1.
Tongatapu
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Tongatapu is the main island of the Kingdom of Tonga and the location of its capital Nukuʻalofa. Its maximum height is 65 metres, Tongatapu is Tongas centre of government and the seat of its monarchy. Tongatapu, as a commercial and transport hub, has experienced rapid economic development than, as well as attracting many internal migrants from. The island is 257.03 square kilometres and rather flat, the island is covered with thick fertile soil consisting of volcanic ash from neighboring volcanoes. At the steep coast of the south, heights reach an average of 35 metres gradually decreasing towards the north, Tongatapu is highest in elevation around the villages of Fuaamotu and Nakolo with a height of 65 metres. North of the island are small isolated islands and coral reefs which extend up to 7 kilometres from Tongatapus shores. The almost completely closed Fangauta and Fangakakau Lagoons are important breeding grounds for birds, the lagoons were declared a Natural Reserve in 1974 by the government. The island has only but a few sandy beaches because of its raised coastlines apart from the small islands in the north boasting some of the best beaches in Tongatapu. Tongatapu has a cooler climate than the rest of Tonga as it is the southernmost group of islands in the country. Because of this, fruit production is lower in Tongatapu than it is in the islands in the north. Tongatapu is known as having one of the highest concentration of remains in the Pacific. The earliest traces of Lapita pottery found in Tonga was from around 900–850 BCE,300 years after the first settlements in Tonga were established. Archaeologist David Burley discovered the pottery around the Fangauta Lagoon,2,000 kilometres away from the Lapita pottery found at Santa Cruz in the Solomon Islands. Although Tonga was always the seat of the Tongan Empire, but in an area of distances up to 1,000 kilometres, it was often only a symbolic rule. Tongatapu was discovered by Europeans on 20 January 1643 by Abel Janszoon Tasman commanding two ships, the Heemskerck and the Zeehaen commissioned by the Dutch East India Company of Batavia. The expeditions goals were to chart the southern and eastern seas and to find a possible passage through the South Pacific. The expedition set sail from Batavia on 14 August 1642, Tasman named the island t’ Eijlandt Amsterdam, because of its abundance of supplies. This name is no longer used except by historians, resolution, under British sea captain James Cook, stopped here in 1777 and left some cattle for breeding
2.
William Mariner (writer)
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William Mariner was an Englishman who lived in Tonga from 29 November 1806 to 8 November 1810. As a teenager, Mariner was a ships clerk aboard the British privateer Port au Prince, in 1806, while it was anchored off the Tongan island of Lifuka, in the Haapai island group, Port au Prince was seized by a chief named Fīnau ʻUlukālala. Most of the crew were killed during the capture of the ship, but the chief spared Mariner, Mariner lived in Tonga for four years. After returning to England, Mariner dictated an account of his experiences, a description of Tongan society and culture. The Port-au-Prince was an English private ship of war, a vessel of 500 tons armed with 24 long nine and she carried a letter of marque and this document permitted her Captain and crew to become pirates against the enemies of England, primarily France and Spain. In payment for their pirate raids any plunder they seized was to be their own, commanded by Captain Duck she sailed for the New World on 12 February 1805 having been given a twofold commission by her owner, a Mr. Robert Bent of London. They captured a number of ships but most yielded little in the way of valuables, the Port-au-Prince was now also on the lookout for whales as well but, although catching a few, experienced little success in this endeavour. After leaving Hawaii in September under the command of Mr. Brown, she intended to port at Tahiti but missed the target. She arrived in Haapai on 9 November 1806, almost two years since departing England and after numerous engagements, leaking badly and having witnessed the death of her captain. She was laden with the spoils of war and cargo amounting to approx twelve thousand dollars plus an amount of copper plus silver. A large quantity of silver candlesticks, chalices, incense pans and she weighed anchor, in seven fathoms water off the North West Point of Lifuka Island, for what was destined to be the last time. Finau, the chief of the Haapai, apparently took a liking to William Mariner, Port-au-Prince also had Hawaiian crew who did not trust the situation and expressed concern to the captain that the Tongans were feigning friendliness while planning an attack. Captain Brown chose to ignore the warnings, the next day Tongans began to board the vessel until there were around 300 in different parts of the ship. They invited Captain Brown ashore to see the Island and assured of their friendly motives he agreed, on arrival he was clubbed to death, stripped and left lying in the sand. Simultaneously the main attack commenced on the Port-au-Prince, the sailors were outnumbered and overwhelmed easily. Finau had given instructions that the life of Mariner should be spared if at all possible, all but four of the crew members were clubbed to death, their heads so badly beaten as to be unrecognisable. For the next three days the ship was stripped of her iron, a commodity, and had her guns removed before being burnt to the water line to more readily remove what iron remained. Fīnau assumed responsibility for Mariner, taking him under his protection, Mariner became known as Toki Ukamea and spent the next four years living amongst the islanders
3.
George Tupou I
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George Tupou I, King of Tonga, was originally known as Tāufaʻāhau I, or Tupou Maeakafa Ngininginiofolanga in modern spelling. He adopted the name Siaosi, the Tongan version of George, after King George III of the United Kingdom and his nickname was Lopa-ukamea, meaning iron cable. George Tupou I was born around 1797 in Tonga,4 December is often-quoted as his birthday and is a public holiday in Tonga, however, it was the date of his coronation in 1845 as Tuʻi Kanokupolu, when he took the name Tupou. Tongoleleka and the Niuʻui hospital there are often stated as his birthplace, however, no evidence supporting this is available, and Lifuka and Tongatapu are also often stated as the birthplace. His father was Tupoutoaʻ, who aspired to be the 17th Tuʻi Kanokupolu and his mother, Hoamofaleono, felt her life was at risk on Tongatapu, so she fled with her son to Haʻapai, probably within the year of his birth. Her history, as well as her son Maeakafas history, is more reliably tracked to Haʻapai Island, the pregnant Hoamo fale ono felt insecure in Tongatapu as she was about to give birth to a child whose father, Tupoutoa, was the primary adversary of her clan. Tupoutoa was in Haapai to kill Tupounia and Ulukalala in order to avenge the assassination of his father, Tukuaho was cruel and feared by all, including Haa Havea Lahi chiefs, given such acts as the burning of Fangaleounga, a Vaini colony of Maafutukuiaulahi. Niukapu, a chief, fled to Haapai under the protection of the Haatalafale Tuipelehake and these chiefs supported Tupou Moheofo, installed as Tui Kanokupolu, instead of Tukuahos father, Mumui. The retribution by Tukuaho on Haa Havea was regarded, despite the fact Niukapu was not part of the clan, as a demotion in power, since then, Tukuahos siblings and descendants have had antagonistic feelings towards those from Haa Havea. George Tupou was established as the Tuʻi Haʻapai before the death of his father in 1820, the culmination of this struggle was the Battle of Velata in 1826, in which Laufilitonga was defeated. An important ally at that battle was the chief of Haʻafeva and it was now clear that Tāufaʻāhau was very ambitious and wanted more than only Haʻapai. In spite of this, at his baptism in 1831, Tāufa declared himself King George of Tonga and his next conquest resulted from his relationships with Fīnau ʻUlukālala III, the ruler of Vavaʻu. He became the Tuʻi Vavaʻu after Finaus death in 1833 and he dedicated Tonga to God in 1839, assuring support from the missionaries. During the 1830s, he resided in Vavaʻu, in Veitatalo, Vavaʻu was at peace and it prospered. Tongatapu, on the hand, suffered from a cruel civil war with the local chiefs fighting each other. Tāufaʻāhau launched raids on Tongatapu with his warriors from Haʻapai and Vavaʻu. However, it was not until Aleamotuʻas death that year, that he had an excuse to conquer Tongatapu, the chiefs were forced to obey him, and he was installed as Tuʻi Kanokupolu in Kolovai on 4 December. Niuafoʻou and Niuatoputapu would follow later, eua was never actually conquered by Tāufaʻāhau
4.
Tupou VI
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Thumb Ahoeitu Tupou VI is the King of Tonga. He is the brother and successor of the late King George Tupou V. He was officially confirmed by his brother on 27 September 2006 as the heir presumptive to the Throne of Tonga and he was born in Nukuʻalofa, Tonga, the third son and youngest child of King Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV. He was educated at The Leys School, Cambridge, from 1973–77 and he then attended the University of East Anglia, where he read Development Studies, from 1977 to 1980. He started his career in the military, joining the naval arm of the Tonga Defence Services in 1982 and he graduated from the US Naval War College as part of Class 33 in 1988. From 1990 to 1995 he commanded the Pacific-class patrol boat VOEA Pangai and he graduated with a masters in Defence Studies from the University of New South Wales in 1997 and with a MA in International Relations from Bond University in 1999. In 1998 he ended his career to become part of the government, first as the defence minister. He took over these posts from his elder brother Tupoutoʻa, at that time still the crown prince, soon he was appointed as Prime Minister on 3 January 2000, a function he kept until his sudden resignation on 11 February 2006. Its reason has never made clear, but was probably due to the unrest from a series of pro-democracy protests calling since mid-2005 for a lesser role for the royal family in government. His appointed successor, Feleti Sevele, was Tongas first prime minister who was not an estate holder or a member of the 33 noble families that make up the Tongan aristocracy. In 2008 ʻAhoʻeitu was appointed Tongas first High Commissioner to Australia, in 2013 he was appointed as Chancellor of the University of the South Pacific. HRH Tupoutoʻa ʻUlukalala – Siaosi Manumataongo ʻAlaivahamamaʻo ʻAhoʻeitu Konstantin Tukuʻaho and he married on 12 July 2012 the Hon. Sinaitakala Fakafanua, daughter of late High Chief Kinikinilau Fakafanua and HRH Princess Ofeina, Lady Fakafanua, both King Tupou VIs first cousins. HRH Prince Taufaʻahau Manumataongo – Taufaʻahau Manumataongo Tukuʻaho, HRH Prince Ata – Viliami ʻUnuaki-ʻo-Tonga Mumui Lalaka-Mo-e-ʻEiki Tukuʻaho. It is customary in Tongan culture that princes get a traditional chiefly title and these titles may be used in any order. Nevertheless, the sequences Lavaka Ata ʻUlukālala and ʻUlukālala Lavaka Ata were most common, as such he was until his accession to the throne known as Tupoutoʻa Lavaka. His elder son, Siaosi, is to be addressed by the title of ʻUlukālala of Fangatongo, while his second son. He was assisted by Reverend Dr ‘Ahio and Reverend Dr Tevita Havea, the president, the celebrations included many international invited guests, and an estimated 15,000 people, mostly expatriate Tongans, flew in to join the celebrations. During the ceremony, Tupou VI was anointed with oil, adorned with a ring
5.
George Tupou V
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George Tupou V was the King of Tonga from the death of his father Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV in 2006 until his own death six years later. Tupou V was born on 4 May 1948 and he was the eldest son of King Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV and Queen Halaevalu Mataʻaho ʻAhomeʻe. Tupou V attended Kings School and Kings College, both in Auckland and this was followed by periods at The Leys School in Cambridge, and another school in Switzerland. He also studied at Oxford University and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in England, Tupou V was appointed Crown Prince on 4 May 1966. In that role, he was known by one of his traditional chiefly titles, Tupoutoʻa In 1974, though unmarried, Tupou V had a daughter. In 1997 she married police officer Tulutulumafua iOlotele Kalaniuvalu, and has three children, according to the Constitution of Tonga, ʻIlima is ineligible to accede to the throne as only children born of a royal marriage may succeed. As Crown Prince, Tupoutoʻa held great influence in Tongan politics and he had substantial business interests in Tonga and abroad, and was co-chairman of the Shoreline Group/Tonfön. As king, his first proclamation was that he would dispose of all his business assets as soon as reasonably possible, the King was recognised as a descendant of the sky god Tangaloa. He was sworn in as King Tupou V on 11 September 2006, which made him, from a traditional viewpoint. The ceremonial aspects of Tupou Vs accession took place in July and these were initially to be held in 2007 after the six-month official mourning period for his father and his own birthday. They were also deferred after the 2006 Tonga riots as he decided to focus instead on reconstruction of the damaged capital, during the week of celebrations, two key ceremonies took place to mark Tupou Vs coronation. On 30 July 2008, a Taumafa Kava was held on Malaʻe Pangai and he wore the traditional Tongan taovala and a garland of flowers. During this ceremony, Tupou V was formally recognised as the Tuʻi Kanokupolu, and the rightful descendent of King George Tupou I, who united Tonga in the 19th century. The traditional torch spectacle was held that time at a spot overlooking the Pacific and is an ancient honour reserved solely for the Tongan sovereign, a second, European-style coronation ceremony took place on 1 August 2008 in the Centennial Chapel, Nuku’alofa. Anglican Archbishop of Polynesia Jabez Bryce invested George Tupou V with the Tongan regalia, in the culmination of the ceremony, Archbishop Bryce placed the Tongan Crown on the monarchs head. Royalty and nobility from around the world were in attendance, in the interview, the Crown Prince, as he then was, points out that free speech in Tonga was protected by the Constitution. Three days before his coronation on 1 August 2008, the King announced that he would relinquish most of his power, the Prime Minister would also be in charge of day-to-day affairs. Tupou V would still have the powers to appoint judges and commute prison sentences, the King also sold off lucrative business interests as part of the announcement
6.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
7.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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