1.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
2.
Saxony
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Its capital is Dresden, and its largest city is Leipzig. Saxony is the tenth largest of Germanys sixteen states, with an area of 18,413 square kilometres, located in the middle of a large, formerly all German-speaking part of Europe, the history of the state of Saxony spans more than a millennium. It has been a medieval duchy, an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire, a kingdom, the area of the modern state of Saxony should not be confused with Old Saxony, the area inhabited by Saxons. Old Saxony corresponds approximately to the modern German states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony is divided into 10 districts,1. After a reform in 2008, these regions - with some alterations of their respective areas - were called Direktionsbezirke, in 2012, the authorities of these regions were merged into one central authority, the Landesdirektion Sachsen. The Erzgebirgskreis district includes the Ore Mountains, and the Schweiz-Osterzgebirge district includes Saxon Switzerland, the largest cities in Saxony according to the 31 December 2015 estimate. To this can be added that Leipzig forms a metropolitan region with Halle. The latter city is located just across the border to Saxony-Anhalt, Leipzig shares for instance an S-train system and an airport with Halle. Saxony has, after Saxony Anhalt, the most vibrant economy of the states of the former East Germany and its economy grew by 1. 9% in 2010. Nonetheless, unemployment remains above the German average, the eastern part of Germany, excluding Berlin, qualifies as an Objective 1 development-region within the European Union, and is eligible to receive investment subsidies of up to 30% until 2013. FutureSAX, a business competition and entrepreneurial support organisation, has been in operation since 2002. Microchip makers near Dresden have given the region the nickname Silicon Saxony, the publishing and porcelain industries of the region are well known, although their contributions to the regional economy are no longer significant. Today the automobile industry, machinery production and services contribute to the development of the region. Saxony is also one of the most renowned tourist destinations in Germany - especially the cities of Leipzig and Dresden, new tourist destinations are developing, notably in the lake district of Lausitz. Saxony reported an unemployment of 8. 8% in 2014. By comparison the average in the former GDR was 9. 8% and 6. 7% for Germany overall, the unemployment rate reached 8. 2% in May 2015. The Leipzig area, which recently was among the regions with the highest unemployment rate, could benefit greatly from investments by Porsche. With the VW Phaeton factory in Dresden, and many part suppliers, zwickau is another major Volkswagen location
3.
House of Wettin
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The House of Wettin is a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors and kings that once ruled territories in the present-day German states of Saxony and Thuringia. The dynasty is one of the oldest in Europe, and its origins can be traced back to the town of Wettin, the Wettins gradually rose to power within the Holy Roman Empire. Members of the family became the rulers of medieval states. Other states they gained were Meissen in 1089, Thuringia in 1263, the family divided into two ruling branches in 1485 by the Treaty of Leipzig, the Ernestine and Albertine branches. The older Ernestine branch played a key role during the Protestant Reformation, many ruling monarchs outside Germany were later tied to its cadet branch, the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. The Albertine branch, while less prominent, ruled most of Saxony, agnates of the House of Wettin have, at various times, ascended the thrones of Great Britain, Portugal, Bulgaria, Poland, Saxony, and Belgium. Only the British and Belgian lines retain their thrones today, the oldest member of the House of Wettin who is known for certain is Theodoric I of Wettin, also known as Dietrich, Thiedericus, and Thierry I of Liesgau. He was most probably based in the Liesgau, around 1000, the family acquired Wettin Castle, which was originally built by the local Slavic tribes, after which they named themselves. Wettin Castle is located in Wettin in the Hassegau on the Saale River, around 1030, the Wettin family received the Eastern March as a fief. The prominence of the Wettins in the Slavic Saxon Eastern March caused Emperor Henry IV to invest them with the March of Meissen as a fief in 1089. The family split into two ruling branches in 1485 when the sons of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony divided the territories hitherto ruled jointly, as Albert ruled under the title of Duke of Saxony, his possessions were also known as Ducal Saxony. The older Ernestine branch remained predominant until 1547 and played an important role in the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation, Frederick III appointed Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon to the University of Wittenberg, which he had established in 1502. The Ernestine predominance ended in the Schmalkaldic War, which pitted the Protestant Schmalkaldic League against the Emperor Charles V, although itself Lutheran, the Albertine branch rallied to the Emperors cause. Charles V had promised Moritz the rights to the electorship, after the Battle of Mühlberg, Johann Friedrich der Großmütige, had to cede territory and the electorship to his cousin Moritz. Although imprisoned, Johann Friedrich was able to plan a new university and it was established by his three sons on 19 March 1548 as the Höhere Landesschule at Jena. On 15 August 1557, Emperor Ferdinand I awarded it the status of university, the Ernestine line was thereafter restricted to Thuringia and its dynastic unity swiftly crumbled, dividing into a number of smaller states, the Ernestine duchies. In the 18th century, Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, established what was to become known as Weimar Classicism at his court in Weimar, notably by bringing Johann Wolfgang von Goethe there. The Ernestine Wettins, on the hand, repeatedly subdivided their territory
4.
Meissen porcelain
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Meissen porcelain or Meissen china is the first European hard-paste porcelain. It was developed starting in 1708 by Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, after his death that October, Johann Friedrich Böttger continued von Tschirnhauss work and brought porcelain to the market. Its signature logo, the swords, was introduced in 1720 to protect its production. It dominated the style of European porcelain until 1756, at the beginning of the eighteenth century Johann Friedrich Böttger pretended he had solved the dream of the alchemists, to produce gold from worthless materials. When King Augustus II of Poland heard of it, he kept him in protective custody, for years Johann Friedrich Böttger was unsuccessful in this effort. At the same time, Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, a mathematician and scientist, experimented with the manufacture of glass, Tschirnhaus supervised Böttger and by 1707 Böttger reluctantly started to help in the experiments by Tschirnhaus. When Tschirnhaus suddenly died, the recipe apparently was handed over to Böttger, Böttger refined the formula and with some Dutch co-workers, experienced in firing and painting tiles, the stage was set for the manufacturing of porcelain. In 1709, the King established the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Porcelain Manufactory, placed Böttgers laboratory at Albrechtsburg castle in Meissen, the first type of porcelain produced by Böttger was a refined and extremely hard red stoneware known in Germany as Böttgersteinzeug. It retained very crisp definition in its mold-cast applied details, on bodies that could be polished to a gloss before firing, models were derived from Baroque silver shapes and Chinese ceramic examples. Meissens production of a hard paste white porcelain that could be glazed and painted soon followed, Böttgers experimental wares rapidly gained quality but never achieved successful painted and fired decor. The first successful ornaments were gold decorations applied upon the fired body, multicolor enamelled painting was introduced by Johann Gregorius Höroldt in 1723, with an increasingly broad palette of colors that marked the beginning of the classic phase of Meissen porcelain. His enamel paints are still the basis for ceramic paints today, initially paintings often imitated oriental patterns. The signature underglaze Meissen Blue was introduced by Friedrich August Köttig, soon minutely detailed landscapes and port scenes, animals, flowers, galante courtly scenes and chinoiseries— fanciful Chinese-inspired decorations— were to be found on Meissen porcelain. The Kakiemon vases and tea wares of kilns in Arita, Japan were imitated as Indianische Blume, wares were also sold in solid glazed colors, to be enamelled in private workshops and independently retailed. The support of Augustus patronage attracted to Meissen some of the finest painters and modelers of Europe as staff artists, the Albrechtsburg was utilized to protect the secrets of the manufacture of the white gold. As a further precaution, very few knew the special secret of how to make porcelain. Thus, for a few years, Meissen retained its monopoly on the production of porcelain in Europe. By 1717, however, a production was set up at Vienna, as Samuel Stöltzel sold the secret recipe
5.
Dresden Castle
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Dresden Castle or Royal Palace is one of the oldest buildings in Dresden, Germany. For almost 400 years, it was the residence of the electors and it is known for the different architectural styles employed, from Baroque to Neo-renaissance. It also houses an art library and the management of the Dresden State Art Collections, the original castle was a Romanesque keep, built around 1200. The Hausmannsturm was built at the beginning of the 15th century, from 1468 until 1480, the keep was extended by the master builder, Arnold von Westfalen, becoming an enclosed four-wing construction. In the middle of the 16th century, an addition was added in the Renaissance style, after a major fire in 1701, Augustus II the Strong rebuilt much of the castle in the Baroque style. The collection rooms were created at time in the western wing. The Silver Room, Heraldic Room and the Pretiosensaal were built from 1723–1726, the 800th anniversary of the House of Wettin, Saxonys ruling family, resulted in more rebuilding between 1889 and 1901. A Neo-renaissance renovation was undertaken, followed by various modernizations, such as in-floor heating, on the outside of the Stallhof, which links the castle complex with the adjacent Johanneum, the Procession of Princes was painted by the artist Wilhelm Walther. The 102-meter-long mural represents the history of the Wettins, since it quickly faded, it was transferred to about 23,000 Meissen porcelain tiles between 1904 and 1907. Most of the castle was reduced to a shell during the February 13,1945 bombing of Dresden in World War II. Three rooms of the Green Vault were destroyed, however, the collections survived, having been moved to safety at Königstein Fortress in the early years of the war. For the first 15 years after the end of the Second World War, no attempt was made to rebuild the castle, restoration began in the 1960s with the installation of new windows and has occurred rapidly since then. The castles restoration was completed in 2013, also accessible is an art library with approximately 260,000 volumes of special literature on art history. The character of the holdings is closely related to the focal points of the museums. The Gallery of the Electors and the Hausmannsturm, once Dresdens largest tower, the Green Vault is a museum that contains the largest collection of treasures in Europe. Founded by Augustus II the Strong in 1723, it features a unique, the museum consists of the Historic Green Vault and the New Green Vault. The Historic Green Vault is known for its treasure chambers, and is itself a work of art. The New Green Vault is more modern, the Historic Green Vault is located on the ground floor of the Dresden Castle and visits require an advance booking, admittance to the New Green Vault, which is on the second floor, is not limited
6.
Conrad, Margrave of Meissen
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Conrad, the Great was the Margrave of Meissen from 1123 until his retirement in 1156. He was the son of Thimo I, Count of Wettin, Count of Brehna, of the House of Wettin and Ida and he was also Count of Wettin, Brehna and Camburg from before 1116. In 1123, he became Count of Eilenburg, wiprecht was unable to hold his own against his two opponents and in 1124 Conrad was securely in power in Meissen. In 1136, Lothair, then emperor, appointed him to Lusatia as well, thereafter, Upper Lusatia remained a part of Meissen and the march of Lusatia was reduced to Lower Lusatia alone. In 1143, Conrad became Count of Groitzsch and Rochlitz and Vogt of Chemnitz, in August, Conrad and Albert, with the bishops of Magdeburg, Havelburg, and Brandenburg, massed their forces at Magdeburg. The Obodrite prince Niklot and his fortresses of Dubin and Dimin were besieged, both he and Pribislav, another Obodrite prince, were forced to accept Christianity and make peace. In the following years, he founded the monastery of St Peter auf dem Lauterberg, luitgard of Elchingen-Ravenstein, whom he had married before 1119, had blessed him with many children. His eldest surviving son, Otto II, Margrave of Meissen, succeeded him in Meissen, while his surviving son, Dietrich I. Frederick I of Brehna Oda Adela, Queen consort of Denmark Bertha Sophie Gertrud Agnes II, Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg Thompson, new York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co.1928
7.
George, King of Saxony
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George was a King of Saxony of the House of Wettin. George was born in the Saxon capital Dresden and he was the second son of King John of Saxony and his wife Princess Amelia of Bavaria, daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. On 11 May 1859 at Belém Palace, Lisbon, George married the Infanta Maria Anna of Portugal, Ferdinand was born as the Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and as such was a Catholic Saxon kinsman of George. Maria Anna died young and George stayed unmarried for the rest of his long life, George served under his brother Alberts command during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and in the Franco-German War. In 1871, Prince George was awarded the Grand Cross of the Württemberg Military Merit, Prince George was a Generalfeldmarschall before his ascension. It gradually became clear that Georges older brother Albert I and his wife Queen Carola would not have any children and he succeeded Albert I as King of Saxony on 19 June 1902, albeit for just a brief two-year reign. He died in Pillnitz and was succeeded by his eldest son Frederick Augustus III, King George was a controversial figure. He divorced by royal decree his eldest son from his daughter-in-law, luises flight from Dresden was due to her father-in-laws threatening to have her interned in Sonnestein Mental Asylum for life. Rulers of Saxony George, King of Saxony, ThePeerage. com
8.
Henry I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark
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Henry I, called the Elder, count of Eilenburg and son of Count Dedo II of Wettin and his second wife Adela of Brabant, inherited in 1075 the marches of Lusatia and Ostmark. In 1089, following the deposition of the anti-king Egbert II of Meissen and he was the first of the House of Wettin to govern that margraviate. It had previously held by Vratislaus II of Bohemia. He was married to Gertrud of Braunschweig, daughter of the margrave Egbert I of Meissen, from which marriage he had only a son, list of Margraves of Meissen Wettin Thompson, James Westfall. New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co.1928
9.
Frederick Augustus III of Saxony
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Frederick Augustus III was the last King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin. Born in Dresden, Frederick Augustus was the first son of King George and his wife, Frederick Augustus served in the Royal Saxon Army before becoming king, and later was promoted to Generalfeldmarschall. Though well-loved by his subjects, he abdicated as king on 13 November 1918. He died in Sibyllenort in Lower Silesia and was buried in Dresden, Frederick Augustus entered the Royal Saxon Army in 1877 as a second lieutenant, despite being only twelve years old. Given his royal status, he advanced rapidly through the ranks and he served initially with the Royal Saxon 1. He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1883, captain in 1887, major in 1889, by 1891, he was commander of the 1st Battalion of Schützen -Regiment Nr.108. He was promoted to colonel on 22 September 1892 and took command of the Schützen -Regiment Nr.108 on the same day, on 20 September 1894, the 29-year-old prince was promoted to Generalmajor and given command of the 1st Royal Saxon Infantry Brigade Nr.45. On 22 May 1898, he was promoted to Generalleutnant and given command of the 1st Royal Saxon Infantry Division Nr.23 and he commanded this division until 26 August 1902, when he took command of the XII Corps. He was promoted to General der Infanterie one month later, on 24 September and he remained in command of the corps until October 1904, when he became king. His military career ended with his accession to the throne. Following his fathers accession, he was in July 1902 appointed à la suite of the German Marine Infantry by Emperor Wilhelm II during a visit to Kiel, Frederick Augustus married Archduchess Luise, Princess of Tuscany, in Vienna on 21 November 1891. They were divorced in 1903 by the decree of the King after she ran away while pregnant with her last child. Luises flight from Dresden was due to her father-in-laws threatening to have her interned in Sonnestein Mental Asylum for life and her brother supported her in her wish to escape Saxony. Emperor Franz-Josef of Austria-Hungary did not recognise the divorce and they had seven children, Friedrich August Georg, Crown Prince of Saxony. After becoming a Jesuit priest, he renounced his rights in 1923 and he was allegedly assassinated by the SS or Gestapo in 1943. Friedrich Christian, Margrave of Meissen, Duke of Saxony, married Princess Elisabeth Helene of Thurn and Taxis and had issue. Married first Princess Sophie of Luxembourg, daughter of Guillaume IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, in 1921, Maria Alix Carola, stillborn 22 August 1898 Margarete Carola Wilhelmine. Married Franz Joseph, Prince of Hohenzollern-Emden, married firstly Archduke Joseph Franz of Austria and secondly Reginald Kazanjian
10.
Bombing of Dresden in World War II
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The bombing and the resulting firestorm destroyed over 1,600 acres of the city centre. An estimated 22,700 to 25,000 people were killed, three more USAAF air raids followed, two occurring on 2 March aimed at the citys railroad marshaling yard and one small raid on 17 April aimed at industrial areas. Immediate German propaganda claims following the attacks and post-war discussions on whether the attacks were justified has led to the bombing becoming one of the moral causes célèbres of the war. Several researchers have asserted that not all of the infrastructure, such as the bridges, was targeted. Large variations in the death toll have fueled the controversy. In March 1945, the German government ordered its press to publish a falsified casualty figure of 200,000 for the Dresden raids, and death toll estimates as high as 500,000 have been given. The city authorities at the time estimated no more than 25,000 victims, the Red Army had launched their Silesian Offensives into pre-war German territory. The German army was retreating on all fronts, but still resisting strongly, on 8 February 1945, the Red Army crossed the Oder River, with positions just 70 km from Berlin. Alternatively, the report warned that the Germans might hold out until November if they could prevent the Soviets from taking Silesia, hence, any assistance provided to the Soviets on the Eastern Front could shorten the war. At the time of bombing, the Soviets were conducting their Lower Silesian Offensive, plans for a large and intense aerial bombing of Berlin and the other eastern cities had been discussed under the code name Operation Thunderclap in mid-1944, but had been shelved on 16 August. These were now re-examined, and the decision was made to draw up a limited operation. That evening Churchill asked the Secretary of State for Air, Sir Archibald Sinclair and he mentioned that aircraft diverted to such raids should not be taken away from the current primary tasks of destroying oil production facilities, jet aircraft factories, and submarine yards. Pray report to me tomorrow what is going to be done, attacks there, where main railway junctions, telephone systems, city administration and utilities were located, would result in chaos. Ostensibly, Britain had learned this after the Coventry Blitz, when loss of this crucial infrastructure had supposedly longer-lasting effects than attacks on war plants. In response, Chief of the British Air Staff Portal, who was in Yalta, bottomleys list included oil plants, tank and aircraft factories and the cities of Berlin and Dresden. Dresden was Germanys seventh-largest city and, according to the RAF at the time, nonetheless, according to some historians, the contribution of Dresden to the German war effort may not have been as significant as the planners thought. The US Air Force Historical Division wrote a report in response to the concern about the bombing - the report remained classified until December 1978. This said that there were 110 factories and 50,000 workers in the city supporting the German war effort at the time of the raid and it also said there were barracks, hutted camps, and a munitions storage depot
11.
Otto II, Margrave of Meissen
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Otto II, the Rich, a member of the House of Wettin, was Margrave of Meissen from 1156 until his death. He was the eldest surviving son of Conrad, Margrave of Meissen, margrave of Meissen, the partition meant a weakening of the Wettin rule, and Ottos Imperial politics remained rather ineffective. Together with Archbishop Wichmann of Magdeburg he joined Emperor Fredericks expedition against the rebellious Saxon duke Henry the Lion in 1179, however, he failed to benefit from his downfall. He also established Altzella Abbey on the Miriquidi estates on the slopes of the Ore Mountains he had received from the emperor, the new mining town of Freiberg and its revenues soon became one of the margraves most important sources of income, earning him the later epithet the Rich. In his later years, Otto had to cope with fierce inheritance quarrels between his sons Albert and Theoderic, the margrave preferred the younger brother Theodoric and in turn was captured and arrested by Albert, who was backed by Ottos brother Dedi and his son Conrad. Emperor Frederick enforced his release from detention, nevertheless Albert could assert his claims, the fraternal feud, however, lingered on until Alberts sudden death in 1195. Otto married Hedwig of Brandenburg, a daughter of the Ascanian margrave Albert the Bear
12.
Albert I, Margrave of Meissen
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Albert I, the Proud, was the Margrave of Meissen from 1190 until his death in 1195. His father was Otto II, his mother Hedwig of Brandenburg and he was a member of the House of Wettin. His father did not intend to let Albert succeed him, preferring his younger brother Dietrich, Albert did not accept this and started a war against his father and brother. In 1188, he took his father prisoner. Under the orders of Frederick I, he had to set him free, nevertheless, the conflict with his brother continued as he tried to regain the margraviate. After Albert died in 1195 with no children to succeed him, Meissen, with its rich mines, was seized by the emperor Henry VI as a vacant fief of the empire. Dietrich finally came into possession of his inheritance in 1198, following Henrys death in 1197, list of Margraves of Meißen Wettin
13.
Theodoric I, Margrave of Meissen
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Theodoric I, called the Oppressed, was the Margrave of Meissen from 1198 until his death. He was the son of Otto II, Margrave of Meissen. Albrecht took his prisoner to try to make him return the succession to the way it had been. After Otto obtained his release by order of the emperor Frederick I, albrecht took back the Meißen margraviate from his brother. Dietrich attempted to regain the margraviate, supported by Landgraf Hermann I of Thuringia, in 1195, however, he left on a pilgrimage to Palestine. After Albrechts death in 1195, leaving no children, Meissen, Dietrich finally came into possession of his inheritance two years later on Henrys death. At the time of the struggle between the two rival kings Philip of Swabia and Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor, Phillip gave Dietrich the tenure of the march of Meißen again. After that time, Dietrich was on Phillips side and remained true to the Staufer even after Phillip was murdered in 1208, Dietrich became caught up in dangerous disagreements with the city of Leipzig and the Meißen nobility. Margrave Dietrich died on 18 February 1221, possibly poisoned by his doctor, instigated into doing so by the people of Leipzig and he left behind a widow, Jutta of Thuringia, daughter of Hermann I, Landgrave of Thuringia. Some of his children had already died
14.
Henry III, Margrave of Meissen
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Henry III, called Henry the Illustrious from the House of Wettin was Margrave of Meissen and last Margrave of Lusatia from 1221 until his death, from 1242 also Landgrave of Thuringia. Born probably at the Albrechtsburg residence in Meissen, Henry was the youngest son of Margrave Theodoric I, Margrave of Meissen and his wife Jutta, in 1230 he was legally proclaimed an adult. Henry had his first combat experience in sometime around 1234, while on crusade in Prussia and his pilgrimage and company is well-documented by Peter of Dusburg, and it resulted in the construction of Balga castle, an important administrative centre for the Teutonic Knights. In 1245 after many years of conflict with the Ascanian margraves of Brandenburg, he was forced to cede the fortresses of Köpenick, Teltow and Mittenwalde north of Lower Lusatia. In 1249 however, the Silesian duke Bolesław II the Bald granted him the area around Schiedlo Castle at the Oder river. In the struggle between the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX, Henry took the side of the Emperor, in consideration, Frederick II in 1242 promised him the heritage of Henry Raspe as Landgrave of Thuringia and Count palatine of Saxony. In 1243 the Emperor also betrothed his daughter Margaret of Sicily to Henrys son Albert II, Henry remained a loyal supporter of the Hohenstaufens and not before the departure of Fredericks son Conrad IV from Germany did he recognise the antiking William of Holland. From 1273 Henry was an important support to the newly elected Rex Romanorum Rudolph of Habsburg in his struggle against rivaling King Ottokar II of Bohemia, Henry was patron of many tournaments and singing competitions, in which he also took part himself, and commissioned the famous Christherre-Chronik. He set to music hymns to be sung in the churches, in 1234 Henry married Constance of Babenberg, the daughter of Duke Leopold VI of Austria. For his younger son Theodoric, Henry had created – though without imperial consent – the smaller Margraviate of Landsberg in the part of the Lusatian lands around Leipzig. Henry kept for only the Margraviate of Meissen, the remaining Lower Lusatian lands. Only domestic disorders, caused by the unworthiness of his son Albert, clouded the later years of his reign and indeed, long after his death in 1288, led to the loss of Lusatia and Thuringia
15.
Albert II, Margrave of Meissen
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Albert II, the Degenerate was a Margrave of Meissen, Landgrave of Thuringia and Count Palatine of Saxony. He was a member of the House of Wettin and he was the eldest son of Henry III, Margrave of Meissen by his first wife, Constantia of Austria. In 1265 Margrave Henry III granted the Landgraviate of Thuringia and the Palatinate to Albrecht, Henry III kept for himself the Margraviates of Meissen and Lusatia as a formal power over his sons. In June 1255 Albert married Margaret of Sicily, the daughter of Emperor Frederick II, who was also King of Sicily, Margaret, also known as Margaret of Schwaben was a sister of Henry Otto, also known as Carlotto. As a dowry the Pleissnerland was pledged to the House of Wettin, Albert and Margaret had five children, Henry, Lord of Pleissnerland, inherited the Pleissnerland in 1274, he married Hedwig, daughter of Henry III the White. Dietrich, called Diezmann, Margrave of Lusatia, agnes, married before 21 July 1282 to Henry I, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen. After what was at first a happy rule and marriage, Albert turned away from Margaret and she bore him two children, a daughter, Elisabeth in 1269, and a son, Albert in 1270. When she discovered the adultery and the births, Margaret left Wartburg on 24 June 1270. The two younger sons, Frederick and Diezmann were looked after by their uncle, Theodoric of Landsberg, Henry, the oldest, disappeared in Silesia in 1282. Albert married Kunigunde in 1274 and legitimised their children, Frederick was captured by his father and was locked up in Wartburg castle, however, he escaped one year later and continued the war against his father together with Diezmann. During this time, in 1284, their uncle Theodoric of Landsberg died and these deaths heightened the family disputes. Shortly after, Frederick captured his father Albert in battle, by the Treaty of Rochlitz, Albert obtained his freedom after the renunciation of large parts of his lands. He retained Meissen for himself, but later sold it to Frederick Tuta, in the sale, Albert included Meissen and Osterland as his fiefs, despite the fact they were in the hands of his sons. Thanks to this, Adolfs successor Albert I of Habsburg was able to take possession of lands, claiming that the contract of sale was legitimate. Kunigunde of Eisenberg died on 31 October 1286, four years later, on 1 October 1290, Albert married thirdly Elisabeth of Orlamünde, heiress of Nordhalben and widow of Hartmann XI of Lobdeburg-Arnshaugk. The same year, Apitz, Alberts son by Kunigunde, was legitimized by the Emperor. He wished to make Apitz his successor in Thuringia, but the plan was resisted by his two elder sons, on 11 April 1291 Apitzs younger full-sister, Elisabeth, married Henry III of Frankenstein, the marriage was short-lived and childless. Elisabeth died on 28 September 1293, three years later, Apitz married a sister of his brother-in-law Henry III, apparently also called Elisabeth
16.
Frederick I, Margrave of Meissen
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Frederick I, called the Brave or the Bitten was Margrave of Meissen and Landgrave of Thuringia. Born in Eisenach, Frederick was the son of Albert II, Margrave of Meissen, according to legend, his mother, fleeing her philandering husband in 1270, was overcome by the pain of parting and bit Frederick on the cheek, therefore he became known as the Bitten. However, these met with little favor. Swabia, pawned by Conradin before his last expedition, was disintegrating as a territorial unit and he went unrecognized in Outremer, and Charles of Anjou was deeply entrenched in power in Southern Italy. From 1280, he was count palatine of Saxony, because his father preferred their half-brother Apitz, Frederick and his brother Diezmann waged war upon him. Frederick was captured in 1281, but after a war his father recognized the rights of the brothers in 1289. However, King Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg thought that Meissen and the Eastern March should return to the crown after Tutas death, the brothers were again called to arms in the defense of their inheritance, but had to give up the land. Frederick stayed away from home until the death of Adolf returned his land to him, by now his father had also been reconciled with him. Soon afterwards, however, King Albert I claimed Thuringia and was supported by the cities, the landgraves family was besieged on the Wartburg by the Eisenach forces, however, Frederick succeeded in liberating them. But only the victory at Lucka on 31 May 1307 gave the two brothers relief, and before the king could gather new forces, he died, after Diezmanns death the vassals rendered homage to Frederick only, because Albert had renounced rule for an annuity. Only the cities were still opposed to Frederick, but Erfurt was subjected by force, and he was also reconciled with Emperor Henry VII, to whom Frederick had originally refused to submit. In 1310, the Emperor granted him his lands as fiefs, the feuds were renewed in 1316, but ended in 1317 with the Magdeburg Peace. Through the extinction of the Ascanian house, Frederick regained all lost lands except for Landsberg, now he was able to install a general Landfrieden. Paralyzed by a stroke since 1321, Frederick died on 16 November 1323 at Eisenach and his bones were later moved to Grimmenstein Castle in Gotha and after its demolition were buried in Friedenstein Castle, however, his tomb was erected in Reinhardsbrunn. Only two children survived him, Elizabeth, who was married to Henry II, Landgrave of Hesse, in 1322, Frederick married Agnes of Gorizia-Tyrol in 1286, daughter of Meinhard, Duke of Carinthia and Elisabeth of Bavaria
17.
Frederick II, Margrave of Meissen
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Frederick II, the Serious, Margrave of Meissen, son of Frederick I, Margrave of Meissen and Elisabeth von Lobdeburg-Arnshaugk. In 1323 he started as a sole heir under guardianship of his mother the succession of his father in the Margraviate of Meissen. After he had become mature in 1329, he had to pass long-term fights with the vassals, in 1342, dissatisfied nobles, whose concerns were their rights and independence, banded together in Arnstadt against Frederick II, in what would be known as the Thuringian Counts War. The conflict would last up to 1346, friedrich II limited himself to consolidate his rule and to defend against the danger going out from Charles IV. At a meeting 1348 in Bautzen both recognized the existing possession states, Frederick II married May 1323 in Nürnberg Mathilde of Bavaria, daughter of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor and had 9 children, Elisabeth, married to Frederick V of Nuremberg. Frederick Frederick III, Landgrave of Thuringia Balthasar Beatrice, nun in Weißenfels Louis, William the One-eyed Anne, nun in Seußlitz Clara Rogers, the Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 3. List of Margraves of Meissen Wettin
18.
Frederick III, Landgrave of Thuringia
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Frederick III, the Strict, Landgrave of Thuringia and Margrave of Meissen, was the son of Frederick II, Margrave of Meissen and Mathilde of Bavaria. He took over the government for his brothers William, Balthasar, one year later the Emperor gave the Margraviate of Meissen to the four brothers jointly. In 1368 common government began, afterwards the brothers changed rulership every two years, in 1379 they divided their possessions. Frederick was married to Catherine of Henneberg, heiress of Coburg, Neustadt, Sonneberg, Neuhaus, Rodach and they had four sons, Frederick Frederick I, Elector of Saxony Wilhelm II, Margrave of Meissen Georg List of Margraves of Meissen Wettin
19.
Frederick I, Elector of Saxony
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Frederick I, the Belligerent or the Warlike, a member of the House of Wettin, ruled as Margrave of Meissen from 1407 and Elector of Saxony from 1423 until his death. He is not to be confused with his cousin Landgrave Frederick IV of Thuringia and he was the eldest son of Frederick III, Landgrave of Thuringia, and Catherine of Henneberg. In the German town war of 1388 he assisted Frederick V of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, for his victory at the Battle of Brüx in 1421, Frederick was granted the ranks of Duke and Elector. Thus ascended Frederick IV, who called himself Frederick I now as duke, after the death of his brother William Frederick became ruler over the entire possession of The House of Wettin except Thuringia. Frederick died in 1428 at Altenburg and he was buried as the first Wettin in the princely chapel in Meissen Cathedral. In 1409, Frederick and his brother William founded the University of Leipzig, for the benefit of German students who had left the University of Prague after the events relating to the Western Schism
20.
Frederick II, Elector of Saxony
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Frederick II, The Gentle was Elector of Saxony and was Landgrave of Thuringia. Frederick was the eldest of the seven children of Frederick I, Elector of Saxony, after the death of his father in 1428 he took over the government together with his younger brothers William III, Henry and Sigismund. In 1433 the Wettins finally concluded peace with the Hussites and in 1438 Frederick led Saxon forces to victory in the Battle of Sellnitz and that same year it was considered the first federal state parliament of Saxony. The parliament received the right to find together in case of innovations in fiscal matters also without summoning by the ruler, after Henrys death in 1435, and Sigismund was forced to renounce and became a bishop in, Frederick and William divided their possessions. In the Division of Altenburg in 1445, William III received the Thuringian and Frankish part, disputes over the distribution led however in 1446 to the Saxon Brother War, which found an end only on 27 January 1451 with the peace of Naumburg. It belongs therefore to the oldest still existing borders of Europe, after the death of Frederick, both of his sons, Ernest and Albert, first took over the government together. After Duke William III died in 1482, Thuringia returned to Fredericks line, in Leipzig on 3 June 1431 Frederick married Margaret of Austria, the daughter of Ernest of Austria and Cymburgis of Masovia. They had eight children, Amalia, married on 21 March 1452 to Louis IX, anna, married on 12 November 1458 to Albert III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg. Article in the ADB Die Wettiner
21.
Ernest, Elector of Saxony
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Ernest was Elector of Saxony from 1464 to 1486. Ernst was the founder and progenitor of the Ernestine line of Saxon princes, and he was the second son of the eight children of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony and Margaret of Austria, sister of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor. The death of his older brother Frederick made him the new heir apparent to the position of Elector of Saxony, in 1455 Ernst was kidnapped, along with his brother Albert, by the knight Kunz von Kaufungen an episode famous in German history as the Prinzenraub. According to the Treaty of Leipzig he received an area around Wittenberg, the southern Thuringian part, as a residence he selected Wittenberg. He provided for the welfare of the country and introduced the constitution, one year after the division elector Ernest died in Colditz, at the age of 46 years, the consequence of a fall from a horse. In Leipzig on 19 November 1460 Ernst married Elisabeth of Bavaria, the Chivalric Ethos and the Development of Military Professionalism. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
22.
Albert III, Duke of Saxony
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Albert III was a Duke of Saxony. He was nicknamed Albert the Bold or Albert the Courageous and founded the Albertine line of the House of Wettin. Albert was born in Grimma as the third and youngest son of Frederick II the Gentle, Elector of Saxony, later, he was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece. After escaping from the hands of Kunz von Kaufungen, who had abducted him together with his brother Ernest, he spent some time at the court of the emperor Frederick III in Vienna. In Eger on 11 November 1464 Albert married Zdenka, daughter of George of Podebrady, King of Bohemia, but failed to obtain the Bohemian Crown on the death of George in 1471. He was successful in restoring the authority of Maximilian in Holland, Flanders, and Brabant and his services were rewarded in 1498 when Maximilian bestowed upon him the title of Hereditary Governor of Friesland, but he had to make good his claim by force of arms. He had to a great extent succeeded, and was paying a visit to Saxony, the duke recaptured Groningen, but soon afterwards he died at Emden. Albert, who was a man of strength and considerable skill in feats of arms, delighted in tournaments. His loyalty to the emperor Frederick, and the expenses incurred in connection, aroused some irritation among his subjects. Frederick, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights
23.
Frederick III, Elector of Saxony
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Frederick III, also known as Frederick the Wise, was Elector of Saxony from 1486-1525. Frederick was the son of Ernest, Elector of Saxony and his wife Elisabeth, daughter of Albert III and he is notable as being one of the most powerful early defenders of Martin Luther, Lutheranism and the Protestant Reformation although he had little personal contact with Luther himself. Fredericks treasurer Degenhart Pfaffinger, spoke on behalf of him to Martin Luther, Pfaffinger supported Frederick since the joint pilgrimage to the holy land. He is considered to have remained a Roman Catholic all his life, Frederick III is commemorated as a Christian ruler in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod on 5 May. His court painter from 1504 was Lucas Cranach the Elder, born in Torgau, he succeeded his father as elector in 1486, in 1502, he founded the University of Wittenberg, where Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon taught. Frederick was among the princes who pressed the need of reform upon Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, money was paid in order to venerate these relics and thus escape years in purgatory. A diligent and pious person who rendered appropriate devotion to each of these relics could merit 1,902,202 years worth of penance, two years later, the collection exceeded 19,000 pieces. Frederick died unmarried at Lochau, a castle near Annaburg. He was succeeded by his brother Duke John the Steadfast as Elector of Saxony, portrait of Frederick III of Saxony Luther This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Jackson, Samuel Macauley, ed. article name needed. New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, london and New York, Funk and Wagnalls
24.
John, Elector of Saxony
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Johann, Elector of Saxony, known as Johann the Steadfast or Johann the Constant, was Elector of Saxony from 1525 until 1532. He was a member of the House of Wettin, born in Meissen, He was the fifth of the seven children of Ernest, Elector of Saxony and Elisabeth of Bavaria. From 1486 onwards he was the heir presumptive of his childless brother Frederick the Wise, as his nickname The Steadfast indicates, he resolutely continued the policies of his brother toward protecting the progress of the Protestant Reformation. In 1527 the Lutheran Church was established as the church in Ernestine Saxony. He was a leader of the Schmalkaldic League of Protestant states formed in 1530 to protect the Reformation, after his death he was, like his brother Frederick, buried in the famous Castle Church in Wittenberg with a grave by Hans Vischer. He was succeeded by his eldest son Johann Frederick, in Torgau on 1 March 1500 Johann married firstly Sophie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, daughter of Magnus II, Duke of Mecklenburg. They had one son, Johann Frederick I, Elector of Saxony, in Torgau on 13 November 1513 Johann married secondly Margaret of Anhalt-Köthen. They had four children, Maria, married on 27 February 1536 to Duke Philip I of Pomerania-Wolgast Margaret, married on 10 June 1536 to Hans Buser, John John Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Coburg
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John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony
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Johann Frederick I, called Johann the Magnanimous, or St. Johann the Steadfast, was Elector of Saxony and Head of the Protestant Confederation of Germany, Champion of the Reformation. Johann Frederick was the eldest son of Elector Johann by his first wife and his mother died fourteen days after his birth, on 12 July 1503. He received his education from George Spalatin, whom he highly esteemed during his whole life, Spalatin was Martin Luthers friend and advisor and thus, through Spalatins schooling, Johann developed a devotion to the teachings of Martin Luther. His knowledge of history was comprehensive, and his library, which extended over all sciences, was one of the largest in Germany, with vivid interest he observed the development of the reformatory movement. He eagerly read Luthers writings, urged the printing of the first complete edition of his works, at the Elector castle at Torgau, he constructed a chapel specifically designed to be a Lutheran place of worship and invited Martin Luther to deliver the inaugural sermon. His father introduced him into the political and diplomatic affairs of the time and he took an active part in the disturbances caused by the Pack affair, and Luther was grateful to him for his exertions, in spite of his youth, for the maintenance of peace. During the second diet of Speyer he temporarily assumed the reins of government in place of his father and he accompanied the latter to the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, signed with him the Augsburg Confession and was active in the proceedings. His attitude did not remain unnoticed, and won him the emperors dislike, in 1532, Johann Frederick succeeded his father as elector. In the beginning he reigned with his half-brother, John Ernest and he consolidated the Lutheran State Church by the institution of an electoral consistory and renewed the church visitation. At the Diet of Schmalkalden in 1537 the council was refused, and the elector treated the papal legate with open disregard and rejected the propositions of Dr. Held and his attitude became more and more stubborn and regardless of consequences, not to the advantage of the Protestant cause. In 1542 he expelled Duke Henry of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel from his country to protect the Evangelical cities Goslar and Brunswick, New war-like entanglements hindered Charles V from interfering and by apparently yielding he succeeded in concealing his true intentions. The elector appeared personally at the diet of Speyer in 1544, the harmony of the emperor with the Evangelicals appeared never greater than at that time. John Frederick actually thought that peace had come and continued the reforms in his country. Even the growing discord among the allies did not disturb him, when the Schmalkaldic War broke out in 1546, he marched to the south at the head of his troops, but the unexpected invasion of his country by his cousin Duke Maurice compelled him to return. He succeeded in reconquering the larger part of his possessions and repelling Maurice, the Battle of Mühlberg,24 April 1547, went against him and dispersed his army. He received a wound to the left side of his face. He was taken prisoner by Charles V and sent into exile in Worms and he was never greater and more magnanimous than in the days of his captivity, as is evident from the correspondence with his children, his wife, and his councilors. Friends and foes were compelled to acknowledge his calm behavior, his unwavering faith, though offered several opportunities to be set free, if he would but compromise his faith and convictions, he steadfastly refused, and urged his sons to remain strong and faithful
26.
George, Duke of Saxony
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George the Bearded, Duke of Saxony, was duke of Saxony from 1500 to 1539. Duke George was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece and his father was Albert the Brave of Saxony, founder of the Albertine line of the Wettin family, his mother was Sidonie, daughter of George Podiebrad, King of Bohemia. Elector Frederick the Wise, a member of the Ernestine branch of the same family, George, as the eldest son, received an excellent training in theology and other branches of learning, and was thus much better educated than most of the princes of his day. George was married at Dresden, on 21 November 1496, to Barbara Jagiellon, daughter of Casimir IV, King of Poland and Elisabeth and they had ten children, but all, with the exception of a daughter, died before their father, Christof. Johann, Hereditary Duke of Saxony, married on 20 May 1516 to Elizabeth of Hesse, Frederick, Hereditary Duke of Saxony, married on 27 January 1539 to Elisabeth of Mansfeld. Christine, married on 11 December 1523 to Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, magdalena, married on 6 November 1524 to Joachim Hector, then Hereditary Elector of Brandenburg. In 1498, the emperor granted Albert the Brave the hereditary governorship of Friesland, at Maastricht,14 February 1499, Albert settled the succession to his possessions, and endeavoured by this arrangement to prevent further partition of his domain. He died 12 September 1500, and was succeeded in his German territories by George as the head of the Albertine line, the Saxon occupation of Friesland, however, was by no means secure and was the source of constant revolts in that province. But this arrangement did not restore peace in Friesland, which remained a source of trouble to Saxony, in 1515 George sold Friesland to the future Emperor Charles V for the very moderate price of 100,000 florins. He tried tot keep the lands of het Bildt which werent granted him by Charles V. These troubles outside of his Saxon possessions did not prevent George from bestowing much care on the government of the ducal territory proper. When regent, during the lifetime of his father, the difficulties arising from conflicting interests, in his desire to achieve good order, severity, and the amelioration of the condition of the people, he sometimes ventured to infringe even on the rights of the cities. From the beginning of the Reformation in 1517, Duke George directed his energies chiefly to ecclesiastical affairs, the duke was not blind to the undeniable abuses existing at that time in the Church. Some years later, he wrote a preface to a translation of the New Testament issued at his command by his private secretary, Hieronymus Emser. Lutheran books were confiscated by his order, wherever found, though he refunded the cost of the books, for those, however, who merely held anti-catholic opinions, the punishment was only expulsion from the duchy. The duke deeply regretted the constant postponement of the ardently desired council and he vainly sought to obtain from the Curia the right, which was sometimes granted by Rome, to make official visitations to the conventual institutions of his realm. His reforms were confined mainly to uniting the almost vacant monasteries and to matters of economic management, in 1525, Duke George formed, with some other German rulers, the League of Dessau, for the protection of Catholic interests. In the same way he was the spirit of the League of Halle, formed in 1533
27.
Henry IV, Duke of Saxony
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Henry IV the Pious, Duke of Saxony was a Duke of Saxony from the House of Wettin. Henry was the son of Albert, Duke of Saxony. When Albert died in 1500, his eldest son George succeeded to the Duchy of Saxony, saxon rule of Friesland was disturbed by constant revolts. Consequently, Henry, who was of a rather inert disposition, in 1505 Henry ceded Friesland to George, in return for an annuity and the districts of Wolkenstein and Freiberg, where Henry made his residence. In 1517, Martin Luther started the Protestant Reformation in Germany, only two of Georges sons survived to adulthood, John and Frederick, but they both predeceased him without issue. When Frederick died in 1539, the Lutheran Henry became heir presumptive to the Duchy under the Act of Settlement of 1499 and he made Lutheranism the state religion of the Duchy of Saxony but reigned for only two years. In Freiberg, on 6 July 1512, Heinrich married Catherine of Mecklenburg and they had six children, Sybille, married on 8 February 1540 to Duke Francis I of Saxe-Lauenburg. Emilie, married on 25 August 1533 to Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Sidonie, married on 17 May 1545 to Eric II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg
28.
Maurice, Elector of Saxony
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Maurice was Duke and later Elector of Saxony. His clever manipulation of alliances and disputes gained the Albertine branch of the Wettin dynasty extensive lands, Maurice was the fourth child but first son of the future Henry IV, Duke of Saxony, then a Catholic, and his Protestant wife Catherine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Henry was the brother of George, Duke of Saxony. In December 1532, Maurice, aged 11, came to live at the castle of his godfather Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Magdeburg, for two years, he lived the contemplative life of a cardinal until his uncle Duke George demanded his return to Saxony. George began the training of the future Duke and educated him as a Catholic, but in 1536 Maurices father became a Protestant, and when he succeeded George in 1539, the entire Duchy followed him. Henry and Catherine took the education of their son into their hands. That same year, Maurice, now 18 years old, went to live in Torgau with his older cousin John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony, whom he despised, this led to a strong hatred between them. With another cousin, however, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, after Maurice came of age, in 1539, his parents began to look for a wife for him. The favorite was Philips eldest daughter, Agnes, the marriage plans threatened to fail, however, because of the illegal double marriage of the Landgrave. Without the knowledge of his parents, Maurice remained committed to his engagement with Agnes, the wedding, particularly disapproved of by his mother, took place in Marburg on 9 January 1541. Letters from that time illustrate the strong mutual devotion of the couple, together they had two children, Anna, married on 24 August 1561 to Prince William I of Orange-Nassau. On 18 August 1541 Duke Henry died, and Maurice, as the eldest son, succeeded him as Duke of Saxony and he replaced most of his advisors, because they had been opposed to his marriage with Agnes from the very start. George von Carlowitz, one of the new confidants of the Duke, thus he participated in the emperors army in the war against the forces of the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire, Duke William of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, and King Francis I of France. However, on the hand, the Duke confiscated the properties of the Catholic Church in his lands. From the wealth of dissolved monasteries in his country Maurice founded the schools of Schulpforta, Meissen. The legal basis for this was the New National Order of 1543, later, Maurice refused to join the Protestant Schmalkaldic League, although the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, his friend and father-in-law, was its leader. In the Holy Week of 1542, in the process of the Wurzener Feud it nearly came to a fratricidal war, there had previously been a controversy between Maurice and John Frederick over the use of tax funds from this area. The intervention of the Landgrave Philip of Hesse and Martin Luther prevented the war, the emperor tried in this way to drive a still deeper wedge into the Protestant camp in order to prevent a further propagation of the Protestant Faith
29.
Augustus, Elector of Saxony
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Augustus was Elector of Saxony from 1553 to 1586. Augustus was born in Freiberg, the youngest child and third son of Henry IV, Duke of Saxony and he consequently belonged to the Albertine branch of the House of Wettin. Brought up as a Lutheran, he received a good education, Augustus, however, remained on friendly terms with his brother, and to further his policy spent some time at the court of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, in Vienna. In Torgau on 7 October 1548 Augustus was married to Anna, daughter of King Christian III of Denmark and they took up residence at Weissenfels. The couple had fifteen children, John Henry, Elisabeth, married on 4 June 1570 to Count Palatine Johann Casimir of Simmern, they were separated in 1589. Christian I, successor of his father in the Electorship, Dorothea, married on 26 September 1585 to Duke Heinrich Julius of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Anna, married on 16 January 1586 to Duke John Casimir, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach, soon after his marriage, Augustus desired a more imposing establishment. The result was that Maurice made more generous provision for his brother, Augustus was on a visit to Denmark when by Maurices death in July 1553 he became elector of Saxony. The first care of the new elector was to come to terms with John Frederick and this object was secured by a treaty made at Naumburg in February 1554, when, in return for the grant of Altenburg and other lands, John Frederick recognized Augustus as elector of Saxony. In imperial politics Augustus acted upon two main principles, to cultivate the friendship of the Habsburgs, and to peace between the contending religious parties. On one occasion only did he waver in his allegiance to the Habsburgs, in 1568 a marriage was arranged between Johann Casimir, son of Frederick III, Elector Palatine, and Elisabeth, Augustus own daughter. For a time it seemed possible that the Saxon elector would support his son-in-law in his attempts to aid the revolting inhabitants of the Spanish Netherlands, although a sturdy Lutheran, the elector hoped at one time to unite the Protestants. His moderation, however, prevented him from joining those who were prepared to take measures to attain this end. The hostility between the Albertines and the Ernestines gave Augustus serious trouble, a preacher named Matthias Flacius held an influential position in ducal Saxony, and taught a form of Lutheranism different from that taught in the Electorate of Saxony. This breach was widened when Flacius began to make attacks on Augustus, to prophesy his speedy downfall. After some delay Grumbach and his protector, John Frederick, were placed under the imperial ban and his campaign in 1567 was short and successful. John Frederick surrendered, and passed his time in prison until his death in 1595, Grumbach was taken and executed, Augustus ordered the leaders of the Crypto-Calvinists to be seized, and they were tortured and imprisoned. This strict form of Lutheranism was declared binding upon all the inhabitants of Saxony, the change in Saxony, however, made no difference to the attitude of Augustus on imperial questions
30.
Christian I, Elector of Saxony
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Christian I of Saxony was Elector of Saxony from 1586 to 1591. He belonged to the Albertine line of the House of Wettin and he was the sixth but second surviving son of Elector Augustus of Saxony and Anna of Denmark. The death of his brother, Alexander, made him the new heir apparent to the Electorate of Saxony. Christian succeeded his father when he died, in 1586, during his reign, the first measurement was made of the Electorate of Saxony by Matthias Oeder. Later, the work of Oeder was continued by Balthasar Zimmermann until 1633, in Dresden on 25 April 1582, Christian married Sophie, daughter of John George, Elector of Brandenburg. They had seven children, Christian II, successor of his father as Elector, John George I, successor of his brother as Elector. Sophie, married on 26 August 1610 to Duke Francis I of Pomerania, Augustus, married on 1 January 1612 to Elisabeth of Brünswick-Wolfenbüttel. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
31.
Christian II, Elector of Saxony
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Christian II of Saxony was Elector of Saxony from 1591 to 1611. He was born in Dresden, the eldest son of Christian I of Saxony and he belonged to the Albertine line of the House of Wettin. Christian succeeded his father as Elector of Saxony in 1591 at the age of eight, because of his youth, his kinsman, Duke Frederick William I of Saxe-Weimar, assumed the regency of the Electorate until 1601, when Christian was declared an adult and began to govern. In the course of the event that led to the Thirty Years War. In Dresden, on September 12,1602, Christian married Hedwig and he died in Dresden in 1611. Having left no issue, on his death his brother John George succeeded him as Elector
32.
John George I, Elector of Saxony
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John George I was Elector of Saxony from 1611 to 1656. Born in Dresden, John George was the son of the Elector Christian I. He belonged to the Albertine line of the House of Wettin, John George succeeded to the electorate on 23 June 1611 on the death of his elder brother, Christian II. The geographical position of the Electorate of Saxony rather than her high standing among the German Protestants gave her ruler much importance during the Thirty Years War, at the beginning of his reign, however, the new elector took up a somewhat detached position. The new emperor secured the help of John George for the campaign in Bohemia by promising that he should be undisturbed in his possession of certain ecclesiastical lands. Still, although clamouring vainly for the exemption of the electorate from the covered by the edict. He did, indeed, in February 1631 call a meeting of Protestant princes at Leipzig, meanwhile, Gustavus Adolphus had landed in Germany, aiming to relieve Magdeburg. Hoping that an alliance would be concluded eventually, Gustavus avoided any military action, tilly, commander of the main imperial force, was also concerned about the possibility of an alliance, no matter how unlikely it was at the time. In order to any such move, he invaded Saxony. This had the effect of driving John George into the alliance he had hoped to preempt, the Saxon troops were present at the battle of Breitenfeld, but were routed by the imperialists, the elector himself seeking safety in flight. Nevertheless, he took the offensive. Still letting his troops fight in a desultory fashion against the imperialists, John George again negotiated for peace, and in May 1635 he concluded the important treaty of Prague with Ferdinand II. His reward was Lusatia and certain other additions of territory, the retention by his son Augustus of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, and some concessions with regard to the edict of restitution. Almost at once he declared war upon the Swedes, but in October 1636 he was beaten at Wittstock, and Saxony, ravaged impartially by both sides, was soon in a deplorable condition. At length in September 1645 the elector was compelled to agree to a truce with the Swedes, who, however, retained Leipzig, and as far as Saxony was concerned this ended the Thirty Years War. After the peace of Westphalia, which with regard to Saxony did little more than confirm the treaty of Prague, John George died on 8 October 1656. Although not without political acumen, John George was not a ruler, his character appears to have been harsh and unlovely. In addition to his successor John George II, he left three sons, Augustus, Christian and Maurice, in Dresden on 16 September 1604 Johann Georg married firstly Sibylle Elisabeth, daughter of Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg
33.
John George II, Elector of Saxony
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The information is true but the identity is a lie because he was a black man also known as Chief/Duke/ King George the 2nd. The true years is 1656 through 1680 Johann George II was the Elector of Saxony from 1656 to 1680 and he belonged to the Albertine line of the House of Wettin. He was the third but eldest surviving son of the Elector Johann George I, Elector of Saxony and Magdalene Sybille of Prussia and he succeeded his father as Elector of Saxony when John George I died on 8 October 1656. In 1657 John George made an arrangement with his three brothers with the object of preventing disputes over their territories, and in 1664 he entered into friendly relations with Louis XIV. He received money from the French king, but the existence of a strong party in Saxony induced him occasionally to respond to the overtures of the emperor Leopold I. The electors primary interests were not in politics, but in music and he commissioned the building of the first opera house, the Opernhaus am Taschenberg. In 1658 John George was accepted into the Fruitbearing Society, through the patronage of Duke William of Saxe-Weimar, also, his government was less effective in establishing absolutist rule and a standing army than were Bohemia or Prussia. John Georges reign saw the economic reconstruction of Saxony after the Thirty Years War. New trades and manufactures developed, such as textiles, hard coal, locally mined silver filled the Electorates empty treasury, and the Leipzig Trade Fair and the Bohemian Exulanten of 1654 also stimulated economic activity. John George died in Freiberg on 22 August 1680, in Dresden on 13 November 1638 John George married Magdalene Sibylle of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. They had three children, Sibylle Marie Erdmuthe Sophie, married on 29 October 1662 to Christian Ernst, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth John George III, mary E. Frandsen, Crossing Confessional Boundaries. The Patronage of Italian Sacred Music in 17th Century Dresden, new York, Oxford University Press,2006. ISBN 0-19-517831-9 Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
34.
John George III, Elector of Saxony
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Johann George III was Elector of Saxony from 1680 to 1691. He belonged to the Albertine line of the House of Wettin, Johann Georg III was born in Dresden, the only son of Johann George II and Magdalene Sybille of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. John George succeeded his father as Elector of Saxony when he died, in 1680, because of his courage and his enthusiasm for the War he gained the nickname of the Saxonian Mars. From his childhood, he learned the typical duties and manners of an heir to the throne and that included not only a strictly Lutheran education but also language tuition and instruction in the art of fortress building and warfare. In character he resembled his father and he shared his liking for Italian music and theatre. In 1685 John George III met the Venetian opera singer Margarita Salicola and began a relationship and she began a new era for the opera in Saxony, which had previously been dominated by the castrati. In 1686, the pietist Philipp Jakob Spener became the chaplain in Dresden. But Spener was not generally accepted there and in 1691 he moved to Brandenburg, meanwhile, the duchy had recovered again from the consequences of the Thirty Years War. By 1689, Dresden had a population of 21,300 and was becoming less provincial, John George showed a strong interest in the military and even while he was still the heir led Saxonian Army forces in the Rhine Campaign. The Privy War Chancellery was set up as the highest military authority, extreme pressure was used to obtain recruits for the new army. In foreign policy, he was less inconstant than his father and he broke off relations with the French crown and strove energetically to win Brandenburg and other German princes for the Imperial war against the French aggressor. There was also the matter of John Georges wish for Emperor Leopold I to decide a law concerning a wooded area in the Ore Mountains in his favour. The Emperor did not grant material support until the siege of Vienna made his situation look increasingly desperate, Johann Georg even led his 10,400 strong army against the Turks. At Tulln, on the Danube, he joined the Imperial army, in the ensuing Battle of Vienna he commanded the left wing, where he demonstrated great personal courage. The battle call selected by the emperor Maria Help had been amended to Jesus. King John III of Poland, who took part in the battle, said of John George. John George also accompanied the Emperor after the victory when he entered Vienna, in 1686 he again supported Leopolds Turkish War. For payment of 300,000 thalers, he sent a troop of 5,000 men to the Emperor
35.
John George IV, Elector of Saxony
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John George IV was Elector of Saxony from 1691 to 1694. He belonged to the Albertine line of the House of Wettin and was the eldest son of the Elector John George III, John George succeeded his father as Elector when he died, on 12 September 1691. At the beginning of his reign his chief adviser was Hans Adam von Schöning, although John George was unable to procure his ministers release, Leopold managed to allay the electors anger, and early in 1693 the Saxon soldiers rejoined the imperialists. In Leipzig on 17 April 1692, John George married Eleonore Erdmuthe of Saxe-Eisenach, the young Elector was forced to marry by his mother, the Dowager Electress Anna Sophie, supposedly to produce legitimate heirs to the Electorate. The real reason for the marriage was to end the liaison between John George and Magdalena Sibylla of Neidschutz, by order of the Elector, Ursula had married Colonel Rudolf of Neidschutz, who officially appears as the father of her daughter. John George may never have known of his possible blood relationship to Magdalena Sibylla or regarded the claim as a spread by ill-wishers. Immediately after he assumed the Electorate, he lived with her. The Electress, Eleonore Erdmuthe, humiliated every day since her wedding, was relegated to the Hofe, John George moved into another palace with Magdalena Sybilla. Desperate to marry his mistress, John George tried to murder his wife, when John George tried to stab Eleonore with a sword, the unarmed Frederick turned the impact away with his hand, leaving him with a lifelong handicap. After a substantial bribe from the Elector, on 20 February 1693 Magdalene Sybille was created Countess of Rochlitz by Imperial Decree, shortly before, she gave birth the only daughter of the couple, Wilhelmina Maria. But the happiness ended soon, Magdalene Sybille contracted smallpox and died on 4 April 1694, in the arms of the Elector, John George died twenty-three days later, on 27 April. He was buried in the Freiberg Cathedral, the new Elector took the guardianship of the little orphan Wilhelmina Maria, who was raised in the court. He acknowledged the girl as his niece and gave her a dowry when she was married to a Polish Count, böttcher, Hans-Joachim, Johann Georg IV. von Sachsen und Magdalena Sibylla von Neitschütz - Eine tödliche Liaison, Dresdner Buchverlag 2014, ISBN 978-3-941757-43-1. John George IV in the Mad Monarchs Series, http, //www. madmonarchs. nl/ This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
36.
Augustus II the Strong
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Augustus II the Strong of the Albertine line of the House of Wettin was Elector of Saxony, Imperial Vicar and became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. Augustus great physical strength earned him the nicknames the Strong, the Saxon Hercules, in order to be elected King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Augustus converted to Roman Catholicism. As a Catholic, he received the Order of the Golden Fleece from the Holy Roman Emperor, as Elector of Saxony, he is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the arts and architecture. He established the Saxon capital of Dresden as a cultural centre. Augustus also amassed an art collection and built lavish baroque palaces in Dresden. His reigns brought Poland some troubled times and he led the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Great Northern War, which led to the Russian Empire strengthening its influence in Europe, especially within Poland. His main pursuit was bolstering royal power in the Commonwealth, characterized by broad decentralization in comparison with other European monarchies and he tried to accomplish this goal using foreign powers and thus destabilized the state. Augustus was born in Dresden on 12 May 1670, the son of the Elector Johann Georg III. As the second son, Augustus had no expectation of inheriting the electorate, since his brother, Johann Georg IV. Augustus married Kristiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth in Bayreuth on 20 January 1693 and they had a son, Frederick Augustus II, who succeeded his father as Elector of Saxony and King of Poland as Augustus III. While cavorting during the season in Venice, his older brother. On 27 April 1694, Johann Georg died without issue and Augustus became Elector of Saxony. To be eligible for election to the throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1697, the Saxon dukes had traditionally been called champions of the Reformation. Saxony had been a stronghold of German Protestantism and Augustus conversion was considered shocking in Protestant Europe. Although the prince-elector guaranteed Saxonys religious status quo, Augustus conversion alienated many of his Protestant subjects, as a result of the enormous expenditure of money used to bribe the Polish nobility and clergy, Augustus contemporaries derisively referred to the Saxon dukes royal ambitions as his Polish adventure. His church policy within the Holy Roman Empire followed orthodox Lutheranism and ran counter to his new-found religious, the Protestant princes of the empire and the two remaining Protestant electors were anxious to keep Saxony well-integrated in their camp. Saxony remained Lutheran and the few Roman Catholics residing in Saxony lacked any political or civil rights. In 1717, it clear just how awkward the situation was, to realize his ambitious dynastic plans in Poland and Germany
37.
Augustus III of Poland
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The only legitimate son of Augustus II of Poland, he followed his father’s example by joining the Roman Catholic Church in 1712. In 1719 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the Holy Roman emperor Joseph I, chosen king by a small minority of electors on 5 October 1733, he drove his rival, the former Polish king Stanisław I, into exile. He was crowned in Kraków on 17 January 1734, and was recognised as king in Warsaw in June 1736. Augustus gave Saxon support to Austria against Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession and his last years were marked by the increasing influence of the Czartoryski and Poniatowski families, and by the intervention of Catherine the Great in Polish affairs. His rule deepened the anarchy in Poland and increased the dependence on its neighbours. The reign of Augustus witnessed one of the greatest periods of disorder in Polish history, Augustus was the only legitimate son of Augustus II the Strong, Prince-Elector of Saxony and king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth who belonged to the Albertine line of the House of Wettin. His mother was Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, groomed to succeed his father as king of Poland, Augustus converted to Catholicism in 1712, when publicly announced, this caused discontent among the Protestant Saxon aristocracy. Upon the death of Augustus II in 1733, Augustus inherited the Saxon electorate and was elected to the Polish throne, with the support of the Russian Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. He was opposed by the forces of Stanisław I Leszczyński, who had usurped the throne with Swedish support during the Great Northern War, reigning from 1706 until 1709, Stanisław was overthrown after the Swedish defeat at Poltava. As King, Augustus was uninterested in the affairs of his Polish–Lithuanian dominion, focusing instead on hunting, the opera, Augustus delegated most of his powers and responsibilities in the Commonwealth to Heinrich von Brühl, who served in effect as the viceroy of Poland. Augustuss eldest surviving son, Frederick Christian of Saxony, succeeded his father as Elector, a Russian-supported coup détat in Poland, instigated by the Czartoryskis, resulted in the election of Stanisław August Poniatowski as king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania on 7 September 1764. August was portrayed by Ernst Dernburg in the 1941 film Friedemann Bach, in Dresden on 20 August 1719, Augustus married Archduchess Maria Josepha of Austria, the eldest child of Joseph I, the Holy Roman Emperor. Bachs title of Koeniglicher Pohlnischer Hoff Compositeur is engraved on the page of Bachs famous Goldberg Variations. History of Saxony History of Poland Rulers of Saxony List of Lithuanian rulers Dresden Castle – Residence of Augustus III Bach, Johann Sebastian, Mass in B Minor, Cue points, Oregon Bach festival
38.
Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony
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Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony was the Prince-Elector of Saxony for fewer than three months in 1763. He was a member of the House of Wettin and he was the third but eldest surviving son of Frederick Augustus II, Prince-Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, by his wife, Maria Josepha of Austria. A weak child since his birth, he suffered paralysis in one foot and was dependent on wheelchairs early in life. In a well-known portrait, which shows his Wettin and Wittelsbach relatives around him, today, this painting is shown in the Schloss Nymphenburg. His mother tried repeatedly to him to take monastic vows. The early deaths of his two brothers, Frederick Augustus, who was stillborn, and Joseph Augustus, made him the heir to the throne. When his father died, on 5 October 1763, Frederick Christian succeeded him as Elector, even before, Frederick Christian had written in his diary, Princes exist for their subjects, not subjects for their princes. His subjects wealth, public credit and a well-standing army make up the happiness of a prince. He was also known for his musical talent. In Munich on 13 June 1747 and again in Dresden on 20 June 1747, like him, she was exceptionally talented in music and the couple had nine children. He began to reconstruct the wrecked finances of his country through his Rétablissements, through economic reconstruction, he gave new life to the devastated and plundered land which his predecessors had left him. Also introduced were measures to pare down the expenses of the court, most members of his government, such as Thomas von Fritsch of Leipzig, Friedrich Ludwig Wurmb, and Christian Gotthelf Gutschmied had middle-class origins. After a reign of only 74 days, Frederick Christian died of smallpox and he was buried in the Hofkirche of Dresden. Because Frederick Christians eldest son was a minor, his brother Franz Xavier and the Dowager Electress Maria Antonia took the joint regency of the Electorate until the boys majority
39.
Frederick Augustus I of Saxony
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Frederick Augustus I was King of Saxony from the House of Wettin. He was also Elector Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and Duke Frederick Augustus I of Warsaw, succeeding his father in 1763 as the elector Frederick Augustus III, he brought order and efficiency to his countrys finances and administration. In foreign policy, he was neutralist but drifted towards Prussia, whose side he took in the Bavarian succession dispute, for his cooperation he received substantial financial compensation from Prussia. In 1785, Frederick Augustus joined the Prussian-sponsored Fürstenbund, but remained neutral during the Austro-Prussian dispute in 1790. Offered the Polish crown in 1791, he declined as he feared that his politics may cause further damage to the Polish state. The next year Saxony reluctantly joined the coalition against Revolutionary France but was defeated by 1796, a year later, Napoleon secured the Grand Duchy of Warsaw for him. Frederick Augustus remained an ally to France even after the disastrous Russian campaign. Although he had started half-hearted negotiations with Austria, he broke them off after the French victory at Lützen, in the Battle of Leipzig, however, his troops went over to Prussia and he was taken as prisoner to Berlin. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Frederick Augustus lost three-fifths of his territory to Prussia and he spent the rest of his life attempting to rehabilitate his truncated state. The Augustusplatz in Leipzig is named after him and he was the second son of Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony, and Maria Antonia Walpurgis of Bavaria, Princess of Bavaria. Because he was underage at the time of the death of his father in 1763 and his uncle Prince Franz Xavier functioned as his representative. In 1765 Prince Franz Xavier ceded the Polish throne to Stanisław II Augustus on behalf of the underage Elector, Frederick Augustus was named successor to Stanislaw, however, when a Polish Constitution was ratified by the lower House of the Polish Parliament. At the same time, the head of the Saxon Royal House was established as heir to the Polish throne, as a matter of fact, a full partition of Poland among the neighboring powers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia had already taken place by 1795. Frederick Augustus himself did not sign the Declaration, Saxony wanted nothing to do with the defensive alliance against France formed between Austria and Prussia. Nonetheless, a proclamation of the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire issued in March 1793 obligated Frederick Augustus to take part, there was great concern in Saxony in April 1795 when Prussia suddenly concluded a separate peace with France in order to facilitate the partition of Poland. The Congress of Rastatt was supposed to authorize the surrender of left bank areas of the Rhine to France in return for compensation for the rulers who were relinquishing their territories. Frederick Augustus also did not participate in the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, with respect to the Prussian idea of a north German empire, within which Saxony was supposed to be raised to a kingdom, he appeared reserved. At the twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt in 1806 the Prussian – Saxon troops suffered a defeat at the hands of Napoleon
40.
Anthony of Saxony
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Anthony, also known by his German name Anton, was a King of Saxony from the House of Wettin. He became known as Anton der Gütige and he was the fifth but third surviving son of Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony, and Maria Antonia of Bavaria. With few chances to take part in the politics of the Electorate of Saxony or receive any land from his older brother Frederick Augustus III, no Elector of Saxony after Johann Georg I gave appananges to his younger sons. During the first years of the reign of his brother as Elector, Anton was the third in line. The death of Karl make him the next in line to the Electorate as Crown Prince and his aunt, the Dauphine of France, had wanted to engage her daughter Marie Zéphyrine of France to Anthony, Marie Zéphyrine died in 1755 abandoning plans. Another French candidate was Marie Zéphyrines sister Marie Clothilde but again nothing happened, caroline died after only one year of marriage, on 28 December 1782 having succumbed to smallpox. The premiere could not be arranged in time, however, so the opera The Marriage of Figaro was substituted on the orders of the brides uncle. The choice of The Marriage of Figaro was considered improper for a new bride by many observers, mozart complained bitterly of the intrigues surrounding this incident in a letter to his friend Gottfried von Jacquin that was written in stages between 15 October and 25 October 1787. After this Anton became, officially, the Heir to the Electorate and, from 1806, Anton succeeded his brother Frederick August I as King of Saxony when he died, on 5 May 1827. The 71-year-old new king was inexperienced in government, thus he had no intention of initiating profound changes in foreign or domestic policy. Prussian diplomats discussed granting the Prussian Rhineland to Anton in exchange for Lutheran Saxony in 1827, after the July Revolution of 1830 in France, disturbances in Saxony began in autumn. These were directed primarily against the old Constitution, therefore, on 13 September the cabinet dismissed Count Detlev von Einsiedel, followed by Bernhard von Lindenau. Because the people wished a younger regent, Anton agreed to appoint his nephew Frederick Augustus Prince Co-Regent, as another consequence of the disturbances, a new constitution was accepted in 1831 which came into effect on 4 September of that year. With it Saxony became a Constitutional monarchy and obtained a bi-cameral legislature and a responsible ministry, the constitution was more conservative than other constitutions existing at this time in the German Union. Still the constitution served Saxony until 1918, the king kept his exclusive sovereignty but was bound by the Government Business to cooperate with the Ministers and the decisions of both Chambers of the States meeting. The entry of Saxony into the Zollverein in 1833 let trade, industry, without surviving male issue, Anton was succeeded as king by his nephew, Frederick Augustus II. A History of Modern Germany, 1840-1945, dresden und Umgebung, Geschichte, Kunst und Kultur der sächsischen Hauptstadt. British Envoys to Germany 1816-1866, 1816-1829
41.
Frederick Augustus II of Saxony
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Frederick Augustus II was King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin. He was the eldest son of Maximilian, Prince of Saxony — younger son of the Elector Frederick Christian of Saxony — by his first wife, Caroline of Bourbon, from his birth, it was clear that one day Frederick Augustus would become the ruler of Saxony. His father was the son of the Elector Frederick Christian of Saxony who left surviving male issue. When the King Frederick Augustus I died and Anton succeeded him as King, Frederick Augustus became second in line to the throne and he was an officer in the War of the Sixth Coalition. However, he had little interest in military affairs, the July Revolution of 1830 in France marked the beginning of disturbances in Saxony that autumn. The people claimed a change in the constitution and demanded a young regent of the kingdom to share the government with the King Anton, on 1 September the Prince Maximilian renounced his rights of succession in favor of his son Frederick Augustus, who was proclaimed Prince Co-Regent of Saxony. On 2 February 1832 Frederick Augustus brought Free Autonomy to the cities, also, by an edict of 17 March of that year, the farmers were freed from the corvée and hereditary submission. On 6 June 1836, King Anton died and Frederick Augustus succeeded him, as an intelligent man, he was quickly popular with the people as he had been since the time of his regency. The new king solved political questions only from a sense of duty. Mostly he preferred to leave things on the hands of his ministers. A standardized jurisdiction for Saxony created the Criminal Code of 1836, during the Revolutionary disturbances of 1848, he appointed liberal ministers in the government, lifted censorship, and remitted a liberal electoral law. On 28 April Frederick August II dissolved the Parliament, in 1849, Frederick Augustus was forced to flee to the Königstein Fortress. The May Uprising was crushed by Saxon and Prussian troops and Frederick was able to return only a few days. In 1844 Frederick Augustus, accompanied by his personal physician Carl Gustav Carus, among places they visited were Lyme Regis where he purchased from the local fossil collector and dealer, Mary Anning, an ichthyosaur skeleton for his own extensive natural history collection. During a journey in Tyrol, he had an accident in Brennbüchel in which he fell in front of a horse that stepped on his head, on 8 August 1854, he died in the Gasthof Neuner. He was buried on 16 August in the Katholische Hofkirche of Dresden, in Dresden on 24 April 1833 Frederick Augustus married secondly with the Princess Maria of Bavaria, daughter of the King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. Like his first marriage, this was childless, the musician Theodor Uhlig was an illegitimate son of Frederick Augustus. Without legitimate issue, after his death Frederick Augustus was succeeded by his younger brother, Johann
42.
John of Saxony
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John was a King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin. He was born in Dresden, the son of Maximilian, Prince of Saxony—younger son of the Elector Frederick Christian of Saxony—by his first wife, Caroline of Bourbon. During most of his life, John stood little chance of inheriting the Saxon Crown, he was preceded by his father, however, in 1822 Clement died unmarried in Italy, and John was now only preceded in the line of succession by his older brother Frederick Augustus. Johns older brother became King Frederick Augustus II in 1836, now he was the first in line of succession to the throne, the King, married twice, was childless. John remained as heir presumptive during all the reign of his brother, John became King of Saxony after the death of his brother Frederick Augustus II on 9 August 1854. The Judiciary Organization of 1855, the extension of the railroad network, under his government, came the acceptance of the French Commercial Treaty and the acknowledgment of a contract with Italy. He exerted himself under influence of his minister Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust for the Great Germany Solution of the imperial arrangement, in 1866 Saxony fought on the Austrian side in the Austro-Prussian War. Finally, after the defeat of the Battle of Königgrätz, Saxony joined the North German Confederation, the King died two years later, aged seventy-one. Beyond his political work, Johann was busy with literature, under the pseudonym Philalethes he translated to German the Dantes Divine Comedy, some parts of this work were placed in the Schloss Weesenstein. The Dresden district of Johannstadt was named after him, in Munich on 10 November 1822 and again in Dresden on 21 November 1822, Johann married with the Princess Amalia of Bavaria, daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. They had nine children, Maria Auguste Fredericka Karoline Ludovike Amalie Maximiliane Franziska Nepomucena Xaveria, Frederick Augustus Albert Anton Ferdinand Joseph Karl Maria Baptist Nepomuk Wilhelm Xaver Georg Fidelis, King Albert of Saxony. Frederick Augustus Ernst Ferdinand Wilhelm Ludwig Anton Nepomuk Maria Baptist Xaver Vincenz, Frederick Augustus Georg Ludwig Wilhelm Maximilian Karl Maria Nepomuk Baptist Xaver Cyriacus Romanus, King Georg of Saxony. Maria Sidonia Ludovica Mathilde Wilhelmine Auguste Xaveria Baptista Nepomucena Veronica Hyacinthia Deodata, Anna Maria Maximiliane Stephania Karoline Johanna Luisa Xaveria Nepomucena Aloysia Benedicta, known as Anna, married on 24 November 1856 to Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Margarete Karoline Fredericka Cecilie Auguste Amalie Josephine Elisabeth Maria Johanna, known as Margarete, married on 4 November 1856 to Archduke Carl Ludwig of Austria, King John of Saxony died at Pillnitz. Works by or about John of Saxony at Internet Archive Works by John of Saxony at LibriVox
43.
Albert of Saxony
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Albert was a German King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin. He was the eldest son of Prince John, by his wife Amalie Auguste of Bavaria, Albert had a successful military career leading Saxon troops which participated in the First Schleswig War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War. Otherwise, his reign as king was largely uneventful, Alberts education, as usual with German princes, concentrated to a great extent on military matters, but he attended lectures at the University of Bonn. His first experience of warfare came in 1849, when he served as a captain in the First War of Schleswig against Denmark. When the Austro-Prussian War broke out in 1866, Albert then Crown Prince, no attempt was made to defend Saxony, the Saxons fell back into Bohemia and effected a junction with the Austrians. They took a prominent part in the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the Jizera, the Crown Prince, however, succeeded in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive Battle of Königgrätz he held the extreme left of the Austrian position. The Saxons maintained their post with great tenacity, but were involved in the defeat of their allies. He proved a firm adherent of the Prussian alliance, on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in the 2nd army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia, his old opponent. At the Battle of Gravelotte, they formed the left of the German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the attack on St Privat. He was succeeded in command of the XII corps by his brother Prince George, Alberts conduct in these engagements won for him the complete confidence of the army, and during the Siege of Paris his troops formed the north-east section of the investing force. After the conclusion of the Treaty of Frankfurt, he was left in command of the German army of occupation, on the conclusion of peace he was made an inspector-general of the army and a field marshal. On the death of his father King John on 29 October 1873, during his reign, the Saxon monarchy became constitutional. In the 1870s Albert initiated the construction of a Dresden suburb, at that time it was the largest garrison in Germany. Near the former suburb other buildings and places still bear his name, the Albertbrücke, the Alberthafen, the Albertplatz, in 1879 he initiated the re-construction of the Saint Afra School in Meissen. In 1897 he was appointed arbitrator between the claimants for the Principality of Lippe. In Dresden on 18 June 1853 Albert married Princess Carola, daughter of Gustav, Prince of Vasa and granddaughter of Gustav IV Adolf, Albert died at Sibyllenort on 19 June 1902, and was succeeded by his brother, who became King George. He was buried in Dresden on 23 June, among the present were both the German Emperor Wilhelm II and the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I. Konrad Sturmhoefel, König Albert von Sachsen, georg von Schimpff, König Albert, Fünfzig Jahre Soldat
44.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
45.
Gigapan
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GigaPan Systems is a global, privately held technology company that provides hardware, software, and services to create and share high-resolution, interactive gigapixel panoramic images. The company is headquartered in Portland, Oregon, GigaPan Systems was founded in 2008 as a collaborative project between Carnegie Mellon University and NASA’s Ames Research Center with support from Google. The original GigaPan robotic hardware and related software were devised for NASA’s Mars Spirit and Opportunity Rovers, the project has since grown into an independent company offering solutions for capturing gigapixel images. GigaPan Systems combines high-definition images and panoramas with sharing, tagging and zooming capabilities, the company offers a solution for shooting, viewing and exploring high-resolution gigapixel images in a single system. The GigaPan system includes, Robotic Camera Mounts, The EPIC series of robotic camera mounts can capture HD, gigapixel photos using almost any digital camera. By setting the upper left and lower corners of the panorama desired, the EPIC works out how many photos the camera will need to take. GigaPan Stitch Software, GigaPan’s image stitching technology automatically combines the hundreds or thousands of images taken with a camera using the GigaPan EPIC series into a single image. The software is available for both Mac and Windows, GigaPan Viewer, Lets people view images on GigaPan. com or on a third-party website using the GigaPan free, standalone viewer application
46.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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