1.
Excellency
–
Excellency is an honorific style given to certain members of an organisation or state. Generally people addressed as Excellency are heads of state, heads of government, governors, ambassadors, certain ecclesiastics, royalty, and others holding equivalent rank and the FIFA President. It is sometimes misinterpreted as a title of office in itself, in reference to such an official, it takes the form His or Her Excellency, in direct address, Your Excellency, or, less formally, simply Excellency. The abbreviation HE is often used instead of His/Her Excellency, alternatively it may stand for His/Her Eminence, in most republican nations, the head of state is formally addressed as His Excellency. If a republic has a head of government, that official is often addressed as Excellency as well. If the nation is a monarchy, however, the customs may vary, in the case of Australia, all ambassadors, high commissioners, governors and the governor-general and their spouses are entitled to the use of Excellency. Governors of colonies in the British Empire were entitled to be addressed as Excellency, in various international organizations, notably the UN and its agencies, Excellency is used as a generic form of address for all republican heads of state and heads of government. Judges of the International Court of Justice are also called Your Excellency, in some monarchies the husbands, wives, or children, of a royal prince or princess, who do not possess a princely title themselves, may be entitled to the style. For example, in Spain spouses or children of a born infante or infanta are addressed as Excellency, also, former members of a royal house or family, who did have a royal title but forfeited it, may be awarded the style afterwards. Examples are former husbands or wives of a prince or princess, including Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg. In some emirates, only the Emir, heir apparent and prime minister are called His Highness and their children are styled with the lower treatment of His/Her Excellency. In Spain members of the nobility, holding the dignity of grandee, are addressed as The Most Excellent Lord/Lady. Some of the high ranking counts, Excellency can also attach to a prestigious quality, notably in an order of knighthood. By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonial of 31 December 1930 the Holy See granted bishops of the Roman Catholic Church the title of Most Reverend Excellency. In the years following the First World War, the title of Excellency. The adjective Most Reverend was intended to distinguish the title from that of Excellency given to civil officials. The instruction Ut sive sollicite of the Holy Sees Secretariat of State, dated 28 March 1969, cardinals, even those who were bishops, continued to use the title of Eminence. In some English-speaking countries, the honorific of Excellency does not apply to other than the nuncio
2.
Order of Mapungubwe
–
The Order of Mapungubwe is South Africas highest honour. It was instituted on 6 December 2002, and is granted by the President of South Africa, the order is named after Mapungubwe, an ancient African nation which existed a thousand years ago in what is now the northern part of the Limpopo province. The first recipient of the order was ex-president Nelson Mandela, the badge is a horizontal oval above an inverted trapezium. Inside the oval frame is depicted a golden rhinoceros with the sun rising above Mapungubwe hill in the background, the convex upper edge of the trapezium is decorated with a beadwork pattern and the sides are edged with sceptres. In the centre is an ornate crucible from which molten gold flows down to a red furnace, the South African coat of arms is displayed on the reverse. The ribbon is gold, edged with a line of cream-coloured bead-like dots along each edge, all four classes are worn around the neck. Nelson Mandela – Platinum Allan McLeod Cormack – Gold F. W
3.
State President of South Africa
–
State President was the title of South Africas head of state from 1961 to 1994. The office was established when the became a republic in 1961. The position of Governor-General of the Union of South Africa was accordingly abolished, republicanism had long been a plank in the platform of the ruling National Party. However, it was not until 1960,12 years after it took power, a narrow majority—52 percent— of the minority white electorate voted in favour of abolishing the monarchy and declaring South Africa a republic. The Republic of South Africa was proclaimed on 31 May 1961, charles Robberts Swart, the last Governor-General, was sworn in as the first State President. The title State President was originally used for the head of state of the Boer Republics, and like them and he was elected to a seven-year term by the Parliament of South Africa, and was not eligible for re-election. The National Party decided against having an executive presidency, instead adopting a minimalist approach as a gesture to English-speaking whites who were opposed to a republic. As such, the State President performed mostly ceremonial duties, and was required to act on the advice of the Prime Minister, in practice, the post of State President was a sinecure for retired National Party ministers, as the Governor-Generals post had been since 1948. Consequently, all State Presidents from 1961 to 1984 were white, Afrikaner, male, following constitutional reforms, in 1984, the office of State President became an executive post, as in the United States. The office of Prime Minister of South Africa was abolished, and he was elected by an electoral college of 88 members—50 Whites,25 Coloureds, and 13 Indians. The members were elected by the racial groups of the Tricameral Parliament—the House of Assembly, House of Representatives. He held office for the Parliaments duration—in practice, five years, the last Prime Minister, P. W. Botha, was elected as the first executive State President. The State President was vested with sweeping executive powers—in most respects and he had sole jurisdiction over matters of national concern, such as foreign policy and race relations. He was chairman of the Presidents Council, which resolved disputes between the three chambers regarding general affairs legislation. This body consisted of 60 members –20 members appointed by the House of Assembly,10 by the House of Representatives, the composition of the electoral college and Presidents Council made it all but impossible for the white chamber to be outvoted on any substantive matter. As Botha was leader of the National Party, the system placed all governing power in his hands. Botha resigned in 1989 and was succeeded by F. W. de Klerk, under South Africas first non-racial constitution, adopted in 1994, the head of state is known simply as the President. However, for time, the State President had been referred to as simply the president in non-South African sources
4.
P. W. Botha
–
First elected to Parliament in 1948, Botha was an outspoken opponent of majority rule and international communism. However, his administration did make concessions towards political reform, whereas internal unrest saw widespread human rights abuses at the hands of the government. Botha resigned the leadership of the ruling National Party in February 1989 after suffering a stroke, in F. W. de Klerks 1992 referendum Botha campaigned for a No vote and denounced De Klerks administration as irresponsible by opening the door to black majority rule. For his refusal, he was fined and given a jail sentence for crimes against human rights. Shortly before his death in late 2006, he renewed his opposition towards egalitarian democracy in favour of a system based upon the principles of separate development. Pieter Willem Botha was born on a farm in the Paul Roux district of the Orange Free State Province and his father, Pieter Willem Botha Sr. fought as a commando against the British in the Second Boer War. His mother, Hendrina Christina Botha, was interned in a British concentration camp during the war, Botha initially attended the Paul Roux School and matriculated from Voortrekker Secondary School in Bethlehem, South Africa. In 1934, he entered the Grey University College in Bloemfontein to study law and he began working for the National Party as a political organiser in the neighbouring Cape Province. In the run-up to World War II, Botha joined the Ossewabrandwag, however, with Allied victory looming in Europe, Botha condemned the Ossewabrandwag and changed his ideological allegiance to Christian nationalism instead. In 1943, Botha married Anna Elizabeth Rossouw, the couple had two sons and three daughters. In 1958 Botha was appointed Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs by Hendrik Verwoerd and he was appointed Minister for Defense by Verwoerds successor B. J. Vorster, upon Verwoerds murder, in 1966. In the final ballot, he beat Connie Mulder, the scandals namesake. Though generally considered a conservative, Botha was also seen as far more pragmatic than his predecessor, upon enacting the reforms, he remarked in the House of Assembly, We must adapt or die. On becoming head of the government, Botha retained the portfolio until October 1980. From his ascension to the cabinet, Botha pursued a military policy designed to increase South Africas military capability. He sought to improve relations with the West – especially the United States –, in 1977, as Minister of Defence he began a secret nuclear weapons program, which culminated in the production of six nuclear bombs destroyed only in the early 1990s. He remained steadfast in South Africas administration of the neighbouring territory South-West Africa, Botha was responsible for introducing the notorious police counter-insurgency unit, Koevoet. He was also instrumental in building the South African Defence Forces strength, adding momentum to establishing units such as 32 Battalion
5.
Nelson Mandela
–
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the countrys first black head of state and the first elected in a representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalised racism, ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress party from 1991 to 1997. A Xhosa, Mandela was born in Mvezo to the Thembu royal family and he studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of the Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943, after the National Partys white-only government established apartheid—a system of racial segregation that privileged whites—he and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. Mandela was appointed President of the ANCs Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he joined the banned South African Communist Party. Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961, in 1962, he was arrested for conspiring to overthrow the state and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial. Mandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, amid growing domestic and international pressure, and with fears of a racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk negotiated an end to apartheid and organised the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory, internationally, he acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a presidential term and in 1999 was succeeded by his deputy. Mandela became a statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation. Mandela was a figure for much of his life. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours—including the Nobel Peace Prize—and became the subject of a cult of personality. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba. Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning troublemaker, in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was king of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africas modern Eastern Cape province, one of Ngubengcukas sons, named Mandela, was Nelsons grandfather and the source of his surname. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrates unreasonable demands
6.
President of South Africa
–
The President of the Republic of South Africa is the head of state and head of government under the Constitution of South Africa. From 1961 to 1994, the head of state was called the State President, the role was founded to be distinct from the now defunct role of prime minister, but the two roles were merged in the 1983 constitution which specified a four-year term of office. The 1993 and later constitutions limits the time in office to two five-year terms. The first President to be elected under the new constitution was Nelson Mandela, under the interim constitution, there was a Government of National Unity, in which a Member of Parliament from the largest opposition party was entitled to a position as Deputy President. But De Klerk later resigned and went into opposition with his party, a voluntary coalition government continues to exist under the new constitution, although there have been no appointments of opposition politicians to the post of Deputy President. The President is required to be a member of the National Assembly at the time of his election, upon his election, he immediately resigns his seat for the duration of his term. The President may be removed either by a motion of no-confidence or an impeachment trial, a number of manifestations of the office have existed. Aspects of these offices exist within the presidency today, alternating sovereignty as a result of wars culminated in the Vereeniging Treaty signed in which concluded the South African War. The Union of South Africa, a British Dominion, was established on 31 May 1910, upon the declaration of South Africa as a republic on 31 May 1961, the office of State President was created. It was originally a ceremonial post, but became an executive post in 1984 when a new constitution abolished the post of Prime Minister, South Africa has an almost unique system for the election of its president. Contrary to presidential systems around the world, the President of South Africa is elected by the Parliament of South Africa rather than by the people directly and he is thus answerable to it in theory and able to influence legislation in practice as head of the majority party. The president is elected at the first sitting of parliament after an election, the president is elected by the National Assembly, the lower house of parliament, from among its members. The chief justice must oversee the election, once elected, a person is no longer a member of the national assembly. They must then be sworn in as president within five days of the election, should a vacancy arise, the date of a new election must be set by the chief justice, but not more than 30 days after the vacancy occurs. The Constitution has thus prescribed a system combining both parliamentary and presidential systems in a unique manner, only Botswana and a few other countries use a similar system. Between 1996 and 2003 Israel combined the two systems in a way, with an elected prime minister. Although the presidency is the key institution, it is hedged about with numerous checks and balances that prevent its total dominance over the government, the presidential term is five years, with a limit of two consecutive terms. Thus the electoral system attempts to prevent the accumulation of power in the president as was during Apartheid or in many other African countries
7.
Deputy President of South Africa
–
The Deputy President is also a member of the National Assembly and the Cabinet. The Deputy President is constitutionally required to assist the President in the execution of the functions of government, under the interim constitution, there was a Government of National Unity, in which a member of parliament from the largest opposition party was entitled to a position as deputy president. Along with Mbeki, the previous State President, F. W. de Klerk also served as Deputy President in his capacity as the leader of the National Party, de Klerk later resigned and went into opposition with his party. A voluntary coalition government continues to exist under the new constitution, the Deputy Presidents term of office is not fixed by law. The Deputy Presidents term begins when he or she is appointed by the President from amongst members of the National Assembly, presumably, a statement of resignation would also be sufficient to end a Deputy Presidents term of office. List of current vice presidents Vice State President of South Africa
8.
Thabo Mbeki
–
Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki is a South African politician who served nine years as the second post-apartheid President of South Africa from 14 June 1999 to 24 September 2008. R. Nicholson of improper interference in the National Prosecuting Authority, on 12 January 2009, the Supreme Court of Appeal unanimously overturned judge Nicholsons judgment but the resignation stood. During his time in office the economy grew at a rate of 4. 5% per year. Mbeki created employment in the sectors of the economy and oversaw a fast-growing black middle class with the implementation of Black Economic Empowerment. This growth exacerbated the demand for trained professionals strained by emigration due to violent crime and he attracted the bulk of Africas Foreign Direct Investment and made South Africa the focal point of African growth. He was the architect of NEPAD whose aim is to develop an integrated socio-economic development framework for Africa, Mbeki has mediated in difficult and complex issues on the African continent including Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, and some important peace agreements. He oversaw the transition from the Organisation of African Unity to the African Union and his quiet diplomacy in Zimbabwe, however, is blamed for protracting the survival of Robert Mugabes regime at the cost of thousands of lives and intense economic pressure on Zimbabwes neighbours. He became a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement in the United Nations. Mbeki has received criticism for his stance on AIDS. He questions the link between HIV and AIDS and believes that the correlation between poverty and the AIDS rate in Africa was a challenge to the theory of AIDS. His fate was not helped by Health Minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang and the overhaul of the industry in South Africa. His ban of antiretroviral drugs in public hospitals is estimated to be responsible for the deaths of between 330,000 and 365,000 people. Thabo Mbeki has also criticised for responding to negative comments made about his government by accusing critics of racism. Born and raised in Mbewuleni, Cape Province, Union of South Africa, Mbeki is one of four children of Epainette, the economist Moeletsi Mbeki is one of his brothers. His father was a stalwart of the African National Congress and the South African Communist Party and he is a native Xhosa speaker. Mbeki attended primary school in Idutywa and Butterworth and acquired a school education at Lovedale. In 1959, he was expelled from school as a result of student strikes, in the same year, he sat for matriculation examinations at St. Johns High School, Umtata. In the ensuing years, he completed British A-level examinations and undertook a degree as an external student with the University of London
9.
Alwyn Schlebusch
–
Alwyn Louis Schlebusch was a South African politician, the only holder of the title Vice State President of South Africa from 1 January 1981 to 14 September 1984. He was an Afrikaner with a surname of German origin, the position of Vice State President was created when the Senate was abolished in 1981. During his tenure, Schlebusch chaired the Presidents Council, which advised on the creation of a new constitution, subsequently, he held the position of Minister in the Office of the President in 1986. He died on 7 January 2008 and he was survived by a son and two daughters,14 grandchildren and 5 great grandchildren. His wife, Isabel, died in 1996 of cancer and she founded the Toktokkie cancer campaign in South Africa
10.
Johannesburg
–
Johannesburg is the largest city in South Africa and is one of the 50 largest urban areas in the world. It is the capital of Gauteng, which is the wealthiest province in South Africa. While Johannesburg is not one of South Africas three capital cities, it is the seat of the Constitutional Court, the city is located in the mineral-rich Witwatersrand range of hills and is the centre of large-scale gold and diamond trade. In 2011, the population of the city of Johannesburg was 4,434,827, in the same year, the population of Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Area was 7,860,781. Some view the surrounding the city of Johannesburg yet more broadly than the metropolitan area, adding Ekurhuleni, West Rand and Lenasia. The land area of the city is large in comparison with those of other major cities, resulting in a moderate population density of 2. The city was established in 1886 following the discovery of gold on what had been a farm, the city is commonly interpreted as the modern day El Dorado due to the extremely large gold deposit found along the Witwatersrand. The name is attributed to one or all of three men involved in the establishment of the city, in ten years, the population was 100,000 inhabitants. A separate city from the late 1970s until the 1990s, Soweto is now part of Johannesburg, Soweto, although eventually incorporated into Johannesburg, had been separated as a residential area for blacks, who were not permitted to live in Johannesburg proper. Lenasia is predominantly populated by English-speaking South Africans of Indian descent, controversy surrounds the origin of the name. There were quite a number of people with the name Johannes who were involved in the history of the city. Among them are the principal clerk attached to the office of the surveyor-general Johannes Rissik, Christiaan Johannes Joubert, another was Stephanus Johannes Paulus Paul Kruger, president of the South African Republic 1883-1900. Johannes Meyer, the first government official in the area is another possibility, precise records for the choice of name were lost. Rissik and Joubert were members of a delegation sent to England to attain mining rights for the area. Joubert had a park in the city named after him and Rissik Street is today a street where the historically important and dilapidated Post Office, since burnt out. The region surrounding Johannesburg was originally inhabited by San people, the Sotho–Tswana practised farming and extensively mined and smelted metals that were available in the area. The most prominent site within Johannesburg is Melville Koppies, which contains an iron smelting furnace, the main Witwatersrand gold reef was discovered in June 1884 on the farm Vogelstruisfontein by Jan Gerritse Bantjes that triggered the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the start of Johannesburg in 1886. The discovery of gold rapidly attracted people to the area, making necessary a name, Johannes Meyer, the first government official in the area is another possibility
11.
Transvaal Province
–
The Province of the Transvaal, commonly referred to as the Transvaal Province was a province of South Africa from 1910 until the end of apartheid in 1994, when a new constitution subdivided it. The name Transvaal refers to the geographical location to the north of the Vaal River. Its capital was Pretoria, which was also the countrys, in 1910, four British colonies united to form the Union of South Africa. The Transvaal Colony, which had formed out of the bulk of the old South African Republic after the Second Boer War. Half a century later, in 1961, the union ceased to be part of the Commonwealth of Nations, the PWV conurbation in the Transvaal, centered on Pretoria and Johannesburg, became South Africas economic powerhouse, a position it still holds today as Gauteng province. In 1994, after the fall of apartheid, the provinces were restructured. The south-central portion became Gauteng, the northern portion became Limpopo, most of the North West came from the southwestern portion of the old Transvaal, and tiny segment of the Transvaal joined KwaZulu-Natal. Except on the south-west, these borders were mostly defined by natural features. Several Bantustans were entirely inside the Transvaal, Venda, KwaNdebele, Gazankulu, KaNgwane, parts of Bophuthatswana were also in the Transvaal, with other parts in Cape Province and Orange Free State. Within the Transvaal lies the Waterberg Massif, a prominent ancient geological feature of the South African landscape, districts of the province and population at the 1991 census
12.
Union of South Africa
–
The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day Republic of South Africa. It came into being on 31 May 1910 with the unification of four previously separate British colonies, Cape Colony, Natal Colony, Transvaal Colony and it included the territories formerly part of the Boer republics annexed in 1902, South African Republic and Orange Free State. The Union of South Africa was a dominion of the British Empire and it was governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, with the Crown represented by a governor-general. The Union came to an end when the 1961 constitution was enacted, on 31 May 1961 the country became a republic and left the Commonwealth, under the new name Republic of South Africa. Unlike Canada and Australia, the Union of South Africa was a state, rather than a federation. A bicameral parliament was created, consisting of a House of Assembly and Senate, during the course of the Union the franchise changed on several occasions always to suit the needs of the government of the day. Bloemfontein and Pietermaritzburg were given financial compensation, the Union initially remained under the British Crown as a self-governing dominion of the British Empire. With the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the Union and other dominions became equal in status to the United Kingdom, the Monarch was represented in South Africa by a Governor-General, while effective power was exercised by the Executive Council, headed by the Prime Minister. Louis Botha, formerly a Boer general, was appointed first Prime Minister of the Union, heading a coalition representing the white Afrikaner, prosecutions before courts were instituted in the name of the Crown and government officials served in the name of the Crown. Some extremist Nationalist organisations, like the Ossewa Brandwag, openly supported Nazi Germany during the Second World War, the Afrikaner-dominated Government consequently withdrew South Africa from the Commonwealth. Natal, which had an English-speaking majority, voted against, following the referendum result, some whites in Natal even called for secession from the Union. Five years earlier, some 33,000 Natalians had signed the Natal Covenant in opposition to the plans for a republic, subsequently the National Party Government passed a Constitution that repealed the South Africa Act. The features of the Union were carried over with little change to the newly formed Republic. The decision to transform from a Union to Republic was narrowly decided in the referendum, the South Africa Act dealt with race in two specific provisions. Second it made native affairs a matter for the national government, the practice therefore was to establish a Minister of Native Affairs. Several previous unsuccessful attempts to unite the colonies were made, with proposed political models ranging from unitary, Sir George Grey, the Governor of Cape Colony from 1854 to 1861, decided that unifying the states of southern Africa would be mutually beneficial. He believed that a united South African Federation, under British control and his idea was greeted with cautious optimism in southern Africa, the Orange Free State agreed to the idea in principle and the Transvaal may also eventually have agreed. However, he was overruled by the British Colonial Office which ordered him to desist from his plans and his refusal to abandon the idea eventually led to him being recalled
13.
National Party (South Africa)
–
The National Party was a political party in South Africa founded in 1915 and first became the governing party of the country in 1924. It was in opposition during the World War II years but returned to power and was again in government from 4 June 1948 until 9 May 1994, at this time, it began implementing its policy of racial segregation, known as apartheid. Members of the National Party were sometimes known as Nationalists or Nats, the policies of the party included apartheid, the establishment of a republic, and the promotion of Afrikaner culture. During the 1980s, large fractions of the support base left for the Conservative Party. After 1990, the NP opened up its membership to all groups and rebranded itself as a non-racial. It participated in the Government of National Unity between 1994 and 1996, in an attempt to better distance itself from its past, the party was renamed the New National Party in 1997. The attempt was unsuccessful and the new party was disbanded in 2005. The National Party was founded in Bloemfontein in 1915 by Afrikaner nationalists soon after the establishment of the Union of South Africa. Its founding was rooted in disagreements among South African Party politicians, particularly Prime Minister Louis Botha and his first Minister of Justice, after Hertzog began speaking out publicly against the Botha governments one-stream policy in 1912, Botha removed him from the cabinet. Afrikaner nationalists in the Transvaal and Cape provinces soon followed suit, the NP first came to power in coalition with the Labour Party in 1924, with Hertzog as Prime Minister. In 1930, the Hertzog government worked to undermine the vote of Coloureds by granting the right to vote to white women, in 1934, Hertzog agreed to merge his National Party with the rival South African Party of Jan Smuts to form the United Party. A hardline faction of Afrikaner nationalists, led by Daniel François Malan, refused to accept the merger, the Purified National Party used opposition to South African participation in World War II to stir up anti-British feelings amongst Afrikaners. In 1951, the two amalgamated to once again known simply as the National Party. In 1959, the Bantu Self-Government Act established so-called Homelands for ten different black tribes. The ultimate goal of the NP was to move all Black South Africans into one of these homelands, leaving what was left of South Africa with what would then be a White majority, at least on paper. Accordingly, the three parliamentary seats that had been reserved for white representatives of black South Africans in Cape Province were scrapped. The other three provinces – Transvaal, the Orange Free State, and Natal – had never allowed any black representation, Coloureds were removed from the Common Roll of Cape Province in 1953. Instead of voting for the representatives as white South Africans
14.
Marriage
–
The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity, when defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal. Individuals may marry for several reasons, including legal, social, libidinal, emotional, financial, spiritual, whom they marry may be influenced by socially determined rules of incest, prescriptive marriage rules, parental choice and individual desire. In some areas of the world, arranged marriage, child marriage, polygamy, conversely, such practices may be outlawed and penalized in parts of the world out of concerns for womens rights and because of international law. These trends coincide with the human rights movement. Marriage can be recognized by a state, an organization, an authority, a tribal group. It is often viewed as a contract, Marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting via a wedding ceremony. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce, some cultures allow the dissolution of marriage through divorce or annulment. In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of laws against the practice. For example, the number of marriages in Europe decreased by 30% from 1975 to 2005 and these changes have occurred primarily in Western countries. The word marriage derives from Middle English mariage, which first appears in 1250–1300 CE and this in turn is derived from Old French, marier, and ultimately Latin, marītāre, meaning to provide with a husband or wife and marītāri meaning to get married. The adjective marīt-us -a, -um meaning matrimonial or nuptial could also be used in the form as a noun for husband. Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures, even within Western culture, definitions of marriage have careened from one extreme to another and everywhere in between. The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries defined marriage as a union between a man and a such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners. In recognition of a practice by the Nuer people of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances, Kathleen Gough suggested modifying this to a woman, none of these men had legal rights to the womans child. Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy. He argued that a definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried. In 1955 article in Man, Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures and he offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures
15.
Divorce
–
Divorce should not be confused with annulment, which declares the marriage null and void, with legal separation or de jure separation or with de facto separation. Reasons for divorce vary, from sexual incompatibility or lack of independence for one or both spouses to a personality clash, the only countries that do not allow divorce are the Philippines, the Vatican City and the British Crown Dependency of Sark. The Vatican City is a state, which has no procedure for divorce. Countries that have relatively recently legalized divorce are Italy, Portugal, Brazil, Spain, Argentina, Paraguay, Colombia, Andorra, Ireland, Chile, grounds for divorce vary widely from country to country. Marriage may be seen as a contract, a status, or a combination of these, where it is seen as a contract, the refusal or inability of one spouse to perform the obligations stipulated in the contract may constitute a ground for divorce for the other spouse. In contrast, in countries, divorce is purely no fault. Many jurisdictions offer both the option of a no fault divorce as well as an at fault divorce and this is the case, for example, in many US states. Though divorce laws vary between jurisdictions, there are two approaches to divorce, fault based and no-fault based. In some jurisdictions one spouse may be forced to pay the fees of another spouse. Laws vary as to the period before a divorce is effective. However, issues of division of property are determined by the law of the jurisdiction in which the property is located. In Europe, divorce laws differ from country to country, reflecting differing legal and cultural traditions, in some countries, particularly in some former communist countries, divorce can be obtained only on one single general ground of irretrievable breakdown of the marriage. Yet, what such a breakdown of the marriage is interpreted very differently from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Separation constitutes a ground of divorce in some European countries. g. in the laws of Latvia. Divorce laws are not static, they often change reflecting evolving social norms of societies, some countries have completely overhauled their divorce laws, such as Spain in 2005, and Portugal in 2008. A new divorce law also came into force in September 2007 in Belgium, bulgaria also modified its divorce regulations in 2009. e. The negotiations with the participation of an advocate or agreement made before the registrar of Public Registry Office, Austria, instead, is a European country where the divorce law still remains conservative. The liberalization of laws is not without opposition, particularly in the United States
16.
Johannes de Klerk
–
Johannes Jan de Klerk, DMS was a South African politician. He was the father of F. W. de Klerk, as a member of the National Party, de Klerk served as interim State President for nine days following the retirement of Jacobus Johannes Fouché in 1975. Son of Reverend Willem de Klerk and his wife Aletta Johanna van Rooy and he spent his childhood in Potchefstroom, in South-West Transvaal. Graduating from Potchefstroom University where he was the President of the Student Union, he married Hendrina Cornelia Coetzer on 27 April 1927, from 1927 to 1945, Jan de Klerk worked in Nylstroom and Witwatersrand. He was headteacher of a school, and secretary of a white workers trade union, in January 1947, he became administrative secretary of the National Party for the Rand region and in 1948, chief secretary of the NP of Transvaal. From 1949 to 1955, he was a member of the council of Transvaal. In 1954, Jan de Klerk was named senator and Minister of Work and Public Works in the government of his brother-in-law and this nomination provoked controversy due to the relationship between the two men. He was a minister in the governments of Hendrik Verwoerd and John Vorster, until 1969, he successively dealt with mines, home affairs, immigration, and education. While Minister of Education, he helped found the Rand Afrikaans University in Johannesburg and he was twice approached to be honorary president of the republic in 1967 and 1968. He retired from life, and died in Krugersdorp on 24 January 1979. A school in Krugersdorp is named in honour of Jan de Klerk
17.
Cape Town
–
Cape Town is a coastal city in South Africa. It is the second-most populous urban area in South Africa after Johannesburg and it is also the capital and primate city of the Western Cape province. As the seat of the Parliament of South Africa, it is also the capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality, the city is famous for its harbour, for its natural setting in the Cape Floristic Region, and for such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. As of 2014, it is the 10th most populous city in Africa and it is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting its role as a major destination for immigrants and expatriates to South Africa. The city was named the World Design Capital for 2014 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, in 2014, Cape Town was named the best place in the world to visit by both the American New York Times and the British Daily Telegraph. Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was first developed by the Dutch East India Company as a station for Dutch ships sailing to East Africa, India. Jan van Riebeecks arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement in South Africa, Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa, the earliest known remnants in the region were found at Peers Cave in Fish Hoek and date to between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as Cape of Good Hope because of the optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India. Vasco da Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, in the late 16th century, Portuguese, French, Danish, Dutch and English but mainly Portuguese ships regularly stopped over in Table Bay en route to the Indies. They traded tobacco, copper and iron with the Khoikhoi in exchange for fresh meat, the settlement grew slowly during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labour. This labour shortage prompted the authorities to import slaves from Indonesia, many of these became ancestors of the first Cape Coloured communities. Some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had an important, the Dutch Republic being transformed in Revolutionary Frances vassal Batavian Republic, Great Britain moved to take control of its colonies. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but the Cape was returned to the Dutch by treaty in 1803, British forces occupied the Cape again in 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, Cape Town was permanently ceded to Britain and it became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s. With expansion came calls for independence from Britain, with the Cape attaining its own parliament. Suffrage was established according to the non-racial, but sexist Cape Qualified Franchise, the discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigrants to South Africa
18.
Western Cape
–
The Western Cape is a province of South Africa, situated in the south-western part of the country. It is the fourth largest of the nine provinces in terms of area and population, with an area of 129,449 square kilometres and 5.8 million inhabitants. About two-thirds of these live in the metropolitan area of Cape Town. The Western Cape was created in 1994 from part of the former Cape Province, the Western Cape Province is roughly L-shaped, extending north and east from the Cape of Good Hope, in the southwestern corner of South Africa. It stretches about 400 kilometres northwards along the Atlantic coast and about 500 kilometres eastwards along the South African south coast and it is bordered on the north by the Northern Cape and on the east by the Eastern Cape. The total land area of the province is 129,462 square kilometres and it is roughly the size of England or the State of Louisiana. Its capital city and largest city is Cape Town, and some major cities include Stellenbosch, Worcester, Paarl. The Garden Route and the Overberg are popular tourism areas. The Western Cape is the southernmost region of the African continent with Cape Agulhas as its southernmost point, the coastline varies from sandy between capes, to rocky to steep and mountainous in places. The only natural harbour is Saldanha Bay on the west coast, however a lack of fresh water in the region meant that it has only recently been used as a harbour. But fresh water coming off Table Mountain and Devils Peak allowed the early European settlers to build Cape Town on the shores of this less than satisfactory anchorage, the province is topographically exceptionally diverse. Most of the province falls within the Cape Fold Belt, a set of parallel ranges of sandstone folded mountains of Cambrian-Ordovician age. The valleys between ranges are very fertile as they contain the weathered loamy soils of the Bokkeveld mustones. The far interior forms part of the Karoo and this region of the Province is generally arid and hilly with a prominent escarpment that runs close to the Provinces most inland boundary. The Escarpment marks the edge of South Africas central plateau. The principal rivers of the province are the Berg and Olifants which drain into the Atlantic Ocean, and the Breede and Gourits which drain into the Indian Ocean. The vegetation is extremely diverse, with one of the worlds seven floral kingdoms almost exclusively endemic to the province, namely the Cape Floral Kingdom. These evergreen heathlands are extremely rich in diversity, with at least as many plant species occurring on Table Mountain as in the entire United Kingdom
19.
Alma mater
–
Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
20.
Bachelor of Arts
–
A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
21.
Bachelor of Laws
–
The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law jurisdictions. The LL. of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum, creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter, thus LL. B. Stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin, today in Canada the predominant first degree in common law is the Juris Doctor degree having replaced the LL. B. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, the first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, the first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for law schools of the medieval age. The bachelors degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford, the arts designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. On continental Europe the bachelors degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford, the teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford, with the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729, therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is less common. In most common law countries, the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school, Masters courses are also offered to university graduates, those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL. M. Additionally, of the thirty-six Law Schools thirteen of those universities have started offering the Juris Doctor as a Graduate entry degree. Bangladesh is a common law country, like other Common Law countries, Bachelor of Laws degree is a condition precedent to practise as an Advocate in the Courts of Law of Bangladesh. Both LL. B. and LL. B. degrees are offered in different Public, only seven Public Universities offer LL. B. degree
22.
Apartheid
–
Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991, when it was abolished. The countrys first multiracial elections under a universal franchise were held three years later in 1994, Apartheid as a policy was embraced by the South African government shortly after the ascension of the National Party during the countrys 1948 general elections. Apartheid was also enforced in South West Africa until it gained independence as Namibia in 1990, with the rapid growth and industrialisation of the British Cape Colony in the nineteenth century, racial policies and laws became increasingly rigid. Cape legislation that discriminated specifically against black Africans began appearing shortly before 1900, the policies of the Boer republics were also racially exclusive, for instance, the Transvaal constitution barred nonwhite participation in church and state. Places of residence were determined by racial classification, from 1960 to 1983,3.5 million nonwhite South Africans were removed from their homes, and forced into segregated neighbourhoods, in one of the largest mass removals in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the population to ten designated tribal homelands, also known as bantustans. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans, Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations, some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed in appeasing most activist groups. In 1990, prominent ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela were released from detention, Apartheid legislation was abolished in mid-1991, pending multiracial elections set for April 1994. Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning separateness, or the state of being apart and its first recorded use was in 1929. The governors and assemblies that governed the process in the various colonies of South Africa were launched on a different and independent legislative path from the rest of the British Empire. In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel away from their masters, in 1797 the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi moving about the country for any purpose should carry passes. Ordinance No.49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the purpose of seeking work. These passes were to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi, but not for other Africans, the United Kingdoms Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. To comply with the act the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835 and this was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery. The Glen Grey Act of 1894, instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold, in 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote, limited them to fixed areas and inaugurated the infamous Pass System. The Asiatic Registration Act required all Indians to register and carry passes, one of the first pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Jan Smuts United Party government was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill, which banned land sales to Indians. The United Party government began to move away from the enforcement of segregationist laws during World War II
23.
South African general election, 1948
–
The parliamentary election in South Africa on 26 May 1948 represented a turning point in the countrys history. During the election battle, both the UP and the NP formed coalitions with smaller parties, the UP was aligned with the left-leaning Labour Party, while the Afrikaner Party sought to advance Afrikaner rights by allying with the HNP. The HNP, realising that many White South Africans felt threatened by black political aspirations, the Nationalists labelled this new system of social organisation apartheid, the name by which it became universally known. The HNP also took advantage of white fear of crime. In contrast to the HNPs consistent, straightforward platform, the UP supported vague notions of slowly integrating the different racial groups within South Africa. Together, the HNP and the Afrikaner Party won 79 seats in the House of Assembly against a total of 74 won by the UP. By a quirk of the First Past the Post system the NP had won more seats, the Nationalist coalition subsequently formed a new government and ushered in the era of formal, legally binding apartheid. In 1951, the HNP and the Afrikaner Party merged, returning to the name National Party, one of the central issues facing the white electorate in the 1948 election was that of race. The United Party and the National Party presented voters with differing answers to questions relating to racial integration in SA, in contrast to this seemingly vague ideology, the NP advanced the notion of further strictly enforced segregation between races and the total dis-empowerment of black South Africans. Rural to urban movement by blacks was to be discouraged, the UP position was supported by the Fagan Commission while the Sauer Commission informed the NPs stance. The putative policy of apartheid proposed by the NP served the interests of certain groups of white South Africans. Many commercial and financial Afrikaner interests based on saw the value of apartheid in promoting growth in this sector. The UP failed to realise the economic benefits of apartheid to these large and influential groups. As regards election tactics, the NP was extremely adroit at exploiting white fears while campaigning in the 1948 election, NP propaganda linked black political power to Communism, an anathema to many white South Africans at the time. Slogans such as Swart Gevaar, Rooi Gevaar, Die kaffer op sy plek, much was made of the fact that Smuts had developed a good working relationship with Joseph Stalin during World War II, when South Africa and the USSR were allies in the fight against Nazi Germany. Smuts had once remarked that he doffs his cap to Stalin, the Smuts governments controversial immigration programme served to further inflame Afrikaner disquiet. Under this programme, numerous British immigrants had moved to South Africa and were perceived to have taken homes, in preparation for the 1948 election, the NP moderated its stance on republicanism. English speaking South Africans tended to favour a relationship with the UK
24.
Coloured vote constitutional crisis
–
The crisis ended when the government enlarged the Senate and altered its method of election, allowing the amendment to be successfully enacted. Before the creation of the Union of South Africa, elections in the Cape Colony were conducted on the basis of the qualified franchise and this meant that the right to vote was limited to men meeting property and literacy qualifications, but not restricted on the basis of race. The South Africa Act, which was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, unified these four colonies to form the Union but preserved their franchise arrangements unchanged. Section 35 was entrenched by section 152, which provided that neither section 35 nor section 152 itself could be amended without a similar supermajority in joint session. Although this Act was passed by the required joint-session supermajority, its validity was challenged by a voter in the case of Ndlwana v Hofmeyr. In 1948, the National Party, campaigning on a platform of apartheid, the following year, Prime Minister D. F. The bill attracted much opposition both inside and outside Parliament, the United Party leader J. G. N. A group of Coloured activists formed the National Convention Co-ordinating Committee to oppose the bill within constitutional limits, the Franchise Action Council, a multi-racial organisation, led a campaign of rallies, strikes and civil disobedience. The Torch Commando was founded by white Second World War veterans in response to the bill, the Governor-General gave his assent on 15 June 1951 and the act was promulgated on 18 June. G. Harris, E. Franklin, W. D. Collins and this decision was immediately taken on appeal to the Appellate Division. The governments first contention was that the act did not disqualify voters on the basis of race, as all voters previously qualified were still able to vote, the court dismissed this argument as untenable. The governments claim regarding the Statute of Westminster was based on two principal theories, the first was based on the repeal of the application of the Colonial Laws Validity Act to South Africa. The Colonial Laws Validity Act provided that any act of a parliament would be valid within the colony unless it contradicted a British act applying to the colony. The second theory was that, by expanding the powers of the dominion parliaments. Section 2 of the Statute of Westminster gave a dominion parliament the power to repeal or amend any act of the British Parliament as it applied in the dominion. This did not affect the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, as Parliament was fully sovereign over South Africa, the court ruled that it was entitled to overrule its own previous decisions if they were clearly wrong. In Ndlwana there had been no discussion of the Statute of Westminster nor any argument for or against the conclusion drawn by the court, and the court therefore felt free to overrule it. The resulting order of the Appellate Division was that the Separate Representation of Voters Act was invalid, null and void and of no legal force, the ruling, authored by Chief Justice Albert van der Sandt Centlivres and handed down on 20 March 1952, was unanimous
25.
Sharpeville massacre
–
The Sharpeville massacre was an event which occurred on 21 March 1960, at the police station in the South African township of Sharpeville in Transvaal. After a day of demonstrations against pass laws, a crowd of about 5,000 to 7,000 black protesters went to the police station, the South African Police opened fire on the crowd, killing 69 people. In present-day South Africa,21 March is celebrated as a holiday in honour of human rights. South African governments since the century had enacted measures to restrict the flow of black South Africans into cities. Pass laws intended to control and direct their movement and employment were updated in the 1950s, under the countrys National Party government, black residents in urban districts were subject to influx control measures. From the 1960s, the laws were the primary instrument used by the state to detain. The African National Congress prepared to initiate a campaign of protests against pass laws. On March 21, a group of between 5,000 and 10,000 people converged on the police station in the township of Sharpeville. The Sharpeville police were not completely unprepared for the demonstration, as they had already forced to drive smaller groups of more militant activists away the previous night. By 10,00, a crowd had gathered. Fewer than 20 police officers were present in the station at the start of the protest. Later the crowd grew to about 20,000, and the mood was described as ugly, prompting about 130 police reinforcements, supported by four Saracen armoured personnel carriers, the police were armed with firearms, including Sten submachine guns and Lee–Enfield rifles. There was no evidence that anyone in the gathering was armed with anything other than rocks, f-86 Sabre jets and Harvard Trainers approached to within a hundred feet of the ground, flying low over the crowd in an attempt to scatter it. The protesters responded by hurling stones and menacing the police barricades, tear gas proved ineffectual, and policemen elected to repel these advances with their batons. At about 13,00 the police tried to arrest a protestor, resulting in a scuffle, the official figure is that 69 people were killed, including 8 women and 10 children, and 180 injured, including 31 women and 19 children. Many were shot in the back as they turned to flee, Police reports in 1960 claimed that young and inexperienced police officers panicked and opened fire spontaneously, setting off a chain reaction that lasted about forty seconds. It is likely that the police were nervous as two months before the massacre nine constables had been assaulted and killed during a raid at Cato Manor, in addition, few of the policemen present had received public order training. Some of them had been on duty for over twenty-four hours without respite, for them to gather means violence
26.
Rivonia Trial
–
The Rivonia Trial took place in South Africa between 9 October 1963 and 12 June 1964. The Rivonia Trial led to the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and the others among the accused who were convicted on life sentences in the Palace of Justice, Pretoria. The Rivonia Trial was named after Rivonia, the suburb of Johannesburg where leaders had arrested at Liliesleaf Farm, privately owned by Arthur Goldreich. The farm had been used as a hideout for the African National Congress, among others, Nelson Mandela had moved onto the farm in October 1961 and evaded security police while masquerading as a gardener and cook called David Motsamayi. Most of the Rivonia defendants were to be convicted, and in turn sentenced to life imprisonment, the government took advantage of legal provisions allowing for accused persons to be held for 90 days without trial, and the defendants were held incommunicado. Withstanding beatings and torture, Goldreich and Wolpe escaped from jail on 11 August and their escape infuriated the prosecutors and police who considered Goldreich to be the arch-conspirator. The chief prosecutor was Dr. Percy Yutar, deputy attorney-general of the Transvaal, the presiding judge was Dr. Quartus de Wet, judge-president of the Transvaal. The first trial indictment document listed 11 names as the accused, the trial began in October 1963. Counsel for the accused successfully challenged the legal sufficiency of the document, the second indictment thus only listed 10 out of the original 11 names, referring to them as Accused 1 through 10. Hilda Bernstein approached Joffe, after being rebuffed by other lawyers who claimed to be too busy or afraid to act for her husband, Joffe was subsequently also approached by Albertina Sisulu, Annie Goldberg and Winnie Mandela. Joffe agreed to act as attorney for all of the accused except Kantor, who would require separate counsel, Joffe initially secured the services of advocates Arthur Chaskalson and George Bizos, then persuaded Bram Fischer to act as lead counsel. Vernon Berrangé was also recruited to join the team of advocates. He thus arranged a separate defence team, while Harold Hanson primarily represented Kantor, he was also invited to deliver the plea for mitigation for the other 9 accused. The defence line-up for Kantor was John Coaker Harold Hanson George Lowen H. C, production requirements for munitions for a six-month period were sufficient, the prosecutor Percy Yutar said in his opening address, to blow up a city the size of Johannesburg. Kantor was discharged at the end of the prosecutions case, the trial was condemned by the United Nations Security Council and nations around the world, leading to international sanctions against the South African government in some cases. Arthur Goldreich and Harold Wolpe escaped from The Fort prison in Johannesburg while on remand after bribing a prison guard. After hiding in safe houses for two months they escaped to Swaziland dressed as priests with the aid of Manni Brown who posed as a tour operator as a cover to deliver weapons to the ANC. From Swaziland, Vernon Berrangé was to charter a plane to take them on to Lobatse, wolpes escape saw his brother-in-law James Kantor, who had been serving as a member of the defence team, arrested and charged with the same crimes as Mandela and his co-accused
27.
Soweto uprising
–
The Soweto uprising was a series of protests led by black school children in South Africa that began on the morning of 16 June 1976. Students from numerous Sowetan schools began to protest in the streets of Soweto in response to the introduction of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in local schools and it is estimated that 20,000 students took part in the protests. They were met with police brutality. The number of killed by police is usually given as 176. In remembrance of these events, the 16th of June is now a holiday in South Africa. The Regional Director of Bantu Education, J. G, indigenous languages would only be used for religious instruction, music, and physical culture. The association of Afrikaans with apartheid prompted black South Africans to prefer English, even the Bantustan regimes chose English and an indigenous African language as official languages. In addition, English was gaining prominence as the language most often used in commerce, the 1974 decree was intended to forcibly reverse the decline of Afrikaans among black Africans. The Afrikaner-dominated government used the clause of the 1909 Union of South Africa Act that recognised only English, while all schools had to provide instruction in both Afrikaans and English as languages, white South African students learned other subjects in their home language. Punt Janson, the Deputy Minister of Bantu Education at the time, was quoted as saying and he may work for an employer who is either English-speaking or Afrikaans-speaking and the man who has to give him instructions may be either English-speaking or Afrikaans-speaking. Why should we now start quarrelling about the medium of instruction among the Black people as well, no, I have not consulted them and I am not going to consult them. Teacher organisations, such as the African Teachers Association of South Africa, a change in language of instruction forced the students to focus on understanding the language instead of the subject material. This made critical analysis of the content difficult and discouraged critical thinking, the resentment grew until 30 April 1976, when children at Orlando West Junior School in Soweto went on strike, refusing to go to school. Their rebellion then spread to other schools in Soweto. Black South African students protested because they believed that they deserved to be treated, a student from Morris Isaacson High School, Teboho Tsietsi Mashinini, proposed a meeting on 13 June 1976 to discuss what should be done. Students formed an Action Committee, which organised a rally for 16 June. On the morning of 16 June 1976, between 10,000 and 20,000 black students walked from their schools to Orlando Stadium for a rally to protest against having to learn through Afrikaans in school. Many students who participated in the protest arrived at school that morning without prior knowledge of the protest
28.
Alexander Sinton Secondary School
–
Alexander Sinton Secondary School, also known as Alexander Sinton High School, is an English-medium school in Crawford, a suburb of Cape Town, South Africa. The school is located in the Cape Flats, a designated as non-white under the Group Areas Act during apartheid. The school was involved in the student uprisings of the 1970s and 1980s. Staff and students at the school made headlines when they barricaded the police into their school in September 1985, the following month, three youths were killed near the school by police officers who opened fire on protesters in the Trojan Horse Incident. It was the first school to be visited by Nelson Mandela after his release from prison, as of 2014, the school has 1,100 pupils, half boys and half girls. The school employs 40 teachers and six non-teaching staff, the school was named for its benefactor Alexander Sinton, who bequeathed money to found the school in 1951. In 1976 Nabil Swart, a teacher at the school, was arrested after helping a student who had shot during the protests. Swart was released on bail after being detained for a weekend, internal resistance to apartheid intensified, and a state of emergency was declared in parts of the country in 1985. The Committee of 81, a student organisation representing coloured schools in the Western Cape which organised student boycotts and protests, held some meetings at the school in 1985. The school effectively stopped teaching from February and was closed on 6 September when the government ordered more than 400 schools to close as a result of civil unrest. Some teachers resigned their positions and others were confused as to their role, the Teachers League of South Africa, a professional association for coloured teachers, encouraged its members not to resign for the sake of the children. Teachers decided to teach, but not to co-operate with the authorities, the school defiantly re-opened on 17 September 1985 when the principal, Khalied Desai, led teachers, uniformed students and parents who sang protest songs. The police were aware of the plans, and arrived quickly. The students threw stones, built barricades and the police replied with armoured vehicles, tear gas, rubber bullets, Teachers and parents supported the students and their protests against injustice. The police had difficulty taking away the people they had arrested, the New York Times noted that the action taken by coloured teachers and students at the school was remarkably different to the boycotts taking place at black schools. Swart was again jailed for two weeks in 1985 for helping to re-open the school, the state of emergency was extended to include Cape Town on 25 October 1985, giving the police and army greater powers to deal with instability in the area. Swart was again jailed for eighteen months in 1986 for his involvement in the school unrest, on 15 October 1985 three male youths, aged 11,15 and 21, were killed by the police nearby in Belgravia Road in Athlone in what was called the Trojan Horse Incident. Students and activists had gathered where they regularly had battles with the police and were stoning vehicles, most of the people in the crowd were from the school
29.
Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa
–
The apartheid system in South Africa was ended through a series of negotiations between 1990 and 1993 and through unilateral steps by the de Klerk government. These negotiations took place between the governing National Party, the African National Congress, and a variety of other political organisations. Negotiations took place against a backdrop of violence in the country. The negotiations resulted in South Africas first non-racial election, which was won by the African National Congress, apartheid was a system of racial discrimination and segregation in South African government. It was formalised in 1948, forming a framework for political and economic dominance by the white population, between 1960 and 1990, the African National Congress and other mainly black opposition political organisations were banned. As the National Party cracked down on opposition to apartheid, most leaders of ANC. The declarations purpose was to provide a blueprint for government of South Africa for racial peace in South Africa and it called for negotiations involving all peoples, in order to draw up constitutional proposals stressing opportunity for all with a Bill of Rights to safeguard these rights. It suggested that the concept was the appropriate framework for such changes to take place. It also affirmed that change must take place through non-violent means. The declaration was the first of such agreements by acknowledged black, the commitment to the peaceful pursuit of political change was declared at a time when neither the National Party nor the African National Congress were looking to peaceful solutions or dialogue. The declaration was heralded by the English speaking press as a breakthrough in race relations in South Africa, shortly after it was issued, the declaration was endorsed by several chief ministers of the black homelands, including Cedric Phatudi, Lucas Mangope and Hudson Nisanwisi. These meetings were secret in nature and were designed to develop an understanding about whether there were sufficient common grounds for peace talks. As these meetings evolved, a level of trust developed between the key actors, to facilitate future talks while preserving secrecy needed to protect the process, Barnard arranged for Mandela to be moved off Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison in 1982. This provided Mandela with more comfortable lodgings, but also gave access in a way that could not be compromised. Barnard therefore brokered an agreement in principle about what became known as talks about talks. It was at this stage that the process was elevated from an engagement to a more public engagement. The first less-tentative meeting between Mandela and the National Party government came while P. W. Botha was State President, in November 1985, Minister Kobie Coetsee met Mandela in the hospital while Mandela was being treated for prostate surgery. This new phase was designed to test public opinion about a negotiated solution, when F. W. de Klerk became President in 1989, he was able to build on the previous secret negotiations with the imprisoned Mandela
30.
Chris Hani
–
Chris Hani, born Martin Thembisile Hani, was the leader of the South African Communist Party and chief of staff of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the African National Congress. He was an opponent of the apartheid government, and was assassinated on 10 April 1993. Thembisile Hani was born on 28 June 1942 in the town of Cofimvaba. He was the fifth of six children and he attended Lovedale school in 1957, to finish his last two years. He twice finished two school grades in a single year, when Hani was 12 years old, after hearing his fathers explanations about apartheid and the African National Congress, he wished to join the ANC but was still too young to be accepted. In Lovedale school, Hani joined the ANC Youth League when he was 15 years old and he influenced other students to join the ANC. In 1959, at the University of Fort Hare in Alice, Eastern Cape, Hani studied English, Latin and modern and he did not participate in any sport, saying I would rather fight apartheid than play sport. Hani, in an interview on the Wankie campaign, mentioned that he was a Rhodes University graduate, at age 15 he joined the ANC Youth League. As a student he was active in protests against the Bantu Education Act, following his graduation, he joined Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the ANC. Following his arrest under the Suppression of Communism Act, he went into exile in Lesotho in 1963, because of Hanis involvement with Umkhonto we Sizwe he was forced into hiding by the South African government during which time he changed his first name to Chris. He received military training in the Soviet Union and served in campaigns in the Zimbabwean War of Liberation and they were joint operations between Umkhonto we Sizwe and the Zimbabwe Peoples Revolutionary Army in the late 1960s. The Luthuli Detachment operation consolidated Hanis reputation as a soldier in the army that took the field against apartheid. His role as a fighter from the earliest days of MKs exile was an important part in the fierce loyalty Hani enjoyed in some quarters later as MKs Deputy Commander. In 1969 he co-signed, with six others, the Hani Memorandum which was critical of the leadership of Joe Modise, Moses Kotane. In Lesotho he organised guerrilla operations of the MK in South Africa, by 1982, Hani had become prominent enough that he was the target of assassination attempts, and he eventually moved to the ANCs headquarters in Lusaka, Zambia. He supported the suspension of the ANCs armed struggle in favour of negotiations, Chris Hani was assassinated on 10 April 1993 outside his home in Dawn Park, a racially mixed suburb of Boksburg. He was accosted by a Polish far-right anti-communist immigrant named Janusz Waluś, Waluś fled the scene, but was arrested soon afterwards after Hanis neighbour, a white Afrikaner woman, called the police. Clive Derby-Lewis, a senior South African Conservative Party M. P. and Shadow Minister for Economic Affairs at the time, the Conservative Party of South Africa had broken away from the ruling National Party out of opposition to the reforms of P. W. Botha
31.
African National Congress
–
The African National Congress is the Republic of South Africas governing social democratic political party. It has been the party of post-apartheid South Africa on the national level, beginning with the election of Nelson Mandela in the 1994 election. Today, the ANC remains the dominant political party in South Africa and its leader Jacob Zuma is the incumbent head of state, with Atul Gupta being the official head of government. On 8 April 1960, the administration of Charles Robberts Swart, banned the ANC, after the ban, the ANC formed the Umkhonto we Sizwe to fight against apartheid utilizing guerrilla warfare and sabotage. On 3 February 1990, State President F. W. de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC, on 17 March 1992, the apartheid referendum was passed by the voters removing apartheid and allowing the ANC to run in the 1994 election. Since the 1994 election the ANC has performed better than 60% in all general elections, the founding of the SANNC was in direct response to injustice against black South Africans at the hands of the government then in power. It can be said that the SANNC had its origins in a pronouncement by Pixley ka Isaka Seme who said in 1911, Forget all the past differences among Africans, the SANNC was founded the following year on 8 January 1912. The government of the newly formed Union of South Africa began a systematic oppression of people in South Africa. The Land Act was promulgated in 1913 forcing many non-whites from their farms into the cities and towns to work, by 1919, the SANNC was leading a campaign against passes. However, it became dormant in the mid-1920s. During that time, black people were represented by the ICU. In 1923, the became the African National Congress. By 1927, J. T. Gumede proposed co-operation with the Communists in a bid to revitalise the organisation and this led to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual and inactive, until the mid-1940s when the ANC was remodelled as a mass movement. The ANC responded to attacks on the rights of black South Africans, as well as calling for strikes, boycotts and this led to a later Defiance Campaign in the 1950s, a mass movement of resistance to apartheid. The government tried to stop the ANC by banning party leaders and enacting new laws to stop the ANC, the government claimed that this was a communist document, and consequently leaders of the ANC and Congress were arrested. 1960 saw the Sharpeville massacre, in which 69 people were killed when police opened fire on anti-apartheid protesters, in 1961, partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre, Umkhonto we Sizwe was established as the military wing to launch bomb attacks. It was considered as terrorist group by South African government, later the United States government, MK commenced the military struggle against apartheid with acts of sabotage aimed at the installations of the state, and in the early stages was reluctant to target civilian targets. MK was responsible for the deaths of civilians and members of the military
32.
Azanian People's Liberation Army
–
The Azanian Peoples Liberation Army, formerly known as Poqo, was the military wing of the Pan Africanist Congress, an African nationalist movement in South Africa. After attacks on and the murder of white families the APLA was subsequently classified as a terrorist organisation by the South African National government and the United States. APLA was disbanded and integrated into the South African National Defence Force in June 1994, in 1968 the Azanian Peoples Liberation Army replaced defunct Poqo as the armed wing of the PAC. Its name was derived from Azania, the ancient Greek name for Southern Africa, Azania is the name that has been applied to various parts of southeastern tropical Africa. In the Roman period and perhaps earlier, the referred to a portion of the Southeast African coast extending from Kenya. Poqo was founded in 1961 following the massacre of PAC-led protestors at the hands of police outside the Sharpeville police station the previous year. Potlako Leballo, the chairman of the PAC at the time of the formation of its wing in the 1960s, modelled APLA on the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army. Two white residents, Frans Richard and Rencia Vermeulen were killed and this attack was followed by the murder of a family camping at Bashee River in the Transkei on 4 February 1963. Norman and Elizabeth Grobbelaar, their teenage daughters Edna and Dawn, after the Soweto uprising in 1976, a number of students went into exile in APLA camps elsewhere on the African continent. Ntantalas original group of 70 APLA soldiers felt threatened by the influx of new recruits, leading Ntantala to attempt a coup against then commander and this was prevented by LLA soldiers, a move which exacerbated tensions within two PAC factions, the Diplomat-Reformist and Maoist-Revolutionary factions. Leballo himself relocated to Zimbabwe in late 1980 along with senior intelligence, pressure from Tanzania, however, resulted in his deportation in May–June 1981, as well as the deportation or imprisonment of the others. Make was replaced by John Nyathi Pokela, but his term of office was marred by further mutinies. Following Pokela’s death, Leballo made a comeback through support from Libya, North Korea, after his sudden death in January 1986, the DR faction, outmaneuvered by the ANC, fell into disarray leaving behind the legacy of a semi-national socialist political front. After 1986, APLA rejected the MR factions concept of the guerrilla as a reformer and instead adopted an ultimately disastrous rallying cry of One Settler. In the 1990–94 period, the became known for its attacks on civilians despite the progress in negotiations at the Convention for a Democratic South Africa. In 1993, the APLA’s chief commander, Sabelo Phama, declared that he would aim his guns at children - to hurt whites where it hurts most. Phama proclaimed 1993 as The Year of the Great Storm and sanctioned the attacks on civilians, King William’s Town Golf Club on 28 November 1992. Highgate Hotel in East London on 1 May 1993, killing five people, st James Church massacre in Kenilworth on 25 July 1993, killing 11 people during a church service
33.
Inkatha Freedom Party
–
The Inkatha Freedom Party is a political party in South Africa. Since its founding, it has been led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi, gatsha Mangosuthu Buthelezi, a former member of the ANC Youth League, founded the Inkatha National Cultural Liberation Movement, which later became the IFP, on 21 March 1975. Buthelezi used a structure rooted in Inkatha, a 1920s cultural organisation for Zulus established by Zulu King Solomon kaDinuzulu. The party was established in what is now KwaZulu-Natal, after which branches of the party quickly sprang up in the Transvaal, the Orange Free State and the Western Cape. Because of Buthelezis former position in the African National Congress, the two organisations were very close and each supported the other in the anti-apartheid struggle. As a Homeland leader, the power of Buthelezi depended on the South African state, with anti-apartheid leaders inside South Africa and abroad demanding sanctions, Buthelezi came to be regarded more and more as a government puppet, along with other Bantustan leaders. His tribal loyalties and focus on ethnic interests over national unity were also criticised as contributing to the programme of the IFP. This led to a civil war between Zulu loyalist supporters and ANC members in KwaZulu-Natal. During the phase of establishing a constitution for South Africa and prior to the first free elections in South African history, both the IFP and ANC attempted to campaign in each others KwaZulu-Natal strongholds, and were met with resistance, sometimes violent, by members of the opposing party. As a result, the IFP abstained from registering its party for the 1994 election, however, once it became obvious that its efforts were not going to stop the election, the party was registered at the eleventh hour. On election day, the IFP displayed its political strength by taking the majority of the votes for KwaZulu-Natal, after the dismantling of apartheid system in 1994, the IFP formed an uneasy coalition in KwaZulu-Natal with their traditional political rival, the ANC. This coalition was to last until 2004, when the IFP joined the Democratic Alliance, the ANC/IFP rivalry, characterised by sporadic acts of political violence, has been firm since 1993. In 2004, while campaigning in Vulindlela, an IFP bastion in the Pietermaritzburg Midlands region, previously the stronghold of Moses Mabhida, this area has long been the site of heated clashes between the parties. The IFP also states that Our proposals are designed to give control over their lives. We also have the political will to deal effectively with these problems, gavin Woods, one of the partys most respected MPs, drew up a highly critical 11 page internal discussion document at the request of the parliamentary caucus after a discussion in October 2004. Woods also warned the party that it must treat Buthelezi as the leader of a political party, Woods pinpointed 1987 as the year when the IFP started losing ground as a political force. Before 1987, Woods contends, the party had a strong, Woods criticized the IFPs inability to end the ANCs campaign of violence against it, and an impotent attitude towards the attacks conducted against it by the ANC. At the first caucus discussion, Woods read out the 11-page paper in full, IFP president Mangosuthu Buthelezi was absent from that meeting but raised it at a meeting of the partys national council, which Woods did not attend
34.
Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
–
The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging is a South African neo-nazi separatist political and paramilitary organisation, often described as a white supremacist group. Since its founding in 1973, it has dedicated to secessionist Afrikaner nationalism. In its heyday in the 1980s and 1990s, when the nation was moving toward sharing political power with Black people, when the Afrikaners National Party gained control of the government in the elections of 1948, it began to introduce official apartheid. The AWB was formed in 1973 by Eugène TerreBlanche and six other far-right Afrikaners, terreblanche remained the leader until he was murdered on his farm in 2010. TerreBlanche was succeeded as leader by Steyn van Ronge, by the late 20th century, media reported that the AWB represented Afrikaners who were not able to make the leap from the isolated dirt farms even with the huge boost of apartheid. On 7 July 1973 Eugène TerreBlanche, a police officer, called a meeting of several men in Heidelberg, Gauteng. TerreBlanche also worried about what he characterized as communist influences in South African society and he decided to form a group with six other like-minded persons, which they named the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, to promote Afrikaner nationalism. His associates elected him as head of the group, a position he held until he was killed on his farm in April 2010 and their objective was to establish an independent Boerestaat for Boer-Afrikaner people only. It was to be independent of apartheid South Africa, which they considered too left wing, during the 1970s and 1980s, the AWB attracted several thousand white South Africans as members. They opposed the reform of laws during the 1980s, harassing liberal politicians. TerreBlanche used his flamboyant oratorial skills and forceful personality to win converts, during the State of Emergency, AWB violence and murders of unarmed non-whites were reported. The AWB especially opposed the then-banned African National Congress, which worked to achieve rights for the indigenous native South Saharan Africans. The ruling National Party considered the AWB to be more than a fringe group. The group operated relatively unhindered until 1986, when police officers took the unprecedented step of using tear gas against the AWB when they disrupted a National Party rally. In 1988, the organisation was estimated to have had support amongst 5 to 7 percent of the white South African population, in the Nick Broomfield documentary film, His Big White Self, he claimed the organisation reached a peak of half a million supporters in its heyday. In the mid-1980s, the AWB instituted a Voedingskema, later called the Volkshulpskema, the scheme delivered a meal every day to 14,000 poor Afrikaner children in Pretoria. Certain farmers also donated vegetables on an almost weekly basis, in the winter, bedding was donated as well. Sympathetic mine owners and farmers arranged jobs for unemployed Afrikaners on the farms, Afrikaans singer Bles Bridges held a concert on 3 March 1987 in Pretoria and gave the 10,000 rand raised to the project
35.
Democratic Party (South Africa)
–
The Democratic Party was the name of the South African political party now called the Democratic Alliance. The Progressive Federal Party had formed the parliamentary opposition to the Apartheid regime in the whites only House of Assembly since 1977. This led to disillusionment amongst South Africas white liberal community. The new party had three co-leaders from each of the parties that had entered the merger, Zach de Beer, Denis Worrall, de Beer, from the dominant PFP-faction, eventually became the sole leader, however. It went on to win 34 seats in the 1989 election, in 1990, the NP shifted towards the center. This shift narrowed the political space available to the DP, in the 1994 election, the party won a disappointing 7 seats in the democratic parliament. Following the election, Tony Leon became the sole leader. Under Leons leadership, the DP would become the most active and influential opposition party in the National Assembly, in 1998, political columnist Howard Barrell wrote that Seven DP MPs make their National Party counterparts look like 80 feather dusters. The DP won its first local by-election against the NP in March 1997, in the Western Cape province, it achieved kingmaker status and became the junior partner in a governing coalition with the renamed New National Party. This electoral success came at a price, however, the partys new supporters largely came from the National Party and consisted overwhelmingly of ethnic minorities, mainly whites. Leon and other party leaders dismissed this, however, to unify national opposition against the ANC government, the DP and the NNP began to plan a merger of the two parties. Accordingly, the DP was renamed Democratic Alliance in June 2000, the merger agreement was short-lived, with the NNP leaving the alliance in 2001, but DA chose to retain its new name, adopting it at all levels of government from 2003 onwards. Contributions to liberal theory Liberal democracy Liberalism Liberalism in South Africa Liberalism worldwide List of liberal parties Democratic Alliance website
36.
End Conscription Campaign
–
The End Conscription Campaign was an anti-apartheid organisation allied to the United Democratic Front and composed of conscientious objectors and their supporters in South Africa. It was formed in 1983 to oppose the conscription of all white South African men into service in the South African Defence Force. Valid reasons included conscientious objection based on beliefs, but these exceptions were tightened in 1974. Increasingly stringent laws were passed increasing periods of service, broadening the base of white men who could be called up. Conscripts comprised a significant part of South African Defence Force, the End Conscription Campaign was formed in 1983, in protest against compulsory military service. The ECC was founded in response to a passed by Black Sash at their annual conference. Conscientious objection was a choice as the consequences were severe. The reasons for conscientious objection included political, ethical and religious reasons, some religious organisations, parent groups and student organisations such as the National Union of South African Students also engaged in anti-conscription activities. At its peak, conscription in South Africa consisted of two years of military service, followed by camps at intervals. Under apartheid, the applied to all white men after completing their schooling or further studies. Objections to military service and the War in Angola were generally based on the role of the military, the military had also become increasingly active in suppressing a civil war in South Africas black townships. Many conscripts simply went Absent Without Leave, failed to arrive at BASICS or got lost in the system and it was announced in parliament that 7589 conscripts failed to report for National Service in January 1985, as opposed to only 1596 in the whole of 1984. As there were two intakes annually, in January and July, this would suggest an increase in non-reportees over the previous year. An estimated additional 7000 draft-dodgers were also said to be living in Europe in 1985, the motion was passed unanimously. He proposed the same motion at the Annual Conference of the PFP in Cape Town a few months later which passed with little opposition. 1452 people opted for the Alternative to Conscription between 1984 and the cancelling of Conscription in South Africa in 1993, January 1985 and July 1985 were the first so-called immigrant intakes after the involuntary nationalisation of white immigrant men of a predetermined age group in November 1984. Handlers objection was based upon the notion of an Unjust War as opposed to the Pacifist position held by many Christian students, the organisation was banned in August 1988 under emergency regulations. The same month, an issue of a newspaper, the Weekly Mail, was confiscated by security police, on the grounds that it had covered. News coverage included a cartoon, an advertisement from War Resisters International, as a result of the banning of the ECC and confiscation of the Weekly Mail, protests at the University of Cape Town and other campuses were held
.jpg)
.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
