meaning designating a musical form. In late Greek and medieval theory, the word was used for consonance, as opposed to διαφωνία, in the Middle Ages and later, the Latin form symphonia was used to describe various instruments, especially those capable of producing more than one sound simultaneously. Isidore of Seville was the first to use the word symphonia as the name of a two-headed drum, in late medieval England, symphony was used in both of these senses, whereas by the 16th century it was equated with the dulcimer. In German, Symphonie was a term for spinets and virginals from the late 16th century to the 18th century. 16, published in 1607, Lodovico Grossi da Viadanas Sinfonie musicali,18, published in 1610, and Heinrich Schützs Symphoniae sacrae, op. 6, and Symphoniarum sacrarum secunda pars, op,10, published in 1629 and 1647, respectively. Except for Viadanas collection, which contained purely instrumental and secular music, the opera sinfonia, or Italian overture had, by the 18th century, a standard structure of three contrasting movements, fast, slow, fast and dance-like. It is this form that is considered as the direct forerunner of the orchestral symphony. The terms overture, symphony and sinfonia were widely regarded as interchangeable for much of the 18th century, when composers from the 17th century wrote pieces, they expected that these works would be performed by whatever group of musicians were available. A performance of the piece might be done with a basso continuo group as small as a single cello, during the 18th century, the symphony was cultivated with extraordinary intensity. It played a role in areas of public life, including church services. Since the normal size of the orchestra at the time was quite small, laRue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson trace the gradual expansion of the symphonic orchestra through the 18th century. At first, symphonies were string symphonies, written in just four parts, first violin, second violin, viola, occasionally the early symphonists even dispensed with the viola part, thus creating three-part symphonies. A basso continuo part including a bassoon together with a harpsichord or other chording instrument was also possible, the first additions to this simple ensemble were a pair of horns, occasionally a pair of oboes, and then both horns and oboes together
12.
Revue et gazette musicale
–
It was the first French-language journal dedicated entirely to classical music. In November 1835 it merged with Maurice Schlesingers Gazette musicale de Paris to form Revue et gazette musicale de Paris, by 1830 the Revue musicale, written and published by Fétis, was on sale at Maurice Schlesingers music sellers premises. Schlesinger was a German music editor who had moved to Paris in 1821, Schlesinger published editions of classical and modern music under his own name at a reasonable price, most notably works by Mozart, Haydn, Weber, Beethoven, Hummel and Berlioz. He also published Robert le diable and Les Huguenots by Giacomo Meyerbeer, Schlesinger founded his own rival publication, the Gazette Musicale de Paris, which first appeared on 5 January 1834. Another music journal, Le Ménestrel, had first appeared the previous month on 1 December 1833, until La Revue et Gazette ceased publication in 1880, Le Ménestrel was to be its main rival in terms of influence and breadth of coverage. In 1835, Schlesinger bought the Revue musicale from Fétis and merged the two journals into the Revue et gazette musicale de Paris. He widened the subject matter of the Gazette musicale from music itself to include literature about music – in 1837 he commissioned from Honoré de Balzac for the Gazette the novella Gambara. The name Revue musicale returned for six months in 1839 as the Revue musicale, journal des artistes, des amateurs et des théatres while the journal was a bi-weekly publication. First series, Vol.1 Vol.2 Vol.3 Vol.4 Vol.5 Vol.6 Second series, Vol.1, 8-10 Vol.11 Published on Saturdays from at least January 1831. Vol.12 Vol.13 Vol.14 Gazette musicale de Paris Published by Schlesinger,1834, Vol.11834, Vol.21835, Vol.1. 1835, Vol.2 Revue et gazette musicale de Paris Appeared on Sundays, 3rd year,1836 4th year,1837 5th year,1838 6th year,1839. From January 1839 until 11 April 1841 the journal appeared twice weekly, for the first six months, the Thursday edition appeared as Revue musicale, journal des artistes, des amateurs et des théatres with similar font and masthead design. The first edition appeared on Thursday 3 January 1839, with consistent volume numbering, as 6e année, the Sunday edition continued as Revue et gazette musicale de Paris, 6th year,1839. NB The date of the first issue is misprinted 6 Janvier 1838 instead of 1839, 7th year,1840 8th year,1841 9th year,1842 10th year,18431844 Changes to masthead design and layout. 18451846 Schlesinger sold the journal in 1846 to a former employee,1847 Reverts to old masthead & layout. 184818491850 etc. until 1880 The journal was suspended from September 1870 to September 1871 during the Siege of Paris, bringing the Franco-Prussian War to an end
13.
Lalla-Roukh
–
Lalla-Roukh is an opéra comique in two acts composed by Félicien David. The libretto by Michel Carré and Hippolyte Lucas was based on Thomas Moores 1817 poem Lalla Rookh and it was first performed on 12 May 1862 by the Opéra-Comique at the Salle Favart in Paris. Set in Kashmir and Samarkand, the opera recounts the story between Nourreddin, the King of Samarkand, and the Mughal princess Lalla-Roukh. Her name means Tulip-cheeked, a frequent term of endearment in Persian poetry, Lalla-Roukh had its world premiere on 12 May 1862 at the Opéra-Comique in Paris in a double bill with Pierre-Alexandre Monsignys Rose et Colas, a one-act mêlée dariettes. The mise en scène was by Ernest Mocker, the settings by Jean-Pierre Moynet, Charles Cambon, and Joseph Thierry, an immediate success with the Paris audiences, Lalla-Roukh was very popular in its day, with 100 performances at the Opéra-Comique in the year following its premiere. It was revived several times by the company, including performances in 1876,1885. The opera was presented in other French-language theatres, including those in Liège, Brussels, Antwerp, Geneva. It was translated into German and performed in such as Coburg, Mainz, Munich, Vienna, and Berlin, and even translated into Hungarian, Polish, Swedish, Italian. Lalla-Roukh sank into obscurity in the 20th century although individual arias and its overture were occasionally performed at concerts and recitals. Larger extracts from the opera were given performances in 1976 at Cadenet and in 2008 at the National Gallery of Art in Washington. Lalla-Roukh, the daughter of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, has promised in marriage to the King of Samarkand. Accompanied by her confidants, Mirza and a eunuch called Baskir, as the caravan travels through Kashmir, she is charmed by the nightly songs of Nourreddin, a mysterious poet-singer who has joined the caravan. The couple meet at night and pledge their love to each other, Lalla-Roukh tells him that when they arrive at the palace, she will confess all to the King and refuse to marry him, preferring to live in a simple cottage in Kashmir with her true love. When the caravan arrives at the palace, a crash of cymbals is heard. To her amazement, Lalla-Roukh realizes that he is in fact Nourreddin, earlier recordings include several extracts sung by the French soprano Solange Renaux for the Bibliothèque nationale de France. One of these, Mirzas couplets Si vous ne savez plus charmer, nourreddins aria O ma maîtresse has been recorded by several French tenors. Encyclopaedia Asiatica, Comprising Indian Subcontinent, Eastern and Southern Asia, at National Gallery, Opera With a French Accent. His Masters Voice, The French Catalogue, annals of Opera 1597-1940 (third edition, revised
14.
Berlioz
–
Hector Berlioz was a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts. Berlioz made significant contributions to the orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works, and he also composed around 50 songs. His influence was critical for the development of Romanticism, especially in composers like Richard Wagner, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Franz Liszt, Richard Strauss. Hector Berlioz was born in France at La Côte-Saint-André in the département of Isère, Louis was an agnostic, with a liberal outlook, his mother, Marie-Antoinette, was a devout Roman Catholic. He had five siblings in all, three of whom did not survive to adulthood, the other two, Nanci and Adèle, remained close to Berlioz throughout his life. Berlioz was not a prodigy, unlike some other famous composers of the time, he began studying music at age 12, writing small compositions. As a result of his fathers discouragement, he never learned to play the piano and he became proficient at guitar, flageolet and flute. He learned harmony from textbooks alone—he was not formally trained, the majority of his early compositions were romances and chamber pieces. While yet at age twelve, as recalled in his Mémoires, he experienced his first passion for a woman and he also began to visit the Paris Conservatoire library, seeking out scores of Glucks operas and making personal copies of parts of them. He recalled in his Mémoires his first encounter with Luigi Cherubini, Cherubini attempted to throw the impetuous Berlioz out of the library since he was not a formal music student at that time. Berlioz also heard two operas by Gaspare Spontini, a composer who influenced him through their friendship, and whom he later championed when working as a critic, from then on, he devoted himself to composition. He was encouraged in his endeavors by Jean-François Le Sueur, director of the Royal Chapel, in 1823, he wrote his first article—a letter to the journal Le corsaire defending Spontinis La vestale. Despite his parents disapproval, in 1824 he formally abandoned his studies to pursue a career in music. This work was rehearsed and revised after the rehearsal but not performed until the following year, Berlioz later claimed to have burnt the score, but it was re-discovered in 1991. Later that year or in 1825, he began to compose the opera Les francs-juges, the work survives only in fragments, the overture has been much recorded and is sometimes played in concert. In 1826 he began attending the Conservatoire to study composition under Jean-François Le Sueur and he also submitted a fugue to the Prix de Rome, but was eliminated in the primary round. Winning the prize would become an obsession until he won it in 1830
15.
Institut de France
–
The Institut de France is a French learned society, grouping five académies, the most famous of which is the Académie française. The Institute, located in Paris, manages approximately 1,000 foundations, as well as museums and it also awards prizes and subsidies, which amounted to a total of €5,028,190.55 for 2002. Most of these prizes are awarded by the Institute on the recommendation of the académies, the Institut de France was established on 25 October 1795, by the French government. Académie française – initiated 1635, suppressed 1793, restored 1803 as a division of the institute, Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres – initiated 1663. Académie des sciences – initiated 1666, the Royal Society of Canada, initiated 1882, was modeled after the Institut de France and the Royal Society of London
16.
Le Pecq
–
Le Pecq is a commune in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. It is located in the suburbs of Paris,18.4 km from the center of Paris. The commune of Le Pecq is located in a loop of the Seine river,19 km west of Paris, Le Pecqs territory is astride the two banks of the Seine and includes a small island, Corbière. It is highly urbanized except for Corbière island, which is protected as a nesting zone for migratory birds. Until after the Second World War, there were swimming baths on the island, Le Pecq was famous for two other establishments related to water, a spa exploiting springs on St-Germain hill and a natural water swimming pool which was 100 metres long with sand beaches. The first mention of Le Pecq came in 704, in that year, the Merovingian king Childebert III granted a charter to Fontenelle Abbey which included territory in Aupec - the modern Le Pecq. On 31 May 1875, a part of Le Pecq was detached and merged with parts of Chatou and Croissy-sur-Seine to create the commune of Le Vésinet. Regional center of the Lyonnaise des Eaux, water company which produces approximately 90 million cubic meters of drinking water per year, serving approximately 500000 consumers in the west of Paris. Home of the Yacht Club of Le Pecq Saint-Wandrille church, the current church, saint-Thibault church, built of concrete and wooden in 1964 by the architects Perrouin, Lunel and Jung, surmounted by an arrow in wood veil 30 height meters. Railway viaduct, work dating from the end of the 19th century, comprising a score of stone arches and surmounted by an iron bridge over the Seine. It is connected to two tunnels to reach its terminus at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, jacques Tati, born in Le Pecq on October 9,1908, mime artist, cinema director and actor. The town in Le Pecq is notable for being the town of residence of Alain Gournac and this bridge was built in 1963. It has of flattened steel arches resting on two concrete piers. Le Pecq is not served by the Paris Métro, RER, the closest station to Le Pecq is Le Vésinet – Le Pecq station on Paris RER line A. This station is located in the commune of Le Vésinet,1.2 km from the town center of Le Pecq. Communes of the Yvelines department INSEE Lhistoire du Pecq, Henri Giaberi, édition 2006 Le Pecq official site Le Pecq Yacht club Local news of Le Pecq
17.
Saint-Germain-en-Laye
–
Saint-Germain-en-Laye is a commune in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France in north-central France. It is located in the suburbs of Paris,19.1 km from the centre of Paris. Inhabitants are called Saint-Germanois or Saint-Germinois, with its elegant tree-lined streets it is one of the more affluent suburbs of Paris, combining both high-end leisure spots and exclusive residential neighborhoods. Saint-Germain-en-Laye is a sub-prefecture of the department, because it includes the National Forest of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, it covers approximately 48 km2, making it the largest commune in the Yvelines. It occupies a large loop of the Seine, Saint-Germain-en-Laye lies at one of the western termini of Line A of the RER. Saint-Germain-en-Laye was founded in 1020 when King Robert the Pious founded a convent on the site of the present Church of Saint-Germain, in 1688, James II, King of England, exiled himself to the city due to religious conflicts in his own country. He spent the remainder of his days there, and died on 16 September 1701, prior to the French Revolution in 1789, it had been a royal town and the Château de Saint-Germain the residence of numerous French monarchs. The old château was constructed in 1348 by King Charles V on the foundations of an old castle dating from 1238 in the time of Saint Louis, francis I was responsible for its subsequent restoration. In 1862, Napoleon III set up the Musée des Antiquités Nationales in the erstwhile royal château and this museum has exhibits ranging from Paleolithic to Celtic times. The Dame de Brassempouy sculpted on a mammoths ivory tusk around 23,000 years ago is the most famous exhibit in the museum, kings Henry IV and Louis XIII left their mark on the town. Louis XIV was born in the château, and established Saint-Germain-en-Laye as his residence from 1661 to 1681. Louis XIV turned over the château to James VII & II of Scotland and England after his exile from Britain after the Glorious Revolution in 1688, James lived in the Château for 13 years, and his daughter Louisa Maria Stuart was born in exile here in 1692. James II is buried in the Church of Saint-Germain, Saint-Germain-en-Laye is famous for its 2. 4-kilometre long stone terrace built by André Le Nôtre from 1669 to 1673. The terrace provides a view over the valley of the Seine and, in the distance, during the French Revolution, the name was changed along with many other places whose names held connotations of religion or royalty. During his reign, Napoleon I established his cavalry officers training school in the Château-Vieux, the Treaty of Saint-Germain was signed in 1919 and was applied on July 16,1920. The treaty officially registered the breakup of the Habsburg empire, which recognized the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, during the occupation from 1940 to 1944, the town was the headquarters of the German Army. Saint-Germain-en-Laye is served by Saint-Germain-en-Laye station on Paris RER line A and it is also served by two stations on the Transilien Paris – Saint-Lazare suburban rail line, Saint-Germain – Bel-Air – Fourqueux and Saint-Germain – Grande Ceinture. Saint-Germain-en-Laye is also served by Achères – Grand Cormier station on Paris RER line A and this station is located in the middle of the Forest of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, far away from the urbanized part of the commune
18.
Yvelines
–
Yvelines is a French department in the region of Île-de-France. It inherited Seine-et-Oises official number of 78 and it gained the communes of Châteaufort and Toussus-le-Noble from the adjacent department of Essonne in 1969. Yvelines is bordered by the departments of Val-dOise on the north, Hauts-de-Seine on the east, Essonne on the southeast, Eure-et-Loir on the southwest, and Eure on the west. Two regional parks can be found in Yvelines, the parc of the Haute Vallée de Chevreuse, Yvelines is home to one of Frances best known golf courses, La Tuilerie-Bignon, in the village of Saint-Nom-la-Bretèche. In French, a man from the Yvelines is called Yvelinois, a woman is Yvelinoise
19.
Ruth Vincent
–
Vincent joined DOyly Carte in 1894 in the chorus at the age of 17. She also continued to sing leading roles in Gilbert and Sullivan revivals, including Casilda in The Gondoliers and Aline in The Sorcerer in 1898, unhappy to be passed over for the leading soprano role in The Rose of Persia, Vincent left the company near the end of 1899. After this, Vincent went on to a career in Edwardian musical comedies, opera. She created leading West End roles in Véronique, Tom Jones, The Belle of Brittany and several others, from 1910, she began a grand opera career at Covent Garden and Drury Lane and then toured in oratorio and concerts and also in variety shows, performing until 1930. Vincent was born in Yarmouth, Norfolk and her father was Henry Vincent Bunn. She studied singing with a teacher in Norwich, then Herman Klein in London Vincent joined the DOyly Carte Opera Company in the chorus of The Chieftain at the Savoy Theatre in 1894 at the age of 17, in 1895, she toured the British provinces in the chorus. At the Savoy, she created the part of Gretchen in The Grand Duke in 1896. She sang in the chorus during the subsequent revival of The Mikado, as it turned out, Ellen Beach Yaw, the American soprano cast as the Sultana, was dismissed after only two weeks in the role, and the opportunity to replace her went to young Isabel Jay. Vincents younger sister, Madge Vincent, was a DOyly Carte chorister from 1898 to 1900, Vincent did eventually get a chance to play the Sultana in The Rose of Persia in New York in the 1900 Charles Frohman production at Dalys Theatre. She married Lieutenant Colonel John Fraser of the Royal Horse Guards and she later studied in Berlin with Mme. Vincent returned to the London stage in musical theatre roles, including as Merva Sunningdale in The Medal and she played the title roles in the West End in Véronique in 1904-05 and A Girl on the Stage in 1906. She was the Plaintiff in Trial by Jury in the Ellen Terry Jubilee celebration on 12 June 1906, the English Illustrated Magazine wrote that Vincent has some charming songs, to which her full rich voice gives admirable effect. She next starred as Sophie in Tom Jones and in the roles in The Belle of Brittany and A Persian Princess. In 1910 Vincent made her debut in opera in Thomas Beechams seasons at Covent Garden and Drury Lane, singing in Hansel and Gretel, Così fan Tutte, The Tales of Hoffmann, Carmen. She created the role of Vrenchen in Deliuss opera, A Village Romeo, the Manchester Guardian commented, Miss Ruth Vincent acted with much sincerity and charm as Vrenchen, and sang admirably. She has a voice of remarkable purity, capable of great expression, in her later years, she appeared in concert, in oratorio, and in variety shows at the London Palladium, the Coliseum Theatre and in the provinces. Her hobbies included horseback riding and gardening, Vincent died in London in 1955 at the age of 78. Some of her possessions were sold at auction at Christies in London in January 2000
20.
Amelita Galli-Curci
–
Amelita Galli-Curci was an Italian coloratura soprano. She was one of the most popular singers of the 20th century. She was born as Amelita Galli into a family in Milan. She was inspired to sing by her grandmother, operatic composer Pietro Mascagni also encouraged Galli-Curcis singing ambitions. By her own choice, Galli-Curcis voice was largely self-trained and she honed her technique by listening to other sopranos, reading old singing-method books, and doing piano exercises with her voice instead of using a keyboard. She was seen by critics as an antidote to the host of squally. The soprano had toured widely in Europe, Russia and South America, in 1915, she sang two performances of Lucia di Lammermoor with Enrico Caruso in Buenos Aires. These were to be her only appearances with the great tenor, though they later appeared in concert. Galli-Curci and Caruso also acted as godparents for the son of the Sicilian tenor Giulio Crimi, Galli-Curci toured extensively throughout her career, including a 1924 Great Britain concert tour, where she appeared in 20 cities and a tour of Australia a year later. Galli-Curci arrived in the United States in the autumn of 1916 as a virtual unknown, also in 1916, Galli-Curci signed a recording contract with the Victor Talking Machine Company and recorded exclusively for the company until 1930. On 14 November 1921, While still under contract with the Chicago Opera and she was one of few singers who were contracted to both opera companies simultaneously. Galli-Curci remained at the Met until her retirement from the stage nine years later. Galli-Curci built and maintained an estate called Sul Monte in Highmount, New York, in the nearby village of Margaretville a theater was erected and named in her honor. She returned the favor by performing there on its opening night, weary of opera house politics and convinced that opera was a dying art form, Galli-Curci retired from the operatic stage in January 1930 to concentrate instead on concert performances. Throat problems and the pitching of top notes had plagued her for several years. Great care was taken during her surgery, which was performed under local anesthesia, a nerve to her larynx, the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, is thought to have been damaged, resulting in the loss of her ability to sing high pitches. This nerve has become known as the nerve of Galli-Curci. In 1908 Galli-Curci wed an Italian nobleman, the Marchese Luigi Curci, the Marchese Curci petitioned the papal council in Rome for an annulment of the marriage in 1922
21.
Internet Archive
–
The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
22.
International Music Score Library Project
–
Since its launch on February 16,2006, over 370,000 scores and 42,000 recordings for over 110,000 works by over 14,000 composers have been uploaded. The project uses MediaWiki software to provide contributors with a familiar interface, since June 6,2010, IMSLP has also included public domain and licensed recordings in its scope, to allow for study by ear. The site was launched on February 16,2006, the library consists mainly of scans of old musical editions out of copyright. In addition, it admits scores by composers who wish to share their music with the world by releasing it under a Creative Commons license. One of the projects of IMSLP was the sorting and uploading of the complete works of Johann Sebastian Bach in the Bach-Gesellschaft Ausgabe. Besides providing a repository, IMSLP offers possibilities as a musicological encyclopaedia, since multiple. Also, pages on publishers provide valuable information, and the pages themselves often contain a large quantity of information. IMSLP is recommended as a tool by MIT, which also uses it extensively for providing scores for its OpenCourseWare courses. In 2007–2015, IMSLP / Petrucci Music Library used logo based on a score, the score image in the background was taken from the beginning of the very first printed book of music, the Harmonice Musices Odhecaton. It was published in Venice, Italy in 1501 by Ottaviano Petrucci, in 2016, IMSLP changed its logo to a clean wordmark, featuring its two project names – IMSLP and Petrucci Music Library. In 2009, IMSLP won the MERLOT Classics award for Music and it was named one of the Top 100 Web Sites of 2009 by PC Magazine. On October 19,2007, the IMSLP closed following legal demands from Universal Edition of Vienna, at first I thought this letter would be similar in content to the first Cease and Desist letter I received in August. I cannot apologize enough to all IMSLP contributors, who have done so much for IMSLP in the last two years, in response, director Michael S. Hart of Project Gutenberg offered support to keep the project online. This offer was declined by Feldmahler, who voiced concern about having the project hosted in the United States, on November 2,2007, Michael Geist, a prominent Canadian copyright academic, wrote an article for the BBC discussing the specifics and the wider implications of this case. IMSLP went back online on June 30,2008, although the server is located in Canada, files which are not public domain in the US were until July 2010 flagged, for Technical Block or Temporary Block, and could not be viewed. The FAQ posted in their forum stated, Unfortunately, these temporary blocks will be until further notice – possibly all the way until the expiration of term in the USA. After an initial phase, flagged items have disappeared thanks to the introduction of regional servers operated by unaffiliated organizations. On 21 April 2011, the Music Publishers Association issued a DMCA takedown notice against the IMSLP, Go Daddy, the domain name registrar for the IMSLP, removed the domain name imslp. org, leaving it inaccessible
23.
Romanticism
–
Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
24.
Danish Golden Age
–
The Danish Golden Age covers a period of exceptional creative production in Denmark, especially during the first half of the 19th century. Although Copenhagen had suffered fires, bombardment and national bankruptcy. It also saw the development of Danish architecture in the Neoclassical style, Copenhagen, in particular, acquired a new look, with buildings designed by Christian Frederik Hansen and by Michael Gottlieb Bindesbøll. In relation to music, the Golden Age covers figures inspired by Danish romantic nationalism including J. P. E. Hartmann, Hans Christian Lumbye, Niels W. Gade, literature centred on Romantic thinking, introduced in 1802 by the Norwegian-German philosopher Henrik Steffens. Key contributors were Adam Oehlenschläger, Bernhard Severin Ingemann, N. F. S. Grundtvig and, last but not least, Hans Christian Andersen, Søren Kierkegaard furthered philosophy while Hans Christian Ørsted achieved fundamental progress in science. The Golden Age thus had an effect not only on life in Denmark but, with time. The origins of the Golden Age can be traced back to around the beginning of the 19th century, surprisingly, this was a very rough period for Denmark. Copenhagen, the centre of the intellectual life, first experienced huge fires in 1794 and 1795 which destroyed both Christiansborg Palace and large areas of the inner city. In 1801, as a result of the involvement in the League of Armed Neutrality. Then in 1813, as a result of the inability to support the costs of war. To make matters worse, Norway ceased to be part of the Danish realm when it was ceded to Sweden the following year, Copenhagens devastation nevertheless provided new opportunities. Architects and planners widened the streets, constructing beautifully designed Neoclassical buildings offering a brighter yet intimate look, at the time, with a population of only 100,000, the city was still quite small, built within the confines of the old ramparts. As a result, the figures of the day met frequently, sharing their ideas, bringing the arts. Henrik Steffens was perhaps the most effective proponent of the Romantic idea, in a series of lectures in Copenhagen, he successfully conveyed the ideas behind German romanticism to the Danes. Influential thinkers, such as Oehlenschläger and Grundtvig were quick to take up his views and it was not long before Danes from all branches of the arts and sciences were involved in a new era of Romantic nationalism, later known as the Danish Golden Age. Especially in the field of painting, change became apparent, grand historical art gave way to more widely appealing but less pretentious genre paintings and landscapes. The Golden Age is generally believed to have lasted until about 1850, around that time, Danish culture suffered from the outbreak of the First Schleswig War. In addition, political reforms involving the end of the monarchy in 1848
25.
19th-century French literature
–
19th-century French literature concerns the developments in French literature during a dynamic period in French history that saw the rise of Democracy and the fitful end of Monarchy and Empire. French literature enjoyed enormous prestige and success in the 19th century. The first part of the century was dominated by Romanticism, until around the mid-century Realism emerged, in the last half of the century, naturalism, parnassian poetry, and symbolism, among other styles, were often competing tendencies at the same time. Some writers did form into literary groups defined by a name, in other cases, these expressions were merely pejorative terms given by critics to certain writers or have been used by modern literary historians to group writers of divergent projects or methods. Nevertheless, these labels can be useful in describing broad historical developments in the arts and their influence was felt in theatre, poetry, prose fiction. Foreign influences played a big part in this, especially those of Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Byron, Goethe, Le mal du siècle, a sense of loss, disillusion, and aporia, typified by melancholy and lassitude. Romanticism in England and Germany largely predate French romanticism, although there was a kind of pre-romanticism in the works of Senancour and Jean-Jacques Rousseau at the end of the 18th century. French Romanticism took definite form in the works of François-René de Chateaubriand and Benjamin Constant and it found early expression also in the sentimental poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine. The major battles of romanticism in France was in the theater, the dramatic unities of time and place were abolished, tragic and comic elements appeared together and metrical freedom was won. Marked by the plays of Friedrich Schiller, the romantics often chose subjects from historic periods, victor Hugo was the outstanding genius of the Romantic School and its recognized leader. He was prolific alike in poetry, drama, and fiction, all three also wrote novels and short stories, and Musset won a belated success with his plays. Alexandre Dumas, père wrote The Three Musketeers and other novels in an historical setting. Prosper Mérimée and Charles Nodier were masters of shorter fiction, Romanticism is associated with a number of literary salons and groups, the Arsenal, the Cénacle, the salon of Louis Charles Delescluze, the salon of Antoine Deschamps, the salon of Madame de Staël. Romanticism in France defied political affiliation, one finds both liberal, conservative and socialist strains, the expression Realism, when applied to literature of the 19th century, implies the attempt to depict contemporary life and society. The growth of realism is linked to the development of science, history, honoré de Balzac is the most prominent representative of 19th century realism in fiction. His La Comédie humaine, a vast collection of nearly 100 novels, was the most ambitious scheme ever devised by a writer of fiction—nothing less than a contemporary history of his countrymen. Realism also appears in the works of Alexandre Dumas, fils, similar tendencies appeared in the theatrical melodramas of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in the Grand Guignol at the end of the century. In addition to melodramas, popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-century turned to realism in the well-made bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin Labiche, from the 1860s on, critics increasingly speak of literary Naturalism
26.
German Romanticism
–
German Romanticism was the dominant intellectual movement in the philosophy, the arts, and the culture of German-speaking countries in the late-18th and early 19th centuries. Late-stage German Romanticism emphasized the tension between the world and the irrational and supernatural projections of creative genius. In particular, the critic Heinrich Heine criticized the tendency of the early German romantics for looking to the medieval past for a model of unity in art, key figures of German romanticism include, Ludwig van Beethoven. In his earlier works, Beethoven was a Classicist in the traditions of Mozart and Haydn, because Beethoven wrote some of his greatest music after he became totally deaf, he embodies the Romantic ideal of the tragic artist who defies all odds to conquer his own fate. His later works portray the triumph of the spirit, most notably his Choral Symphony No. 9, the stirring Ode to Joy from this symphony has been adopted as the anthem of the European Union and his works are cast in the formal moulds of Classicism, he had a profound reverence for Beethoven. Liszt was by nationality a Hungarian, but nevertheless he spent many years in Germany, credited as the inventor of the tone poem. In his old age, Liszt adopted a more dissonant, ominous flavour, characteristic works being la Lugubre Gondola and Die Zelle in Nonnenwerth—predating Impressionism, a composer of the Early Romantic period, together with such figures as Schumann, Chopin and Liszt. One of the responsible for reviving interest in the almost-forgotten music of Johann Sebastian Bach. His body of work consists mainly of song cycles and German Lieder set to poems by his contemporaries and his works recall the nostalgia of lost childhood innocence, first love, and the magnificence of the German countryside. As an influential critic, he played a role in discovering new talents, among them Chopin. The greatest composer of German opera, was an exponent of Leitmotif, one of the main figures in the so-called War of the Romantics. The emotional intensity and supernatural, folklore-based themes in his operas presented a break from the Neoclassical traditions of that time. The Mystical Sources of German Romantic Philosophy, translated by Blair R. Reynolds, caspar David Friedrich, translated by Sarah Twohig. Introduction, A Revolution in Culture, in European Romanticism, A Brief History with Documents, “Making of a Romantic Icon, The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbeck’s ‘Italia und Germania. ’” American Philosophical Society,2007. “Orpheus Philologus, Bachofen versus Mommsen on the Study of Antiquity. ”Painting the Sacred in the Age of German Romanticism, baltic Light, Early Open-Air Painting in Denmark and North Germany. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1999, caspar David Friedrich and the Age of German Romanticism. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1980, ISBN 3-8228-2293-0 ONeill, J, ed. German masters of the nineteenth century, paintings and drawings from the Federal Republic of Germany
27.
Norwegian romantic nationalism
–
A subject of much study and debate in Norway, it was characterized by nostalgia. The context and impact of Norwegian romantic nationalism derived from recent history, norwegians, having reasserted their political aspirations in 1814, the question of a distinct Norwegian identity became important. As urban culture gained prominence also in the districts, the rich cultural heritage of the Norwegian countryside came under threat. As a result, a number of individuals set out to collect the artifacts of the distinctly Norwegian culture, hoping thereby to preserve and he synthesized a grammar, vocabulary, and orthography for a separate Norwegian language that became the origin of Nynorsk. In the waning days of the romantic movement, efforts were renewed to collect rural buildings. Arthur Hazelius, the founder of Nordiska Museet in Stockholm gathered large collections, the last king of union between Sweden and Norway, Oscar II, was a supporter of this new wave of collecting, starting what must be the oldest outdoor museum, the origins of Norsk Folkemuseum. He supported the manager of the Royal domains at Bygdøy, Christian Holst in his efforts to gather old buildings from the rural districts. Among the buildings that are still at the museum, the Gol stave church, soon after other pioneers started equal efforts to rescue important pieces of traditional Norwegian architecture and handicraft. Anders Sandvig started the museum Maihaugen at Lillehammer, hulda Garborg started the collecting of traditional folk costumes and dances. This effort is underway, but became more systematic as other cultural movements took the center stage in Norway in the late 19th. Romantic nationalism has had an impact on the Norwegian national identity. The Askeladden character from the tales is considered being an integral part of the Norwegian way. On the Norwegian Constitution Day even in cities like Oslo and Bergen, a great proportion of people dress up in bunad for the parade, unthinkable 100 years ago
28.
Golden Age of Russian Poetry
–
Golden Age of Russian Poetry is the name traditionally applied by Russian philologists to the first half of the 19th century. It is also called the Age of Pushkin, after its most significant poet, mikhail Lermontov and Fyodor Tyutchev are generally regarded as two most important Romantic poets after Pushkin. Vasily Zhukovsky and Konstantin Batyushkov are the best regarded of his precursors, Pushkin himself, however, considered Evgeny Baratynsky to be the finest poet of his day. Silver Age of Russian Poetry List of Russian-language poets
29.
Romanticism in Scotland
–
Romanticism in Scotland was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that developed between the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries. Scott also had a impact on the development of a national Scottish drama. Art was heavily influenced by Ossian and a new view of the Highlands as the location of a wild, Scott profoundly affected architecture through his re-building of Abbotsford House in the early nineteenth century, which set off the boom in the Scots Baronial revival. Intellectually, Scott and figures like Thomas Carlyle played a part in the development of historiography, Romanticism also influenced science, particularly the life sciences, geology, optics and astronomy, giving Scotland a prominence in these areas that continued into the late nineteenth century. Scottish philosophy was dominated by Scottish Common Sense Realism, which shared some characteristics with Romanticism and was an influence on the development of Transcendentalism. Scott also played a part in defining Scottish and British politics, helping to create a romanticised view of Scotland. Romanticism began to subside as a movement in the 1830s, and it also had a lasting impact on the nature of Scottish identity and outside perceptions of Scotland. It is also associated with political revolutions, beginning with those in Americana and France and movements for independence, particularly in Poland, Spain and Greece. It is often thought to incorporate an emotional assertion of the self and of individual experience along with a sense of the infinite, transcendental, in art there was a stress on imagination, landscape and a spiritual correspondence with nature. It has been described by Margaret Drabble as a revolt against classical form, conservative morality, authoritarian government, personal insincerity. Allan Ramsay laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity and it was also popularised in France by figures that included Napoleon. Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, Robert Burns and Walter Scott were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is regarded as the national poet of Scotland. His poem Auld Lang Syne is often sung at Hogmanay, Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is called the first historical novel. It launched a successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob Roy, The Heart of Midlothian. Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century, other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg, Allan Cunningham and John Galt
30.
Bohemianism
–
Bohemianism is the practice of an unconventional lifestyle, often in the company of like-minded people, with few permanent ties, involving musical, artistic, literary or spiritual pursuits. In this context, Bohemians may or may not be wanderers, adventurers, Bohemians were associated with unorthodox or anti-establishment political or social viewpoints, which often were expressed through free love, frugality, and—in some cases—voluntary poverty. A more economically privileged, wealthy, or even aristocratic bohemian circle is sometimes referred to as haute bohème, the term Bohemianism emerged in France in the early nineteenth century when artists and creators began to concentrate in the lower-rent, lower class, Romani neighborhoods. Literary Bohemians were associated in the French imagination with roving Romani people, outsiders apart from conventional society, the term carries a connotation of arcane enlightenment, and also carries a less frequently intended, pejorative connotation of carelessness about personal hygiene and marital fidelity. The title character in Carmen, a French opera set in the Spanish city of Seville, is referred to as a bohémienne in Meilhac and her signature aria declares love itself to be a gypsy child, going where it pleases and obeying no laws. Henri Murgers collection of short stories Scènes de la Vie de Bohème, published in 1845, was written to glorify, Murgers collection formed the basis of Giacomo Puccinis opera La bohème. In England, Bohemian in this sense initially was popularised in William Makepeace Thackerays novel, Vanity Fair, public perceptions of the alternative lifestyles supposedly led by artists were further molded by George du Mauriers highly romanticized best-selling novel of Bohemian culture Trilby. The novel outlines the fortunes of three expatriate English artists, their Irish model, and two very colorful Central European musicians, in the artist quarter of Paris. In Spanish literature, the Bohemian impulse can be seen in Ramón del Valle-Incláns play Luces de Bohemia, in his song La Bohème, Charles Aznavour described the Bohemian lifestyle in Montmartre. Also reflects the Bohemian lifestyle in Montmartre at the turn of the 20th century, in the 1850s, aesthetic bohemians began to arrive in the United States. In New York City in 1857, a group of some 15–20 young and this group gathered at a German bar on Broadway called Pffaffs beer cellar. Members included their leader Henry Clapp, Jr, walt Whitman, Fitz Hugh Ludlow, and actress Adah Isaacs Menken. Similar groups in cities were broken up as well by the Civil War. During the war, correspondents began to assume the title bohemian, Bohemian became synonymous with newspaper writer. Mark Twain included himself and Charles Warren Stoddard in the category in 1867. Club member and poet George Sterling responded to this redefinition, Any good mixer of convivial habits considers he has a right to be called a bohemian, but that is not a valid claim. There are two elements, at least, that are essential to Bohemianism, the first is devotion or addiction to one or more of the Seven Arts, the other is poverty. Despite his views, Sterling associated very closely with the Bohemian Club, canadian composer Oscar Ferdinand Telgmann and poet George Frederick Cameron wrote the song The Bohemian in the 1889 opera Leo, the Royal Cadet
31.
Counter-Enlightenment
–
The first known use of the term in English was in 1908, but Berlin may have re-invented it. Although the term the Counter-Enlightenment was first used in English by William Barrett in a 1949 article in Partisan Review, Berlins widely read essay The Counter-Enlightenment was first published in 1973, and later reprinted in a popular collection of his essays, Against the Current, in 1981. The term has had wide currency since and this reaction was led by the Königsberg philosopher J. G. Hamann, the most passionate, consistent, extreme and implacable enemy of the Enlightenment, according to Berlin. McMahon focuses on the enemies of the Enlightenment in France, unearthing a long-forgotten Grub Street literature in the late-18th. A great many of these opponents of the Enlightenment attacked it for undermining religion. This later became a theme of conservative criticism of the Enlightenment after the French Revolution appeared to vindicate the warnings of the anti-philosophes in the decades prior to 1789. Cardiff University professor Graeme Garrard suggests that historian William R, in his 1996 article in the American Political Science Review, Arthur M. Graeme Garrard follows Melzer in his Rousseaus Counter-Enlightenment. This contradicts Berlins depiction of Rousseau as a philosophe who shared the beliefs of his Enlightenment contemporaries. Also, like McMahon, it traces the beginning of Counter-Enlightenment thought back to France, garrards book Counter-Enlightenments broadens the term even further, arguing against Berlin that there was no single movement called The Counter-Enlightenment. Rather, there have been many Counter-Enlightenments, from the middle of the 18th century through to 20th-century Enlightenment critics among critical theorists, postmodernists and feminists. The Enlightenment has enemies on all points of the compass, from the far left to the far right. Each of the Enlightenments enemies depicted it as they saw it or wanted others to see it, resulting in a vast range of portraits, many of which are not only different but incompatible. This argument has been taken a further by some, like intellectual historian James Schmidt. As our conception of the Enlightenment has become more complex and difficult to maintain and that is why the French Revolution and its aftermath was also a major phase in the development of Counter-Enlightenment thought. In Considerations on France, Maistre interprets the Revolution as divine punishment for the sins of the Enlightenment, many early Romantic writers such as Chateaubriand, Novalis and Samuel Taylor Coleridge inherited this Counter-Revolutionary antipathy towards the philosophes. Of particular concern to early Romantic writers was the allegedly anti-religious nature of the Enlightenment since the philosophes and Aufklarer were generally deists, opposed to revealed religion. Chateaubriand, Novalis, and Coleridge, however, are here, few Romantic writers had much to say for or against the Enlightenment. For the most part, they ignored it, the philosopher Jacques Barzun argues that Romanticism had its roots in the Enlightenment
32.
Dark romanticism
–
Dark romanticism is a literary subgenre of Romanticism. The name “Dark Romanticism” was given to form by the literary theorist Mario Praz in his lengthy study of the genre published in 1930. Elements of dark romanticism were a possibility within the broader international movement Romanticism. Like romanticism itself, dark romanticism arguably began in Germany, with such as E. T. A. British authors such as Lord Byron, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Mary Shelley, and John William Polidori and their tales and poems commonly feature outcasts from society, personal torment and uncertainty as to whether the nature of man will bring him salvation or destruction. Some Victorian authors of English horror fiction, such as Bram Stoker and Daphne du Maurier, the American form of this sensibility centered on the writers Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville. French authors such as Jules Barbey d’Aurevilly, Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Arthur Rimbaud echoed the themes found in the German. Baudelaire was one of the first French writers to admire Edgar Allan Poe, twentieth-century existential novels have also been linked to dark romanticism, as too have the sword and sorcery novels of Robert E. Howard. Northrop Frye pointed to the dangers of the demonic myth making of the side of romanticism as seeming “to provide all the disadvantages of superstition with none of the advantages of religion”. Literary Movements for Students Vol.1, harry Levin, The Power of Blackness Mario Praz The Romantic Agony Mullane, Janet and Robert T. Wilson, eds. Poe Studies/Dark Romanticism Journal The Gothic as an Aspect of American Romanticism
33.
Gesamtkunstwerk
–
A Gesamtkunstwerk is a work of art that makes use of all or many art forms or strives to do so. The term is a German word which has come to be accepted in English as a term in aesthetics, the term was first used by the German writer and philosopher K. F. E. Trahndorff in an essay in 1827. The German opera composer Richard Wagner used the term in two 1849 essays, and the word has become associated with his aesthetic ideals. It is unclear whether Wagner knew of Trahndorffs essay, in the twentieth century, some writers applied the term to some forms of architecture, while others have applied it to film and mass media. Some elements of opera reform, seeking a more classical formula, had begun at the end of the 18th century and this movement, reform opera is primarily associated with Christoph Willibald Gluck and Ranieri de Calzabigi. Others who wrote on syntheses of the arts included Gottfried Lessing, Ludwig Tieck, carl Maria von Webers enthusiastic review of E. T. A. He also used in these essays many similar such as the consummate artwork of the future and the integrated drama. Such a work of art was to be the clearest and most profound expression of folk legend, Wagner felt that the Greek tragedies of Aeschylus had been the finest examples so far of total artistic synthesis, but that this synthesis had subsequently been corrupted by Euripides. Wagner felt that during the rest of history up to the present day the arts had drifted further and further apart. Wagner felt that such works celebrated bravura singing, sensational stage effects, in Art and Revolution Wagner applies the term Gesamtkunstwerk in the context of Greek tragedy. In The Art-Work of the Future he uses it to apply to his own, as yet unrealised, ideal. In his extensive book Opera and Drama he takes these ideas further, describing in detail his idea of the union of opera and drama, in which the individual arts are subordinated to a common purpose. It has been argued by historian Robert L. Delevoy that Art Nouveau represented an essentially decorative trend that thus lent itself to the idea of the architectural Gesamtkunstwerk. But it is possible it was born from social theories that arose out of a fear of the rise of industrialism. However evidence of complete interiors that typify the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk can be some time before the 1890s. There was a trend amongst architects in the 18th and 19th centuries to control every facet of an architectural commission. As well as being responsible for just the structure they tried to extend their role to include designing every aspect of the work as well. This included not only the architectural features but was extended to the design of furniture, carpets, wallpaper, fabrics
34.
Gothic fiction
–
Gothic fiction, which is largely known by the subgenre of Gothic horror, is a genre or mode of literature and film that combines fiction and horror, death, and at times romance. Its origin is attributed to English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel The Castle of Otranto, the effect of Gothic fiction feeds on a pleasing sort of terror, an extension of Romantic literary pleasures that were relatively new at the time of Walpoles novel. It originated in England in the half of the 18th century and had much success in the 19th, as witnessed by Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Another well known novel in this genre, dating from the late Victorian era, is Bram Stoker’s Dracula, the name Gothic refers to the -medieval buildings, emulating Gothic architecture, in which many of these stories take place. This extreme form of romanticism was very popular in England and Germany, the English Gothic novel also led to new novel types such as the German Schauerroman and the French Georgia. The novel usually regarded as the first Gothic novel is Horace Walpoles The Castle of Otranto, Horace Walpoles declared aim was to combine elements of the medieval romance, which he deemed too fanciful, and the modern novel, which he considered to be too confined to strict realism. Walpole published the first edition disguised as a romance from Italy discovered and republished by a fictitious translator. When Walpole admitted to his authorship in the edition, its originally favourable reception by literary reviewers changed into rejection. A romance with elements, and moreover void of didactical intention, was considered a setback. Walpoles forgery, together with the blend of history and fiction, contravened the principles of the Enlightenment and associated the Gothic novel with fake documentation. Clara Reeve, best known for her work The Old English Baron, set out to take Walpoles plot, the question now arose whether supernatural events that were not as evidently absurd as Walpoles would not lead the simpler minds to believe them possible. Ann Radcliffe developed the technique of the supernatural in which every seemingly supernatural intrusion is eventually traced back to natural causes. Among other elements, Ann Radcliffe introduced the figure of the Gothic villain. Radcliffes novels, above all The Mysteries of Udolpho, were best-sellers, however, along with most novels at the time, they were looked down upon by many well-educated people as sensationalist nonsense. Radcliffe also provided an aesthetic for the genre in an influential article On the Supernatural in Poetry, Romantic literary movements developed in continental Europe concurrent with the development of the Gothic novel. The roman noir appeared in France, by writers as François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil, Baculard dArnaud. In Germany, the Schauerroman gained traction with writers as Friedrich Schiller, with novels like The Ghost-Seer and these works were often more horrific and violent than the English Gothic novel. Matthew Gregory Lewiss lurid tale of debauchery, black magic
35.
Gothic Revival architecture
–
Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
36.
Hudson River School
–
The Hudson River School was a mid-19th century American art movement embodied by a group of landscape painters whose aesthetic vision was influenced by romanticism. Neither the originator of the term Hudson River School nor its first published use has been fixed with certainty, the term is thought to have originated with the New York Tribune art critic Clarence Cook or the landscape painter Homer Dodge Martin. As originally used, the term was meant disparagingly, as the work so labeled had gone out of favor after the plein-air Barbizon School had come into vogue among American patrons and collectors. Hudson River School paintings reflect three themes of America in the 19th century, discovery, exploration, and settlement, the paintings also depict the American landscape as a pastoral setting, where human beings and nature coexist peacefully. They took as their inspiration such European masters as Claude Lorrain, John Constable and their reverence for Americas natural beauty was shared with contemporary American writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Several painters were members of the Düsseldorf school of painting, others were educated by the German Paul Weber, while the elements of the paintings were rendered realistically, many of the scenes were composed as a synthesis of multiple scenes or natural images observed by the artists. During these expeditions, the artists recorded sketches and memories, returning to their studios to paint the works later. The artist Thomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Hudson River School, Cole took a steamship up the Hudson in the autumn of 1825, the same year the Erie Canal opened, stopping first at West Point, then at Catskill landing. He hiked west high up into the eastern Catskill Mountains of New York State to paint the first landscapes of the area, the first review of his work appeared in the New York Evening Post on November 22,1825. At that time, only the English native Cole, born in a landscape where autumnal tints were of browns and yellows, coles close friend, Asher Durand, became a prominent figure in the school as well. An important part of the popularity of the Hudson River School was its celebration of its themes of nationalism, nature, however, its leading artists, such as Thomas Cole, were also suspicious of the economic and technological development of the age. Works by artists of this generation are often described as examples of Luminism. In addition to pursuing their art, many of the artists, including Kensett, Gifford, most of the finest works of the Hudson River school were painted between 1855 and 1875. During that time, artists such as Frederic Edwin Church and Albert Bierstadt were celebrities and they were both influenced by the Düsseldorf school of painting, and Bierstadt had studied in that city for several years. When Church exhibited paintings such as Niagara or Icebergs of the North, thousands of people lined up around the block and paid fifty cents a head to view the solitary works. The epic size of the landscapes in these paintings, unexampled in earlier American painting, reminded Americans of the vast, untamed, such works were being painted during the period of settlement of the American West, preservation of national parks, and establishment of green city parks. One of the largest collections of paintings by artists of the Hudson River School is at the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Johnsbury Athenaeum, in St. Johnsbury, VT Westervelt Warner Museum of American Art, in Tuscaloosa, AL Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, in Madrid, Spain. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, avery, Kevin J. & Kelly, Frank
37.
Indianism (arts)
–
Indianism is a Brazilian literary and artistic movement that reached its peak during the first stages of Romanticism, though it had been present in Brazilian literature since the Baroque period. In Romantic contexts, it is called the first generation of Brazilian Romanticism, being succeeded by the Ultra-Romanticism, after the independence of Brazil from Portugal in 1822, a heavy wave of nationalism spread through the Brazilian people. Inspired by this, poets and writers began to search for an entity that could represent, influenced by Enlightenment ideals, especially works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the noble savage myth, the authors chose the Brazilian Indian to represent the new nation. Indianist works are characterized by always having an Indian as the protagonist, the poetry is very patriotic and nationalistic, exalting Brazilian fauna, flora, riches and people
38.
Nazarene movement
–
The name Nazarene was adopted by a group of early 19th century German Romantic painters who aimed to revive honesty and spirituality in Christian art. The name Nazarene came from a term of derision used against them for their affectation of a manner of clothing. In 1809, six students at the Vienna Academy formed a cooperative in Vienna called the Brotherhood of St. Luke or Lukasbund. In 1810 four of them, Johann Friedrich Overbeck, Franz Pforr, Ludwig Vogel and Johann Konrad Hottinger moved to Rome and they were joined by Philipp Veit, Peter von Cornelius, Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow and a loose grouping of other German artists. They met up with Austrian romantic landscape artist Joseph Anton Koch who became a tutor to the group. In 1827 they were joined by Joseph von Führich, the principal motivation of the Nazarenes was a reaction against Neoclassicism and the routine art education of the academy system. In Rome the group lived an existence, as a way of re-creating the nature of the medieval artists workshop. Religious subjects dominated their output, and two major commissions allowed them to attempt a revival of the art of fresco painting. Two fresco series were completed in Rome for the Casa Bartholdy and the Casino Massimo, however, by 1830 all except Overbeck had returned to Germany and the group had disbanded. Many Nazarenes became influential teachers in German art academies, middle Ages in history German Romanticism Nazarenes in the History of Art Preraphaelites Purismo Gabriel Wüger Mitchell Benjamin Frank. Romantic Painting Redefined, Nazarene Tradition and the Narratives of Romanticism, ashgate Publishing,2001, ISBN 0-7546-0477-2 Cordula Grewe. Painting the Sacred in the Age of German Romanticism, “Making of a Romantic Icon, The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbeck’s ‘Italia und Germania. ’” American Philosophical Society,2007. Unwilling Moderns, The Nazarene Painters of the Nineteenth Century in Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide - Volume 2, Issue 3, Autumn 2003
39.
Ossian
–
Ossian is the narrator and purported author of a cycle of epic poems published by the Scottish poet James Macpherson from 1760. Macpherson claimed to have collected word-of-mouth material in Gaelic, said to be from ancient sources, Ossian is based on Oisín, son of Finn or Fionn mac Cumhaill, anglicised to Finn McCool, a legendary bard who is a character in Irish mythology. Contemporary critics were divided in their view of the works authenticity, the work was internationally popular, translated into all the literary languages of Europe and was highly influential both in the development of the Romantic movement and the Gaelic revival. Macphersons fame was crowned by his burial among the giants in Westminster Abbey. Ker, in the Cambridge History of English Literature, observes that all Macphersons craft as a philological impostor would have been nothing without his literary skill. In 1760 Macpherson published the English-language text Fragments of ancient poetry, collected in the Highlands of Scotland, later that year, he claimed to have obtained further manuscripts and in 1761 he claimed to have found an epic on the subject of the hero Fingal, written by Ossian. The name Fingal or Fionnghall means white stranger, according to Macphersons prefatory material, his publisher, claiming that there was no market for these works except in English, required that they be translated. Macpherson published these translations during the few years, culminating in a collected edition, The Works of Ossian. The most famous of these Ossianic poems was Fingal, written in 1762, the supposed original poems are translated into poetic prose, with short and simple sentences. The mood is epic, but there is no single narrative, the main characters are Ossian himself, relating the stories when old and blind, his father Fingal, his dead son Oscar, and Oscars lover Malvina, who looks after Ossian in his old age. Though the stories are of endless battles and unhappy loves, the enemies and causes of strife are given little explanation, characters are given to killing loved ones by mistake, and dying of grief, or of joy. There is very little information given on the religion, culture or society of the characters, the landscape is more real than the people who inhabit it. Drowned in eternal mist, illuminated by a sun or by emphemeral meteors. Napoleon and Diderot were great admirers, and Voltaire wrote parodies of them, thomas Jefferson thought Ossian the greatest Poet that has ever existed, and planned to learn Gaelic so as to read his poems in the original. They were proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical writers such as Homer, many writers were influenced by the works, including Walter Scott, and painters and composers chose Ossianic subjects. One poem was translated into French in 1762, and by 1777 the whole corpus, goethes associate Johann Gottfried Herder wrote an essay titled Extract from a correspondence about Ossian and the Songs of Ancient Peoples in the early days of the Sturm und Drang movement. Complete Danish translations were made in 1790, and Swedish ones in 1794–1800, in Scandinavia and Germany the Celtic nature of the setting was ignored or not understood, and Ossian was regarded as a Nordic or Germanic figure who became a symbol for nationalist aspirations. It was his translation that Napoleon especially admired, and among others it influenced Ugo Foscolo who was Cesarottis pupil in the University of Padua, by 1800 Ossian was translated into Spanish and Russian, with Dutch following in 1805, and Polish, Czech and Hungarian in 1827–33
40.
Romanticism in science
–
Romanticism was an intellectual movement that originated in Western Europe as a counter-movement to the late-18th-century Enlightenment. Romanticism incorporated many fields of study, including politics, the arts, and the humanities, Romanticism advanced a number of themes, it promoted anti-reductionism and epistemological optimism, and encouraged creativity, experience, and genius. Romanticism declined beginning around 1840 as a new movement, positivism, took hold of intellectuals, both sought to increase individual and cultural self-understanding by recognizing the limits in human knowledge through the study of nature and the intellectual capacities of man. This was considered necessary in order to build upon the knowledge of the ancients, such as Ptolemy, and Renaissance thinkers, such as Copernicus, Kepler and it was widely believed that mans sheer intellectual power alone was sufficient to understanding every aspect of nature. Examples of prominent Enlightenment scholars include, Sir Isaac Newton, Gottfried Leibniz, the above-mentioned Golden Age is a reference from Greek mythology and legend to the Ages of Man. Romantic thinkers sought to reunite man with nature and therefore his natural state, to Romantics, science must not bring about any split between nature and man. Sir Humphry Davy, a prominent Romantic thinker, said that understanding nature required an attitude of admiration, love and he believed that knowledge was only attainable by those who truly appreciated and respected nature. Self-understanding was an important aspect of Romanticism and he called nature a history of the path to freedom and encouraged a reunion of mans spirit with nature. The mechanical philosophy of the 17th century sought to explain life as a system of parts that operate or interact like those of a machine. Lamarck stated that the life sciences must detach from the sciences and strove to create a field of research that was different from the concepts, laws. He did not discover biology, he drew previous works together, johann Goethes experiments with optics were the direct result of his application of Romantic ideals of observation and disregard for Newtons own work with optics. He thus placed emphasis on the ability to see the color, the human ability to gain knowledge through flashes of insight. Alexander von Humboldt was an advocate of empirical data collection. He sought to find the unity of nature, and his books Aspects of Nature and he believed science and beauty could complement one another. Unexpected new fields emerged, such as geometry and statistics, as well as group theory, set theory. The greatest of the Romantic mathematicians was Carl Friedrich Gauss, who made contributions in many branches of mathematics. Christensen shows that the work of Hans Christian Ørsted was based in Romanticism, Sir Humphry Davy was the most important man of science in Britain who can be described as a Romantic. Of central importance was the work on the constitution and synthesis of organic substances by contemporary chemists, another Romantic thinker, who was not a scientist but a writer, was Mary Shelley
41.
Romantic nationalism
–
Romantic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. This includes, depending on the manner of practice, the language, race, culture, religion. Such downward-radiating power might ultimately derive from a god or gods, among the key themes of Romanticism, and its most enduring legacy, the cultural assertions of romantic nationalism have also been central in post-Enlightenment art and political philosophy. The ideas of Rousseau and of Johann Gottfried von Herder inspired much early Romantic nationalism in Europe, in 1784 Herder argued that geography formed the natural economy of a people, and that their customs and society would develop along the lines that their basic environment favored. The Brothers Grimm, inspired by Herders writings, put together a collection of tales. Because of the Germans role in the Protestant Reformation, Hegel argued that his historical moment had seen the Zeitgeist settle on the German-speaking peoples. In continental Europe, Romantics had embraced the French Revolution in its beginnings, in Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word Volkstum, or folkhood, was coined in Germany as part of resistance to French hegemony. In the Balkans, Romantic views of a connection with classical Greece, verdis opera choruses of an oppressed people inspired two generations of patriots in Italy, especially with Va pensiero. In Norway, romanticism was embodied, not in literature, but in the movement toward a national style, following the Congress of Vienna, and subsequent Concert of Europe system, several major empires took control of European politics. Among these were the Russian Empire, the restored French monarchy, the German Confederation, under the dominance of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, the conservative forces held sway until the Revolutions of 1848 swept across Europe and threatened the old order. Numerous movements developed around various cultural groups, who began to develop a sense of national identity, Romantic nationalists expected patriots to then learn that language and raise their children speaking that language – as part of a general program to establish a unique identity. Katharevousa Greek was constructed as a form of Modern Greek drawing on classical Greek morphology, the linguistic processes of romantic nationalism demanded linguistic culture models. Romantic historiography was centered on biographies and produced culture heroes, the modern Italian of Risorgimento patriots like Alessandro Manzoni was based on the Tuscan dialects sanctified by Dante and Petrarch. In English, Shakespeare became an iconic figure, Romantic nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm. The Brothers Grimm were criticized because their first edition was insufficiently German and they also altered the language used, changing each Fee to an enchantress or wise woman, every prince to a kings son, every princess to a kings daughter. Discussing these views in their editions, they particularly singled out Giambattista Basiles Pentamerone as the first national collection of fairy tales. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, many artists and writers also drew on their native countries folklore and folktunes for their own work to express their nationalism
42.
Opium and Romanticism
–
Readers of Romantic poetry usually come into contact with literary criticisms about the influence of opium on its works. Usually these criticisms tend to focus on such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Thomas De Quincey. The Romantic era in Britain was not only a time of growth for literature and poetry, given opiums euphoric and psychologically reinforcing properties, users eventually began using it for recreation instead of healing purposes. During the eighteenth century, opium was imported into Britain from countries such as Persia, Egypt, Smyrna. Opium imports in Britain were dominated mostly by Turkey, which accounted for 80-90% of the share brought in during the majority of the nineteenth century, although most of the opium came from the Orient, attempts were made to grow opium in England as an agricultural improvement in Britain. As importation increased, many patent opium products appeared and were sold in stores as well as apothecaries. These patent medicines included things such as Godfreys Cordial, Dalbys Carminative, McMunns Elixir, Batleys Sedative Solution, the Swiss alchemist and physician Paracelsus is often credited as the first to create a tincture of opium. In the 17th century, the English physician Thomas Browne conducted experiments upon the dosage of opium upon various animals. In the 1730s Dr. Charles Alston in one of his papers describes the biology or botany of the plant. One section of his paper describes how opium was believed to treat pain, cause sleep, increase perspiration, raise the spirits, with these things in mind, it was recommended for pain and any sort of irritation to the nerves or motions of spirits. Opium became a popular product of the early nineteenth century. George Crabbe was prescribed opium in 1790 to relieve pain, at the time of George Crabbes first prescription, the East India Company began hiring Indian Villages to cultivate large quantities of opium. Medicinally, it had used as a reliable cure since the beginning of the medical field. However, some recognized the dangers that opium held. ”Following a larger dose, “all these symptoms continue to increase, and tremors, convulsions, vertigo, stupor, insensibility. This was especially true within the circle of Romantic poets, specifically Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Thomas De Quincey, M. H. Abrams argued that opium users during the Romantic era became “inspired to ecstasies” when experiencing opium’s effects. Abrams writes how opium-using poets, utilized the imagery from these dreams in his literary creations, a poet who did not use opium could not gain access to the planet opened solely by the symptoms of using. This unfamiliar realm, known only to users, according to M. H. Abrams, another direction, more recently postulated by Elisabeth Schneider and in opposition to Abrams, utilizes evidence based on medical and textual evidence. Her idea supposes that the Romantic poet’s mind was not affected by opium as it was believed to be by critics
43.
Transcendentalism
–
Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the eastern United States. It arose as a reaction to or protest against the state of intellectualism. The doctrine of the Unitarian church as taught at Harvard Divinity School was of particular interest, miller and Versluis regard Emanuel Swedenborg as a pervasive influence on transcendentalism. It was also influenced by Hindu texts on philosophy of the mind and spirituality, a core belief of transcendentalism is in the inherent goodness of people and nature. Adherents believe that society and its institutions have corrupted the purity of the individual, Transcendentalism emphasizes subjective intuition over objective empiricism. Adherents believe that individuals are capable of generating completely original insights with as little attention, Transcendentalism is closely related to Unitarianism, the dominant religious movement in Boston in the early nineteenth century. Rather than as a rejection of Unitarianism, Transcendentalism evolved as a consequence of the Unitarian emphasis on free conscience. They were not, however, content with the sobriety, mildness, instead, they longed for a more intense spiritual experience. Stated in alternate terms, Transcendentalism was not born as a counter-movement to Unitarianism, from 1840, the group frequently published in their journal The Dial, along with other venues. By the late 1840s, Emerson believed the movement was dying out, all that can be said, Emerson wrote, is that she represents an interesting hour and group in American cultivation. There was, however, a wave of transcendentalists, including Moncure Conway, Octavius Brooks Frothingham, Samuel Longfellow. Notably, the transgression of the spirit, most often evoked by the poets voice, is said to endow in the reader a sense of purposefulness. This is the theme in the majority of transcendentalist essays. Though the group was made up of struggling aesthetes, the wealthiest among them was Samuel Gray Ward. Transcendentalists are strong believers in the power of the individual and their beliefs are closely linked with those of the Romantics, but differ by an attempt to embrace or, at least, to not oppose the empiricism of science. The transcendental movement can be described as an American outgrowth of English Romanticism, Transcendentalists believe that society and its institutions—particularly organized religion and political parties—corrupt the purity of the individual. They have faith that people are at their best when truly self-reliant and independent and it is only from such real individuals that true community can form. Even with this necessary individuality, transcendentalists also believe all people possess a piece of the Over-soul
