1.
Man-portable air-defense system
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Man-portable air-defense systems are shoulder-launched surface-to-air missiles. They are typically guided weapons and are a threat to low-flying aircraft, MANPADS were developed in the 1940s to provide military ground forces with protection from enemy aircraft. They have received a deal of attention, partly because armed groups have used them against commercial airliners. Twenty-five countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Sweden, possession, export, and trafficking in such weapons is officially tightly controlled, due to the threat they pose to civil aviation, although such efforts have not always been successful. The missiles are about 1.5 to 1.8 m in length and weigh about 17 to 18 kg, depending on the model. Shoulder-fired SAMs generally have a detection range of about 10 km. However, the FIM-92 Stinger has a range of 26,000 feet, the acronym MANPADS is commonly mistaken to have a singular form of MANPAD—this is incorrect, as even a singular unit is still a system and would have the final S in the acronym. Borrowing from the concept of the simple and effective anti-tank Panzerfaust, the Fliegerfaust, the weapon never reached mass production due to the end of World War II. These missiles use passive guidance, meaning that they do not emit signals to detect a heat source, the first missiles deployed in the 1960s were infrared missiles. First generation shoulder-fired SAMs, such as the U. S, in this flight profile, the aircrafts engines are fully exposed to the missiles seeker and provide a sufficient thermal signature for engagement. First generation IR missiles are also susceptible to interfering thermal signatures from background sources, including the sun. Second generation infrared missiles, such as versions of the U. S. Command guidance missiles do not home in on an aspect of the targeted aircraft. Instead, the operator or gunner visually acquires the target using a magnified optical sight. One of the benefits of such a missile is that it is immune to flares. The major drawback of CLOS missiles is that they require highly trained and skilled operators, later versions of CLOS missiles, such as the British Javelin, use a solid state television camera in lieu of the optical tracker to make the gunners task easier. The Javelins manufacturer, Thales Air Defence, claims that their missile is virtually impervious to countermeasures, even more advanced CLOS versions, such as the British Starburst, use a laser data link in lieu of earlier radio guidance links to fly the missile to the target. Laser guided shoulder-fired SAMs use lasers to guide the missiles to the target, the missile homes in on the reflection of the laser beam from the aircraft and strikes the aircraft where the missile operator or gunner aims the laser
2.
Falklands War
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It began on Friday,2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands in an attempt to establish the sovereignty it had claimed over them. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval force to engage the Argentine Navy. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982, in total,649 Argentine military personnel,255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities. The conflict was an episode in the protracted confrontation over the territories sovereignty. Argentina asserted that the islands are Argentine territory, and the Argentine government thus characterised its military action as the reclamation of its own territory, the British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are descendants of British settlers. The conflict has had an effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the outcome prompted large protests against the military government. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative Party government, bolstered by the outcome, was re-elected the following year. The cultural and political weight of the conflict has had less effect in Britain than in Argentina, diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, Spain, at which the two governments issued a joint statement. No change in either countrys position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit, in 1994, Argentinas claim to the territories was added to its constitution. In December 1981 there was a change in the Argentine military regime, bringing to office a new junta headed by General Leopoldo Galtieri, Brigadier Basilio Lami Dozo. Anaya was the architect and supporter of a military solution for the long-standing claim over the islands. Such action would also bolster its dwindling legitimacy, the newspaper La Prensa speculated in a step-by-step plan beginning with cutting off supplies to the islands, ending in direct actions late in 1982, if the UN talks were fruitless. The Royal Navy ice patrol vessel HMS Endurance was dispatched from Stanley to South Georgia in response, the Argentine military junta, suspecting that the UK would reinforce its South Atlantic Forces, ordered the invasion of the Falkland Islands to be brought forward to 2 April. Britain was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, despite repeated warnings by Royal Navy captain Nicholas Barker, on 2 April 1982, Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings off the Falkland Islands. The invasion was met with a defence organised by the Falkland Islands Governor Sir Rex Hunt. Word of the invasion first reached Britain from Argentine sources, a Ministry of Defence operative in London had a short telex conversation with Governor Hunts telex operator, who confirmed that Argentines were on the island and in control
3.
Angolan Civil War
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The Angolan Civil War was a major civil conflict in Angola, beginning in 1975 and continuing, with some interludes, until 2002. The war began immediately after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975, prior to this, a decolonisation conflict, the Angolan War of Independence, had taken place. The civil war was essentially a struggle between two former liberation movements, the Peoples Movement for the Liberation of Angola and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola. The MPLA and UNITA had different roots in the Angolan social fabric and mutually incompatible leaderships, although both had socialist leanings, for the purpose of mobilising international support they posed as Marxist–Leninist and anti-communist, respectively. A third movement, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola, having fought the MPLA alongside UNITA during the war for independence, played almost no role in the Civil War. Additionally, the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda, the 27-year war can be divided roughly into three periods of major fighting – from 1975 to 1991,1992 to 1994, and from 1998 to 2002 – broken up by fragile periods of peace. By the time the MPLA finally achieved victory in 2002, more than 500,000 people had died, the war devastated Angolas infrastructure, and severely damaged the nations public administration, economic enterprises, and religious institutions. The Angolan Civil War was notable due to the combination of Angolas violent internal dynamics, the war became a Cold War struggle, as both the Soviet Union and the United States, along with their respective allies, provided significant military assistance to parties in the conflict. Moreover, the Angolan conflict became intertwined with the Second Congo War in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo. Angolas three rebel movements had their roots in the movements of the 1950s. The MPLA was primarily an urban based movement in Luanda and its surrounding area and it was largely composed of Mbundu people. By contrast the two major anti-colonial movements the FNLA and UNITA, were rurally based groups. The FNLA largely consisted of Bakongo people hailing from Northern Angola, UNITA, an offshoot of the FNLA, was mainly composed of Ovimbundu people from the Central highlands. Since its formation in the 1950s, the MPLAs main social base has been among the Ambundu people, during its anti-colonial struggle of 1962–74, the MPLA was supported by several African countries, as well as by the Soviet Union. Cuba became the MPLAs strongest ally, sending significant contingents of combat and this support, as well as that of several other countries of the Eastern Bloc, e. g. Romania and East Germany, was maintained during the Civil War. The FNLA formed parallel to the MPLA, and was devoted to defending the interests of the Bakongo people. However, it developed into a nationalist movement, supported in its struggle against Portugal by the government of Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire. UNITA was founded in 1966 by Jonas Savimbi, who then had been a prominent leader of the FNLA
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Sri Lankan Civil War
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The Sri Lankan Civil War was an armed conflict fought on the island of Sri Lanka. After a 26-year military campaign, the Sri Lankan military defeated the Tamil Tigers in May 2009, bringing the civil war to an end. For over 25 years, the war caused significant hardships for the population, environment and the economy of the country, with an initial estimated 80, 000–100,000 people killed during its course. In 2013, the UN panel estimated additional deaths during the last phase of the war, during the early part of the conflict, the Sri Lankan forces attempted to retake the areas captured by the LTTE. The LTTE then declared they would resume their struggle to achieve statehood. Following the end of the war, the Sri Lankan government claimed Sri Lanka as the first country in the world to eradicate terrorism on its own soil. Following the LTTEs defeat, pro-LTTE Tamil National Alliance dropped its demand for a separate state, the origins of the Sri Lankan Civil War lie in the continuous political rancor between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils. The roots of the conflict lie in the British colonial rule when the country was known as Ceylon. However, British Gov. William Manning actively encouraged the concept of representation and created the Colombo town seat in 1920. However, in 1944 J. R. Jayawardene moved in the State Council that Sinhala should replace English as the official language, approximately over 700,000 Indian Tamils were made stateless. Over the next three decades more than 300,000 Indian Tamils were deported back to India and it wasnt until 2003–55 years after independence—that all Indian Tamils living in Sri Lanka were granted citizenship, but by this time they only made up 5% of the islands population. In 1956 Prime Minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike passed the Sinhala Only Act and this was seen as a deliberate attempt to discourage the Sri Lankan Tamils from working in the Ceylon Civil Service and other public services. The Tamil-speaking minorities of Ceylon viewed the Act as linguistic, cultural, many Tamil-speaking civil servants/public servants were forced to resign because they werent fluent in Sinhala. This was a prelude to the 1956 Gal Oya riots and the 1958 widespread riots in which thousands of Tamil civilians perished, the civil war was a direct result of the escalation of the confrontational politics that followed. In the late 1960s documents relating to a separate Tamil state of Tamil Eelam began to circulate, at this time Anton Balasingham, an employee of the British High Commission in Colombo, began to participate in separatist activities. He later migrated to Britain, where he would become the chief theoretician of the LTTE, in the late 1960s several Tamil youth, among them Velupillai Prabhakaran, also became involved in these activities. They carried out several operations against pro-government Tamil politicians, Sri Lanka police. During the 1970s Policy of standardization was initiated, under the policy, university selection was calculated based on language
5.
Tajikistani Civil War
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Politically, the rebel groups were led by liberal democratic reformers and Islamists, who fought together and later organized under the banner of the United Tajik Opposition. By June 1997, an estimated 50,000 to 100,000 people had been killed, tensions began in the spring of 1992 after opposition members took to the streets in demonstrations against the results of the 1991 presidential election. Fighting broke out in May 1992 between old-guard supporters of the government and an organized opposition composed of ethnic and regional groups from the Garm. Ideologically, the opposition included democratic liberal reformists and Islamists, the government, on the other hand, was dominated by people from the Leninabadi region, which had also made up most of the ruling elite during the entire Soviet period. It was also supported by people from the Kulyab region, who had held posts in the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Soviet times. After many clashes, the Leninabadis were forced to accept a compromise, on 7 September 1992, Nabiyev was captured by opposition protesters and forced at gunpoint to resign his presidency. Chaos and fighting between the opposing factions reigned outside of the capital Dushanbe, with the aid of the Russian military and Uzbekistan, the Leninabadi-Kulyabi Popular Front forces routed the opposition in early and late 1992. The coalition government in the capital was forced to resign, the violence was particularly concentrated in Qurghonteppa, the power base of the IRP and home to many Garmis. Tens of thousands were killed or fled to Afghanistan, in Afghanistan, the opposition reorganized and rearmed with the aid of the Jamiat-i-Islami. The groups leader Ahmad Shah Masoud became a benefactor of the Tajik opposition, later in the war the opposition organized under an umbrella group called the United Tajik Opposition, or UTO. Elements of the UTO, especially in the Tavildara region, became the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, Iran did not involve itself militarily, but provided ideological support for Muslims who had long been denied the right to freely exercise their faith in the USSR. Other combatants and armed bands that flourished in this civil chaos simply reflected the breakdown of authority rather than loyalty to a political faction. In response to the violence the United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan was deployed, most fighting in the early part of the war occurred in the southern part of the country, but by 1996 the rebels were battling Russian troops in the capital city of Dushanbe. Islamic radicals from northern Afghanistan also began to fight Russian troops in the region, a UN-sponsored armistice finally ended the war in 1997. This was in part fostered by the Inter-Tajik Dialogue, a Track II diplomacy initiative in which the players were brought together by international actors, namely the United States. The peace agreement completely eliminated the Leninabad region from power, presidential elections were held on November 6,1999. Akbar Turajonzoda, second-in-command of the UTO, repeated this warning on 26 June, President Rahmonov, UTO leader Sayid Abdulloh Nuri and Russian President Boris Yeltsin met in the Kremlin in Moscow on 26 June to finish negotiating the peace agreement. Russian Foreign Minister Yevgeny Primakov met with the Foreign Ministers of Iran, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan to discuss the peace accord
6.
Kargil War
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In India, the conflict is also referred to as Operation Vijay which was the name of the Indian operation to clear the Kargil sector. The cause of the war was the infiltration of Pakistani soldiers and Kashmiri militants into positions on the Indian side of the LOC, which serves as the de facto border between the two states. The Indian Army, later supported by the Indian Air Force, recaptured a majority of the positions on the Indian side of the LOC infiltrated by the Pakistani troops, facing international diplomatic opposition, the Pakistani forces withdrew from the remaining Indian positions along the LOC. The war is one of the most recent examples of high-altitude warfare in mountainous terrain and it is one of the very few instances of direct, conventional warfare between nuclear states. After Pakistans defeat in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the two signed the Simla Agreement promising not to engage in armed conflict with respect to that boundary. The town of Kargil is located 205 km from Srinagar, facing the Northern Areas across the LOC, like other areas in the Himalayas, Kargil has a temperate climate. Summers are cool with frigid nights, while winters are long, an Indian national highway connecting Srinagar to Leh cuts through Kargil. The area that witnessed the infiltration and fighting is a 160 km long stretch of ridges overlooking this only road linking Srinagar, the military outposts on the ridges above the highway were generally around 5,000 metres high, with a few as high as 5,485 metres. Kargil was targeted partly because the terrain was conducive to the seizure of several unoccupied military positions. With tactically vital features and well-prepared defensive posts atop the peaks, Kargil is just 173 km from the Pakistani-controlled town of Skardu, which was capable of providing logistical and artillery support to Pakistani combatants. In an attempt to defuse the situation, both signed the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, promising to provide a peaceful and bilateral solution to the Kashmir conflict. Pakistan also believed that any tension in the region would internationalise the Kashmir issue, yet another goal may have been to boost the morale of the decade-long rebellion in Indian Administered Kashmir by taking a proactive role. Pakistani Lieutenant general Shahid Aziz, and then head of ISI analysis wing, has confirmed there were no mujahideen, there were no Mujahideen, only taped wireless messages, which fooled no one. Our soldiers were made to occupy barren ridges, with hand weapons and ammunition. Some writers have speculated that the objective may also have been retaliation for Indias Operation Meghdoot in 1984 that seized much of Siachen Glacier. According to Indias then army chief Ved Prakash Malik, and many other scholars, some analysts believe that the blueprint of attack was reactivated soon after Pervez Musharraf was appointed chief of army staff in October 1998. Sharif attributed the plan to Musharraf and just two or three of his cronies, a view shared by some Pakistani writers who have stated that four generals, including Musharraf. Musharraf, however, asserted that Sharif had been briefed on the Kargil operation 15 days ahead of Vajpayees journey to Lahore on 20 February, there were three major phases to the Kargil War
7.
Yugoslav Wars
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The Yugoslav Wars were a series of ethnically-based wars and insurgencies fought from 1991 to 2001 inside the territory of the former Yugoslavia. The wars are considered to be a series of separate but related military conflicts which occurred in. The wars ended through peace accords, involving full international recognition of new states, as a result, the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and ethnic Macedonians, and effectively became a Serb army. According to the 1994 United Nations report, the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia, other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the wars, such as Greater Albania and Greater Croatia. Often described as Europes deadliest since World War II, the conflicts have become infamous for the war crimes involved, including cleansing, crimes against humanity. These were the first European conflicts since World War II to be formally judged genocidal in character, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was established by the UN to prosecute these crimes. According to the International Center for Transitional Justice, the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140,000 people, the Humanitarian Law Center estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130,000 people lost their lives. The war have alternatively been called, Wars in the Balkans Wars/conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, third Balkan War, a term suggested by British journalist Misha Glenny in the title of his book, alluding to the two previous Balkan Wars fought 1912–13. In fact, this term has been applied by some historians to World War I. Yugoslavia Civil War/Yugoslav Civil War/Yugoslavian Civil War/Civil War in Yugoslavia, the nation of Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War I, and was composed mostly of South Slavic Christians, but the nation also had a substantial Muslim minority. In the 1980s, relations among the six republics of the SFRY deteriorated, Slovenia and Croatia desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation, while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority. As it became clearer that there was no solution agreeable to all parties, although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s, it was 1990 that proved decisive. In the midst of hardship, Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups. By the early 1990s, there was no authority at the federal level. The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics, the communist leadership was divided along national lines. The representatives of Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia, Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes and was able to heavily influence decision-making at the federal level, since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote. While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi-party system, Serbia, led by Milošević, demanded a more centralized federation. This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the break-up of the party, the first of these conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War, was initiated by the JNA on 26 June 1991 after the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991
8.
Invasion of Grenada
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Codenamed Operation Urgent Fury, it was triggered by a hard-line Stalinist coup that resulted in the execution of the previous left-wing revolutionary leader. The invasion resulted in the appointment of a government, followed by democratic elections in 1984. The country has remained a democratic nation since then, Grenada gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. The leftist New Jewel Movement seized power in a coup in 1979 under Maurice Bishop, suspending the constitution and detaining a number of political prisoners. From the U. S. perspective, the decision to intervene was in part motivated by concerns over the 600 U. S. medical students on the island, the U. S. invasion began six days after Bishops death, on the morning of 25 October 1983. The U. S. Armys Rapid Deployment Force, U. S. Marines, U. S. Army Delta Force, the military government of Hudson Austin was deposed and replaced by a government appointed by Governor-General Paul Scoon until elections were held in 1984. The invasion was criticized by several countries including Canada, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher privately disapproved of the mission and the lack of notice she received, but publicly supported the intervention. The United Nations General Assembly, on 2 November 1983 with a vote of 108 to 9, the U. S. awarded more than 5,000 medals for merit and valor. The date of the invasion is now a holiday in Grenada. The commemoration was due to political prisoners that were freed after the invasion. Sir Eric Gairy had led Grenada to independence from the United Kingdom in 1974 and his term in office coincided with civil strife in Grenada. The civil strife took the form of violence between Gairys private army, the Mongoose Gang, and gangs organized by the New Jewel Movement. In the late 1970s the NJM began planning to overthrow the government, Party members began to receive military training outside of Grenada. On 13 March 1979, while Gairy was out of the country, the Bishop government began constructing the Point Salines International Airport with the help of Britain, Cuba, Libya, Algeria, and other nations. The airport had been first proposed by the British government in 1954 and it had been designed by Canadians, underwritten by the British government, and partly built by a London firm. In 1983, then-member of the United States House of Representatives Ron Dellums, traveled to Grenada on a fact-finding mission, Dellums described his findings before Congress. It is my thought that it is absurd, patronizing, on 16 October 1983, a party faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power. Bishop was placed under house arrest, mass protests against the action led to Bishops escaping detention and reasserting his authority as the head of the government
9.
Second Chechen War
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The Second Chechen War was an invasion launched by the Russian Federation, starting 26 August 1999, in response to the Invasion of Dagestan by the Islamic International Brigade. On 1 October, Russian troops entered Chechnya, the campaign ended the de facto independence of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and restored Russian federal control over the territory. Some Chechen separatists also carried out attacks against civilians in Russia and these attacks, as well as widespread human rights violations by Russian and separatist forces, drew international condemnation. In mid-2000, the Russian government transferred certain military operations to pro-Russian Chechen forces, the military phase of operations was terminated in April 2002, and the coordination of the field operations were given first to the Federal Security Service and then to the MVD in the summer of 2003. By 2009, Russia had severely disabled the Chechen separatist movement, Russian army and interior ministry troops no longer occupied the streets. Grozny underwent reconstruction efforts and much of the city and surrounding areas were rebuilt quickly, sporadic violence continues throughout the North Caucasus, occasional bombings and ambushes targeting federal troops and forces of the regional governments in the area still occur. On 15 April 2009, the government operation in Chechnya was officially ended, as the main bulk of the army was withdrawn, the burden of dealing with the ongoing low-level insurgency mainly fell on the shoulders of the local police force. The exact death toll from this conflict is unknown, unofficial estimates range from 25,000 to 50,000 dead or missing, mostly civilians in Chechnya. Russian casualties are over 5,200 and are about 11,000 according to the Committee of Soldiers Mothers, Chechnya is an area in the Northern Caucasus which has constantly fought against foreign rule, including the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century. The Russian Terek Cossack Host was established in lowland Chechnya in 1577 by free Cossacks who were resettled from the Volga to the Terek River, in 1783, Russia and the Georgian kingdom of Kartl-Kakheti signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, under which Kartl-Kakheti became a Russian protectorate. To secure communications with Georgia and other regions of the Transcaucasia, Russian forces first moved into highland Chechnya in 1830, and the conflict in the area lasted until 1859, when a 250, 000-strong army under General Baryatinsky broke down the highlanders resistance. Frequent uprisings in the Caucasus also occurred during the Russo-Turkish War, the Chechen states were opposed by both sides of the Russian Civil War and most of the resistance was crushed by Bolshevik troops by 1922. Then, months before the creation of the Soviet Union, the Chechen Autonomous Oblast of the Russian SFSR was established and it annexed a part of territory of the former Terek Cossack Host. Chechnya and neighboring Ingushetia formed the Chechen–Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, in 1941, during World War II, a Chechen revolt broke out, led by Khasan Israilov. Chechens were accused by Joseph Stalin of aiding Nazi forces, in February 1944 Stalin deported all the Chechens and Ingush to the Kazakh and Kirghiz SSRs. Up to a quarter of people died during the resettlement. In 1957, after the death of Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev allowed the Chechens to return, afterwards, the authority of the Soviet government gradually eroded. During the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Chechnya declared independence, in 1992, Chechen and Ingush leaders signed an agreement splitting the joint Chechen–Ingush republic in two, with Ingushetia joining the Russian Federation and Chechnya remaining independent
10.
Iraq War
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The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that toppled the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3–4 years of conflict and it became re-involved in 2014 at the head of a new coalition, the insurgency and many dimensions of the civil armed conflict continue. The invasion began on 20 March 2003, with the U. S. joined by the United Kingdom and several allies, launching a shock. Iraqi forces were overwhelmed as U. S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Baathist government, President Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year, the United States responded with a troop surge in 2007. The winding down of U. S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama, the U. S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011. Select U. S. officials accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship, after the invasion, no substantial evidence was found to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced heavy criticism within the U. S. in the aftermath of the invasion, Iraq held multi-party elections in 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014, the al-Maliki government enacted policies that were widely seen as having the effect of alienating the countrys Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. The Iraq War caused hundreds of thousands of civilian, and thousands of military casualties, the majority of casualties occurred as a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. A1990 Frontline report on The arming of Iraq said, Officially, most Western nations participated in an arms embargo against Iraq during the 1980s. Western companies, primarily in Germany and Great Britain, but also in the United States, sold Iraq the key technology for its chemical, missile, any Western governments seemed remarkably indifferent, if not enthusiastic, about those deals. N Washington, the government consistently followed a policy which allowed and perhaps encouraged the growth of Saddam Husseins arsenal. The Western arming of Iraq took place in the context of the Iran-Iraq War, prior to September 2002, the CIA was the George W. Bush administrations main provider of intelligence on Iraq. The agency was out to disprove linkage between Iraq and terrorism the Pentagon adviser told me, the U. N. had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance. This was confirmed by The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, during 2002, Bush repeatedly warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with U. N. Security Council Resolution 1441, Iraq agreed to new inspections under United Nations Monitoring, as part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons capabilities and manufacturing
11.
Syrian Civil War
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The Syrian Civil War is an armed conflict taking place in Syria. Syrian opposition groups formed the Free Syrian Army and seized control of the area surrounding Aleppo, over time, some factions of the Syrian opposition split from their original moderate position to pursue an Islamist vision for Syria, joining groups such as al-Nusra Front and ISIL. In 2015, the Yekîneyên Parastina Gel joined forces with Arab, Assyrian, Armenian, Russia and Hezbollah militarily engaged in support of the Syrian government, while beginning in 2014, a coalition of NATO countries began launching airstrikes against ISIL. International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ISIL, and some groups of severe human rights violations. The conflict has caused a major refugee crisis, over the course of the war a number of peace initiatives have been launched, including the March 2017 Geneva peace talks on Syria led by the United Nations, but fighting continues. Syria became an independent republic in 1946, although democratic rule ended with a coup in March 1949, a popular uprising against military rule in 1954 saw the army transfer power to civilians. From 1958 to 1961, a union with Egypt replaced Syrias parliamentary system with a highly centralized presidential government. The secular Baath Syrian Regional Branch government came to power through a successful coup détat in 1963, for the next several years Syria went through additional coups and changes in leadership. In March 1971, Hafez al-Assad, an Alawite, declared himself President, on 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. They labeled Assad the enemy of Allah and called for a jihad against his rule, the government survived a series of armed revolts by Sunni Islamists, mainly members of the Muslim Brotherhood, from 1976 until 1982. Upon Hafez al-Assads death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad was elected as President of Syria, Bashar al-Assad and his wife Asma, a Sunni Muslim born and educated in Britain, initially inspired hopes for democratic reforms. The Damascus Spring, a period of social and political debate, the Damascus Spring largely ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience. In the opinion of his critics, Bashar al-Assad had failed to deliver on promised reforms, Syrian Arabs, together with some 600,000 Palestinian Arabs, make up roughly 74 percent of the population. Syria Muslims are 74 percent Sunnis, and 13 percent Shias,3 percent were Druze, not all of the Sunnis are Arabs. Bashar is married to a Sunni, with whom he has several children and he is affiliated with the sect that his parents belong to, the minority Alawite sect which comprises an estimated 8-12 percent of the total population. Assyrians, an indigenous Eastern Aramaic-speaking Christian Semitic people, numbering approximately 500,000, are mainly in northeast Syria. A larger population lives over the border in northern Iraq, other ethnic groups include Armenians, Circassians, Turkmens, Greeks, Mhallami, Kawliya, Yezidi, Shabaks, and Mandeans. Socioeconomic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, the country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates
12.
General Dynamics
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General Dynamics Corporation is an American aerospace and defense multinational corporation. Formed by mergers and divestitures, it is the worlds fifth-largest defense contractor based on 2012 revenues, General Dynamics is headquartered in West Falls Church, Fairfax County, Virginia. The company has changed markedly in the post–Cold War era of defense consolidation and it has four main business segments, Marine Systems, Combat Systems, Information Systems Technology, and Aerospace. General Dynamics former Fort Worth Division manufactured one of the Western worlds most-produced jet fighters, the F-16 Fighting Falcon—until 1993, in 1999, the company re-entered the airframe business with its purchase of Gulfstream Aerospace. General Dynamics traces its ancestry to John Philip Hollands Holland Torpedo Boat Company and this company was responsible for developing the U. S. Navys first submarines built at Lewis Nixons Crescent Shipyard, located in Elizabethport, New Jersey. The revolutionary submarine boat Holland VI was built there, its keel being laid down in 1896, crescents superintendent and naval architect, Arthur Leopold Busch, supervised the construction of this submarine. After being launched on 17 May 1897, it was purchased by the Navy. The Holland was officially commissioned on 12 October 1900 and became the United States Navys first submarine, the Navy placed an order for more submarines, which were developed in rapid succession and were assembled at two different locations on both coasts. These submarines were known as the A-Class or Adder Class, Holland effectively lost control of the company and found himself earning a salary of $90 a week as chief engineer, while the company that he founded was selling submarines for $300,000 each. Holland resigned from the company effective April 1904, rice became Electric Boats first President, remaining there from that time until 1915 when he stepped down just prior to his death on 2 November 1915. Electric Boat gained a reputation for unscrupulous arms dealing in 1904-05, when it sold submarines to Japans Imperial Japanese Navy and Russias Imperial Russian Navy, who were then at war. Holland submarines were sold to the British Royal Navy through the English armaments company Vickers. The new pioneering craft originally developed by the company was now legitimized as genuine naval weapons by the worlds most powerful navies. In the post-World War II wind-down, Electric Boat was cash-flush but lacking in work, hoping to diversify, president and chief executive officer John Jay Hopkins started looking for companies that would fit into Electric Boats market. Hopkins quickly found that Canadair, owned by the Canadian government, was suffering from similar post-war malaise and was up for sale, Hopkins bought the company for $10 million in 1946. Even by the Canadian governments calculations, the factory alone was more than $22 million. When Electric Boat purchased Canadair, its line and inventory systems were in disorder. Hopkins hired Canadian-born mass-production specialist H. Oliver West to take over the presidents role, as defense spending increased with the onset of the Cold War, Canadair went on to win many Canadian military contracts for the Royal Canadian Air Force, and became a major aerospace company
13.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
14.
Solid-propellant rocket
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A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants. The earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder, they were used in warfare by the Chinese, Indians, Mongols and Persians, all rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are used today in model rockets and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability. Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for periods, and then reliably launch on short notice. Solids are, however, frequently used as boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as launch vehicles for low Earth orbit payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 500 kilograms. A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain, the grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a predictable fashion and producing exhaust gases. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can not only be throttled but also be extinguished, also, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments and that can be ignited upon command are available. Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel/oxidizer mass, grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics. The following are chosen or solved simultaneously, the results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and case geometries, The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber pressure. The chamber pressure is determined by the orifice diameter and grain burn rate. Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design, the length of burn time is determined by the grain web thickness. The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing, case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible. Common modes of failure in rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding. All of these produce an increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure. Another failure mode is casing seal failure, seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and this was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
15.
Infrared homing
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Infrared homing is a passive weapon guidance system which uses the infrared light emission from a target to track and follow it. Missiles which use infrared seeking are often referred to as heat-seekers, many objects such as people, vehicle engines and aircraft generate and emit heat, and as such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background. Infrared seekers are passive devices, which, unlike radar, provide no indication that they are tracking a target and this makes them suitable for sneak attacks during visual encounters, or over longer ranges when used with a forward looking infrared system or similar cuing system. This makes heat-seekers extremely deadly, 90% of all United States air combat losses over the past 25 years have been due to infrared-homing missiles and they are, however, subject to a number of simple countermeasures, most notably dropping flares behind the target to provide false heat sources. This only works if the pilot is aware of the missile, the first IR devices were experimented with in the pre-World War II era. During the war, German engineers were working on heat seeking missiles and proximity fuses, truly practical designs did not become possible until the introduction of conical scanning and miniaturized vacuum tubes during the war. These early examples had significant limitations and achieved very low rates in combat during the 1960s. A new generation developed in the 1970s and 80s made great strides, the latest examples from the 1990s and on have the ability to attack targets out of their field of view, behind them, and even pick out vehicles on the ground. The infrared sensor package on the tip or head of a missile is known as the seeker head. The NATO brevity code for an air-to-air infrared-guided missile launch is Fox Two, there was little application at the time, and he allowed his 1904 patent to lapse. Nevertheless, it was used for time by the US Navy as a secure communications system. In 1930 the introduction of the Ag-O-Cs photomultiplier provided the first practical solution to the detection of IR, amplifying the signal emitted by the galena, the photomultiplier produced a useful output that could be used for detection of hot objects at long ranges. This sparked developments in a number of nations, notably the UK, eventually they dissolved the Committee and reformed, leaving Lindemann off the roster, and filling his position with well known radio expert Edward Victor Appleton. In Germany, radar research was not given nearly the same level of support as in the UK, IR research was led primarily by Edgar Kutzscher at the University of Berlin working in concert with AEG. This provided enough light to see the target at short range and these proved largely useless in practice and the pilots complained that the target often only became visible at 200 metres, at which point they would have seen it anyway. Only 15 were built and were removed as German airborne radar systems improved though 1942, AEG had been working with the same systems for use on tanks, and deployed a number of models through the war, with limited production of the FG1250 beginning in 1943. This work culminated in the Zielgerät 1229 Vampir riflescope which was used with the StG44 assault rifle for night use, the devices mentioned previously were all detectors, not seekers. They produce either a signal indicating the direction of the target, or in the case of later devices
16.
Bradley Fighting Vehicle
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The Bradley Fighting Vehicle is an American fighting vehicle platform manufactured by BAE Systems Land and Armaments, formerly United Defense. The Bradley is designed to transport infantry or scouts with armor protection, while providing covering fire to enemy troops. There are several Bradley variants, including the M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicle, the M2 holds a crew of three along with six fully equipped soldiers. The M3 mainly conducts scout missions and carries two scouts in addition to the crew of three, with space for additional TOW missiles. The Red River Army Depot in Texarkana, Texas is the Center of Industrial Technical Excellence for the maintenance, the Bradley was developed largely in response to the Soviet BMP family of infantry fighting vehicles, and to serve as both an armored personnel carrier, and a tank-killer. One specific design requirement was that it should be as fast as the then new M1 Abrams main battle tank so that they could maintain formations while moving. The M2/M3s primary armament is a 25 mm cannon that fires up to 200 rounds per minute and is accurate up to 3000 m and it is also armed with a TOW missile launcher that is capable of carrying two loaded missiles. The missiles, capable of destroying most tanks to a range of 4,000 metres. The Bradley also carries a coaxial 7.62 mm medium machine gun, the Bradley is equipped with the M24225 mm chain gun as its main weapon. The M242 has a barrel with an integrated dual-feed mechanism. The gun has 300 rounds of ammunition in two boxes, with an extra 600 rounds in storage or 1200 stowed rounds. The two ready boxes allow a mix of rounds, such as the M791 APDS-T and M792 HEI-T rounds. The tungsten APDS-T rounds proved highly effective in Desert Storm, being capable of knocking out many Iraqi vehicles including several kills on T-55 tanks, there have even been reports of kills against Iraqi T-72 tanks at close range. Subsequent ammunition developments resulted in the M919 APFSDS-T round, which contains a finned depleted uranium penetrator similar in concept to armor-piercing munitions used in modern tanks, the M919 was used in combat during the 2003 invasion phase of Operation Iraqi Freedom. It is also armed with an M240C machine gun mounted coaxially to the M242, for engaging heavier targets, the Bradley has a TOW missile system on board, which was changed to fire TOW II missile from the M2A1 model onwards. Initial variants had six ports, but the ones were plated over with the new armor configuration on the A2 and A3 variants. The use of armor and the storage of large quantities of ammunition in the vehicle initially raised questions about its combat survivability. Spaced laminate belts and high hardness steel skirts have been added to improve the protection of later versions
17.
Eurocopter Tiger
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The Airbus Helicopters Tiger, formerly known as the Eurocopter Tiger, is a four-bladed, twin-engined attack helicopter which first entered service in 2003. It is manufactured by Eurocopter, the company to Aérospatiales and DASAs respective helicopter divisions. In Germany it is known as the Tiger, in France, development of the Tiger started during the Cold War, and it was initially intended as an anti-tank helicopter platform to be used against a Soviet ground invasion of Western Europe. During its prolonged development period the Soviet Union collapsed, but France and Germany chose to proceed with the Tiger and it achieved operational readiness in 2008. Improved variants have since entered service, outfitted with powerful engines. Since the types introduction to service, Tigers have been used in combat in Afghanistan, Libya, in 1984, the French and West German governments issued a requirement for an advanced multirole battlefield helicopter. A joint venture consisting of Aérospatiale and MBB was subsequently chosen as the preferred supplier, in July 1986, a government report into the project alleged that development had become distanced from the requirements and preferences of its military customers. France and Germany reorganised the programme, including steps such the adoption of fixed term contracts which placed greater financial risk upon the firms involved. Thomson CSF also took over the majority of the Tigers electronic development work, such as the visual systems and this same arrangement also included the manufacture of five Tiger prototypes. Three were to operate as unarmed testbeds and the two as armed combat prototypes with one for the French escort helicopter variant and the other for the German anti-tank variant. The first prototype took the Tigers maiden flight on 27 April 1991 that lasted for 30 minutes, in 1992, Aérospatiale and MBB, among other companies, merged to form the Eurocopter Group, this led to considerable consolidation of the aerospace industry and the Tiger project itself. National political issues continued to affect the prospects of the Tiger however, on 18 June 1999, Germany and France publicly placed orders for an initial batch of 160 Tiger helicopters,80 for each nation, valued at €3.3 billion. Germany reduced its order to 57 in March 2013, in 2008 OCCAR estimated the project cost at €7,300,000,000. Frances FY2013 budget put their share of the project at €6. 4bn, in December 2015, France placed an additional order for 7 HAD helicopters, with the plan to upgrade the entire fleet to the HAD standard by 2025 for a total of 67 helicopters. During the 1990s, export prospects for the Tiger had been invigorated by two large bids for orders from Britain and the Netherlands, in both the Netherlands and Britain, a considerable amount of lobbying pressure was applied in the hopes of the Tigers selection. However, neither country would order the Tiger, on 21 December 2001, Eurocopter was awarded the contract to meet the Australian Armys AIR87 requirement for 22 Tiger helicopters of the ARH version. Modifications from the standard Tiger included new communications and avionics systems, per the contracts terms,18 of the 22 aircraft were assembled at Australian Aerospaces Brisbane facility, a subsidiary of Eurocopter. On 1 July 2007, because of delays in attaining operational capability, according to Australias Department of Defense, by 2008 the main issues had been addressed and payments resumed accordingly
18.
AN/TWQ-1 Avenger
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The Avenger was originally developed for the United States Armed Forces and is currently used by the U. S. Army. The Avenger system was used by the U. S. Marine Corps. Originally developed as a venture by Boeing in the 1980s. Initial testing was conducted in May 1984 at the Armys Yakima Training Center in the U. S. state of Washington, during testing three FIM-92 Stinger missiles were fired. During the first test firing the system achieved a hit while moving at 20 mph. The second test firing, conducted at night while stationary, also achieved a direct hit. The third test firing, conducted while on the move and in the rain, did not achieve a hit, but did however, pass within the missiles kill range. All three test shots were conducted by operators who had never fired the missile before, in 1987, the U. S. Army awarded the first production contract for 325 units. In 1989, the system began its Initial Operational Test and Evaluation series of tests, in February 1990, the Avenger system was deemed operationally effective and began replacing the M163 and M167 VADS. Two variants were deployed based on the Humvee chassis, M998 HMMWV Avenger, the first operational deployment of the system occurred during the buildup for the Persian Gulf War. With the success of this deployment, the U. S. Army signed a contract for another 679 vehicles. The Avenger was again deployed in support of NATO operations during the Bosnian War. The Avenger system received widespread exposure when it was placed around the Pentagon during the first anniversary of the September 11 attacks of 2001. The Avenger has also deployed during the U. S. militarys operations in Afghanistan. This system was deployed by the North Dakota National Guard as a platform near Standing Rock where protestors of the Dakota Access Pipeline were gathered. It was employed for over a month in a role to observe areas within Morton County where numerous incidences of criminal trespass. The unarmed Avenger was used in an observation only role to support public safety in southern Morton County, there are no munitions for this system in the state of North Dakota. The Avenger system was removed in order to deescalate any tensions its presence may have caused, in response to renewed Russian aggression, the Army plans to deploy the Avenger system to Europe to fill the critical SHORAD gap in 2018
19.
General Atomics MQ-1 Predator
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The General Atomics MQ-1 Predator is an American remotely piloted aircraft built by General Atomics and used primarily by the United States Air Force and Central Intelligence Agency. The aircraft, in use since 1995, has seen combat in war in Afghanistan, Pakistan, the NATO intervention in Bosnia, Serbia, Iraq War, Yemen, Libyan civil war, the intervention in Syria, the USAF describes the Predator as a Tier II MALE UAS. The UAS consists of four aircraft or air vehicles with sensors, a control station. Powered by a Rotax engine and driven by a propeller, the air vehicle can fly up to 400 nmi to a target, loiter overhead for 14 hours, then return to its base. Civilian applications have included border enforcement and scientific studies, and to monitor wind direction, the Central Intelligence Agency and the Pentagon began experimenting with unmanned reconnaissance aircraft in the early 1980s. The CIA preferred small, lightweight, unobtrusive drones, in contrast to the United States Air Force, in the early 1990s, the CIA became interested in the Amber, a drone developed by Leading Systems, Inc. The companys owner, Abraham Karem, was the chief designer for the Israeli Air Force. Karems company had gone bankrupt and been bought up by a U. S. defense contractor. Karem agreed to produce an engine for the vehicle, which had until then sounded like a lawnmower in the sky. The new development became known as the Predator, first flight took place on 3 July 1994 at the El Mirage airfield in the Mojave Desert. The aircraft itself was a derivative of the GA Gnat 750, during the ACTD phase, three systems were purchased from GA, comprising twelve aircraft and three ground control stations. From April through May 1995, the Predator ACTD aircraft were flown as a part of the Roving Sands 1995 exercises in the U. S. The exercise operations were successful, and this led to the decision to deploy the system to the Balkans later in the summer of 1995. By the start of the United States Afghan campaign in 2001, the USAF had acquired 60 Predators, few if any of the losses were from enemy action, the worst problem apparently being foul weather, particularly icy conditions. Some critics within the Pentagon saw the loss rate as a sign of poor operational procedures. In response to the losses caused by weather conditions, a few of the later USAF Predators were fitted with de-icing systems, along with an uprated turbocharged engine. This improved Block 1 version was referred to as the RQ-1B, or the MQ-1B if it carried munitions, the Predator system was initially designated the RQ-1 Predator. The R is the United States Department of Defense designation for reconnaissance, the 1 describes it as being the first of a series of aircraft systems built for unmanned reconnaissance
20.
Boeing AH-64 Apache
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The Boeing AH-64 Apache is an American four-blade, twin-turboshaft attack helicopter with a tailwheel-type landing gear arrangement and a tandem cockpit for a two-man crew. It features a nose-mounted sensor suite for target acquisition and night vision systems and it is armed with a 30 mm M230 chain gun carried between the main landing gear, under the aircrafts forward fuselage. It has four hardpoints mounted on stub-wing pylons, typically carrying a mixture of AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, the AH-64 has a large amount of systems redundancy to improve combat survivability. The Apache originally started as the Model 77 developed by Hughes Helicopters for the United States Armys Advanced Attack Helicopter program to replace the AH-1 Cobra, the prototype YAH-64 was first flown on 30 September 1975. The U. S. Army selected the YAH-64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, after purchasing Hughes Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH-64 production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U. S. Army service in April 1986, the first production AH-64D Apache Longbow, an upgraded Apache variant, was delivered to the Army in March 1997. Production has been continued by Boeing Defense, Space & Security, American AH-64s have served in conflicts in Panama, the Persian Gulf, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Israel used the Apache in its conflicts in Lebanon and the Gaza Strip, British and Dutch Apaches have seen deployments in wars in Afghanistan. Following the cancellation of the AH-56 Cheyenne in 1972, in favor of projects like the U. S, the Army wanted an aircraft better than the AH-1 Cobra in firepower, performance and range. It would have the maneuverability for terrain following nap-of-the-earth flying, to this end, the U. S. Army issued a Request For Proposals for an Advanced Attack Helicopter on 15 November 1972. As a sign of the importance of project, in September 1973 the Army designated its five most important projects as the Big Five. Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing Vertol/Grumman team, Hughes, Lockheed, in July 1973, the U. S. Department of Defense selected finalists Bell and Hughes Aircrafts Toolco Aircraft Division. This began the phase 1 of the competition, each company built prototype helicopters and went through a flight test program. Hughes Model 77/YAH-64A prototype first flew on 30 September 1975, while Bells Model 409/YAH-63A prototype first flew on 1 October 1975, after evaluating the test results, the Army selected Hughes YAH-64A over Bells YAH-63A in 1976. Reasons for selecting the YAH-64A included its more damage tolerant four-blade main rotor, weapons and sensor systems were integrated and tested during this time, including the laser-guided AGM-114 Hellfire missile. In 1981, three pre-production AH-64As were handed over to the U. S. Army for Operational Test II, the Army testing was successful, but afterward it was decided to upgrade to the more powerful T700-GE-701 version of engine, rated at 1,690 shp. The AH-64 was named the Apache in late 1981, keeping with the Armys traditional use of American Indian tribal names for its helicopters, in 1983, the first production helicopter was rolled out at Hughes Helicopters facility at Mesa, Arizona. Hughes Helicopters was purchased by McDonnell Douglas for $470 million in 1984, the helicopter unit later became part of The Boeing Company with the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in August 1997
21.
TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK
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The TAI/AgustaWestland T129 is a twin-engine, tandem seat, multi-role, all-weather attack helicopter based on the Agusta A129 Mangusta platform. The T129 was developed by Turkish Aerospace Industries, with partner AgustaWestland, the helicopter is designed for advanced attack and reconnaissance in hot and high environments and rough geography in both day and night conditions. The ATAK programme was begun to meet the Turkish Armed Forces requirements for an attack and it is in use by the Turkish Army, and is being offered to other services. The ATAK programme was begun to meet the Turkish Armed Forces requirements for an attack, Turkey announced on 30 March 2007 that it had decided to negotiate with AgustaWestland to co-develop and produce 51 attack helicopters based on the Agusta A129 Mangusta. It is to be assembled in Turkey by Turkish Aerospace Industries as the T129, on 7 September 2007, a $1.2 billion contract was signed. On 22 June 2008, the agreement between TUSAS Aerospace Industries and AgustaWestland formally entered into force, under the agreement, TAI will develop an indigenous mission computer, avionics, weapons systems, self-protection suites and the helmet-mounting cuing systems. Tusaş Engine Industries will manufacture the LHTEC CTS800-4N engines under licence, however, the T129s LHTEC CTS800-4N gives the United States a veto over any prospective export sales. The T129 was optimized for hot and high conditions and it has several key improvements over the original A129 inline with the requirements of the Turkish Army. The T129 will carry 12 Roketsan-developed UMTAS anti-tank missiles, the T129 features a 20 mm gatling-style cannon in a nose turret. It can carry a combination of 70 mm rocket pods, Stinger air-air missile pods, MILDAR was successfully completed in February 2012. In 2007, it was reported that one helicopter will be kept by the Turkish Ministry of Defense, the remaining 50 helicopters will be delivered to the Turkish Army. An optional 40 further T129 helicopters will be produced if necessary and these 50 T129s are to be designated T129B. In November 2010, Turkey ordered an additional nine T129 helicopters to increase its total ordered to 60 and these T129s were for an urgent Turkish Army operational requirement and was built by TAI for delivery in 2012, one year prior to the delivery of the previously ordered 51 helicopters. These T129s are designated T129A, lacking advanced anti-tank missiles, as a result of delays, the T129As entered service in 2014. On 28 September 2009, the T129s maiden flight took place when P1 prototype flew at AgustaWestlands facilities in Vergiate, on 19 March 2010, the first T129 prototype conducted high altitude hover tests near Verbania, Italy following the completion of several successful test flights. During the hover test, T129 P1 lost its tail rotor at 15,000 feet, test pilot Cassioli regained enough control to steer away from residential area before crashing, the crew escaped without serious injuries. On 17 August 2011, TIA announced the first successful flight of the T129 prototype P6, the T129 was nose-heavy, to resolve this,137 kg was added to the tail, causing the total weight to exceed the specified requirement. The higher weight may decrease the T129s service ceiling, which is detrimental for operating under hot and high conditions, the Undersecretariat for Defense Industries will adjust the contract in accordance
22.
Surface-to-air missile
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A surface-to-air missile, or ground-to-air missile, is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles. It is one type of system, in modern armed forces, missiles have replaced most other forms of dedicated antiaircraft weapons. The first serious attempts at SAM development took place during World War II, further development in the 1940s and 1950s led to the first operational systems being introduced by most major forces during the second half of the 1950s. Smaller systems, suitable for work, evolved through the 1960s and 1970s. The American Nike Ajax was the first operational guided missile SAM system, widely used modern examples include the Patriot and S-300 wide-area systems, SM-6 naval missiles, and short-range man-portable systems like the Stinger and Strela-3. The first known idea for a guided missile was in 1925. A selenium cell was mounted on the tip of each of the rockets four tail fins, when one selenium cell was no longer in the light beam, it would be steered in the opposite direction back into the beam. During World War II, efforts were started to develop surface-to-air missiles as it was considered that flak was of little use against bombers of ever-increasing performance. The lethal radius of a shell is fairly small. Against the Boeing B-17, which operated just within the range of the numerous German eighty-eights flak guns, bombers flying at higher altitudes require larger guns and shells to reach them. This greatly increases the cost of the system, and slows the rate of fire, faster aircraft fly out of range more quickly, reducing the number of rounds fired against them. Against late-war designs like the Boeing B-29 Superfortress or jet-powered designs like the Arado Ar 234, the first serious consideration of a SAM development project was a series of conversations that took place in Germany during 1941. Von Braun became convinced a better solution was a manned rocket interceptor, the directors of the Luftwaffe flak arm were not interested in manned aircraft, and the resulting disagreements between the teams delayed serious consideration of a SAM for two years. None of these saw any real development until 1943, when the first large-scale raids by the Allied air forces started. As the urgency of the problem grew, new designs were added, including Enzian and Rheintochter, in general, these designs could be split into two groups. One set of designs would be boosted to altitude in front of the bombers and these designs included the Feuerlilie, Schmetterling and Enzian. The second group were high-speed missiles, typically supersonic, that flew directly towards their targets from below, both types used radio control for guidance, either by eye, or by comparing the returns of the missile and target on a single radar screen. Development of all systems was carried out at the same time
23.
Air-to-air missile
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An air-to-air missile is a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft. AAMs are typically powered by one or more rocket motors, usually solid fueled, ramjet engines, as used on the Meteor are emerging as propulsion that will enable future medium-range missiles to maintain higher average speed across their engagement envelope. Air-to-air missiles are broadly put in two groups, most use infrared guidance and are called heat-seeking missiles. In contrast, medium- or long-range missiles, which fall under the category of beyond visual range missiles, tend to rely upon radar guidance. Some modern ones use inertial guidance and/or mid-course updates to get the missile close enough to use an active homing sensor, the air-to-air missile grew out of the unguided air-to-air rockets used during the First World War. Le Prieur rockets were attached to the struts of biplanes and fired electrically, usually against observation balloons, by such early pilots as Albert Ball. Post-war research led the Royal Air Force to introduce Fairey Fireflash into service in 1955, the US Navy and US Air Force began equipping guided missiles in 1956, deploying the USAFs AIM-4 Falcon and the USNs AIM-7 Sparrow and AIM-9 Sidewinder. The Soviet Air Force introduced its K-5 into service in 1957, as missile systems have continued to advance, modern air warfare consists almost entirely of missile firing. The use of Beyond Visual Range combat became so pervasive in the US that early F-4 variants were armed only with missiles in the 1960s. High casualty rates during the Vietnam War caused the US to reintroduce autocannons and traditional dogfighting tactics, in the Falklands War British Harriers, using AIM-9L missiles were able to defeat faster Argentinian opponents. Since the late 20th century all-aspect heat-seeking designs can lock-on to a target from angles, not just from behind. Other types rely on radar guidance, a conventional explosive blast warhead, fragmentation warhead, or continuous rod warhead is typically used in the attempt to disable or destroy the target aircraft. Warheads are typically detonated by a proximity fuze or by an impact if it scores a direct hit. Less commonly, nuclear warheads have been mounted on a number of air-to-air missile types although these are not known to have ever been used in combat. Guided missiles operate by detecting their target, and then homing in on the target on a collision course, although the missile may use radar or infra-red guidance to home on the target, the launching aircraft may detect and track the target before launch by other means. Radar guidance is used for medium- or long-range missiles, where the infra-red signature of the target would be too faint for an infra-red detector to track. There are three types of radar-guided missile – active, semi-active, and passive. Radar-guided missiles can be countered by rapid maneuvering, deploying chaff or using electronic counter-measures, active radar -guided missiles carry their own radar system to detect and track their target
24.
Airbus
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Airbus SAS is a division of the multinational Airbus Group SE that manufactures civil aircraft. It is based in Blagnac, France, a suburb of Toulouse, with production and manufacturing facilities mainly in France, Germany, Spain, China, United Kingdom, Airbus began as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers, Airbus Industrie. After a protracted sales process BAE sold its shareholding to EADS on 13 October 2006, Airbus has sixteen key sites in four countries, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom. Final assembly production is based at Toulouse, France, Hamburg, Germany, Seville, Spain, Tianjin, China, Airbus has subsidiaries in the United States, Japan and India. The company produces and markets the first commercially viable digital fly-by-wire airliner, the Airbus A320, and the worlds largest passenger airliner, Airbus Industrie began as a consortium of European aviation firms formed to compete with American companies such as Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, and Lockheed. While many European aircraft were innovative, even the most successful had small production runs, in the mid-1960s, tentative negotiations commenced regarding a European collaborative approach. The same year Hawker Siddeley teamed with Breguet and Nord to study airbus designs, the Hawker Siddeley/Breguet/Nord groups HBN100 became the basis for the continuation of the project. By 1966 the partners were Sud Aviation, later Aérospatiale, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Airbus, later Deutsche Airbus, a request for funding was made to the three governments in October 1966. On 25 July 1967 the three agreed to proceed with the proposal. In the two years following this agreement, both the British and French governments expressed doubts about the project, the MoU had stated that 75 orders must be achieved by 31 July 1968. With concerns at proposal of the A300B proposal in December 1968, and fearing it would not recoup its investment due to lack of sales, West Germany took this opportunity to increase its share of the project to 50%. Given the participation by Hawker Siddeley up to point, France. Thus the British company was allowed to continue as a privileged subcontractor, Hawker Siddeley invested GB£35 million in tooling and, requiring more capital, received a GB£35 million loan from the West German government. Airbus Industrie was formally established as a Groupement dIntérêt Économique on 18 December 1970 and it had been formed by a government initiative between France, West Germany and the UK that originated in 1967. Its initial shareholders were the French company Aérospatiale and the West German company Deutsche Airbus, Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus each took a 36. 5% share of production work, Hawker Siddeley 20% and the Dutch company Fokker-VFW 7%. Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly items, in October 1971 the Spanish company CASA acquired a 4. 2% share of Airbus Industrie, with Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus reducing their stakes to 47. 9%. In January 1979 British Aerospace, which had absorbed Hawker Siddeley in 1977, the majority shareholders reduced their shares to 37. 9%, while CASA retained its 4. 2%. The Airbus A300 was to be the first aircraft to be developed, manufactured and marketed by Airbus, by early 1967 the A300 label began to be applied to a proposed 320 seat, twin engined airliner
25.
ROKETSAN
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Roketsan is a major Turkish weapons manufacturer and defense contractor based in the central Anatolian province of Ankara. Roketsans current share holders include TSKGV, Aselsan, MKEK, Vakıflar Bankası, Roketsan is best known for its vast range of unguided rockets as well as laser and infrared guided missiles such as Cirit and UMTAS. The company also produces subsystems for Stinger and Rapier missiles and provides technology and engineering solutions for other integrated civilian, in 2013 Turkey approved the construction by Roketsan of its first satellite launching center, initially for low earth orbit satellites. Roketsan is the only Turkish company to have obtained CMMI/ DEV3 approval for all its design, Roketsan signed a contract in 2013 to build the project of the national UFS Space Launch System. Submarine Defense War Rocket and Launcher System Missile launcher for the production. S. A. produced by ROKETSAN, ammunition Surveillance Facility Ambient conditions tests Flight tests, warhead and firing tests and static firing tests ROKETSAN official website Turkish Undersecretariat for Defence Industries
26.
Humvee
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The High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle, commonly known as the Humvee, is a four-wheel drive military light truck produced by AM General. Primarily used by the United States military, it is used by numerous other countries and organizations. The Humvees widespread use in the Gulf War of 1991, where it negotiated the treacherous desert terrain, since the WWII era Bantam Reconnaissance Car, the United States Army had relied on jeeps to transport small groups of soldiers. The jeep was built around a requirement for a vehicle with a folding windshield that was actually shorter than the Volkswagen Beetle. It seated three with a 660 lb payload and weighed just over one ton, by the 1970s, the U. S. Army had tried larger militarized civilian trucks, but even these no longer satisfied newer requirements. In 1977, Lamborghini developed the Cheetah model in an attempt to meet the Army contract specifications, the specification called for excellent on and off-road performance, the ability to carry a large payload, and improved survivability against indirect fire. Compared to the jeep, it was larger and had a wider track, with a 16 in ground clearance. The new truck was to climb a 60 percent incline and traverse a 40 percent slope, the radiator was to be mounted high, sloping over the engine on a forward-hinged hood. Out of 61 companies that showed interest, only three submitted prototypes, in July 1979, AM General, a subsidiary of American Motors Corporation began preliminary design work. Less than a later, the first prototype was in testing. Chrysler Defense and Teledyne Continental also produced competing designs, in June 1981, the Army awarded AM General a contract for development of several more prototype vehicles to be delivered to the government for another series of tests. The original M998 A0 series had a weight of 5,200 lb, a payload of 2,500 lb, a 6.2 L V-8 diesel engine. The three companies were chosen to design and build eleven HMMWV prototypes, which covered over 600,000 miles in trials which included courses in desert. Ft. Lewis, Washington and the 9th Infantry Division was the unit to employ HMMWV in the new concept of a motorized division. Yakima Training Center in Yakima, Washington was the testing grounds for HMMWVs from 1985 through December 1991, when the motorized concept was abandoned. HMMWVs first saw combat in Operation Just Cause, the U. S. invasion of Panama in 1989, the HMMWV was designed primarily for personnel and light cargo transport behind front lines, not as a front line fighting vehicle. Like the previous jeep, the basic HMMWV has no armor or protection against chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear threats, nevertheless, losses were relatively low in conventional operations, such as the Gulf War. Vehicles and crews suffered considerable damage and losses during the Battle of Mogadishu in 1993 due to the nature of the urban engagement
27.
Continuous-rod warhead
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A continuous-rod warhead is a specialized munition that exhibits an annular blast fragmentation pattern, so that when it explodes it spreads into a large circle that cuts the target. It is used in anti-aircraft and anti-missile missiles, rifle and machine-gun bullets were used against early military aircraft during World War I. Artillery was used when aircraft flew above the range of rifle, similar anti-aircraft weaponry with larger calibers, higher rates of fire, and improved fuzes continued to be used through World War II. These bullets and small fragments often made small holes in the airframe, unless the bullet struck the pilot, the engine fuel or cooling system, or a wire or hydraulic line actuating control surfaces, the aircraft remained operational. Some anti-aircraft artillery projectiles were designed to fragment into long, thin pieces in an attempt to damage on the airframe. The problem became more significant as anti-aircraft missiles were developed to replace guns after World War II, some early AA missiles had nuclear warheads to increase the probability of aircraft destruction. The concept of a folded continuous rod warhead was suggested in 1952, an even number of individual steel rods are arranged in parallel to form a cylinder. The ends of the rods are welded together—the first rod and the rod are welded together at the top, the second and third at the bottom. When detonated, the high explosive imparts momentum to the rods, at some intermediate point the ring will have a zig-zag appearance within a cylindrical envelope. Upon ultimate expansion the ring is circular and contained within a plane, the ring will then break and ultimately tend to form one or more straight rods. Since the net momentum of the rod relative to the missile is roughly zero its effectiveness will rapidly diminish as the ring expands. This rapidly expanding ring, when hitting the aircraft, can be effective than an equivalent fragmentation warhead. This may cause a failure, or, if not. The effect is pronounced as long as the ring is unbroken
28.
Fuze
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In military munitions, a fuze or fuse is the part of the device that initiates function. In some applications, such as torpedoes, a fuze may be identified by function as the exploder, the relative complexity of even the earliest fuze designs can be seen in cutaway diagrams. A fuze is a device that detonates an explosive material under specified conditions. In addition, a fuze will have safety and arming mechanisms that protect users from premature or accidental detonation, for example, an artillery fuzes battery is activated by the high acceleration of cannon launch, and the fuze must be spinning rapidly before it will function. Complete bore safety can be achieved with mechanical shutters that isolate the detonator from the charge until the shell is fired. A fuze may contain only the electronic or mechanical elements necessary to signal or actuate the detonator, Fuzes for large explosive charges may include an explosive booster. Professional publications about explosives and munitions distinguish the fuse and fuze spelling, the UK Ministry of Defence states, FUSE, Cord or tube for the transmission of flame or explosion usually consisting of cord or rope with gunpowder or high explosive spun into it. FUZE, A device with explosive components designed to initiate a main charge, oliver Hogg states the following about fuze, The word fuze is often spelt fuse by those unaquainted with artillery usage. Fuse, derived from fusus, the past participle of fundo, means to melt, fuze, on the other hand, is the shortened or modern method of spelling fuzee, meaning a tube filled with combustible material. It is a derivation of fusus, a spindle and from the French fusee and it is well to make this point at the outset. Historically, it was spelled with s or z. In the United States and some forces, fuze is used to denote a sophisticated ignition device incorporating mechanical and/or electronic components as opposed to a simple burning fuse. The situation of usage and the characteristics of the munition it is intended to affect the fuze design e. g. its safety. Artillery fuzes may be initiated by a mechanism, impact or detection of proximity to the target. Requirements for a hand grenade fuze are defined by the small size. This necessitates manual arming before throwing as the grenade has insufficient initial acceleration for arming to be driven by setback and these are also referred to as pistols. The main design consideration is that the projectile is large and accelerating vertically downwards, the main design consideration is that the bomb the fuze is intended to actuate is stationary, and the target itself is moving in making contact. Time fuzes detonate after a set period of time by using one or more combinations of mechanical, depending on the technology used, the device may self-destruct some seconds, minutes, hours, days, or even months after being deployed
29.
Molten-salt battery
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Molten salt batteries are a class of battery that uses molten salts as an electrolyte and offers both a high energy density and a high power density. Traditional use once thermal batteries can be stored in their state at room-temperature for long periods of time before being activated by heating. For comparison, LiFePO4 lithium iron phosphate batteries store 90–110 Wh/kg, a nano lithium-titanate battery stores 72 Wh/kg and can provide a power of 760 W/kg. Thermal batteries originated during World War II when German scientist Georg Otto Erb developed the first practical cells, Erb developed batteries for military applications, including the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket, and artillery fuzing systems. None of these batteries entered field use during the war, afterwards, Erb was interrogated by British intelligence. His work was reported in The Theory and Practice of Thermal Cells and this information was subsequently passed on to the United States Ordnance Development Division of the National Bureau of Standards. When the technology reached the United States in 1946 it was applied to replacing the troublesome liquid-based systems that had previously been used to power artillery proximity fuzes. They were used for ordnance applications since WWII and later in nuclear weapons, the same technology was studied by Argonne National Laboratories in the 1980s for use in electric vehicles. Thermal batteries use an electrolyte that is solid and inactive at ambient temperatures and they can be stored indefinitely yet provide full power in an instant when required. Once activated, they provide a burst of power for a short period to 60 minutes or more. The high power is due to the ionic conductivity of the molten salt. One design uses a strip along the edge of the heat pellets to initiate burning. The fuze strip is typically fired by an electrical igniter or squib by application of electric current, another design uses a center hole in the middle of the battery stack into which the high-energy electrical igniter fires a mixture of hot gases and incandescent particles. This allows much faster activation times vs. hundreds of milliseconds for the edge-strip design, Battery activation can be accomplished by a percussion primer, similar to a shotgun shell. The heat source should be gasless, the standard heat source typically consist of mixtures of iron powder and potassium perchlorate in weight ratios of 88/12, 86/14, or 84/16. The higher the potassium perchlorate level, the higher the heat output, in the 1980s lithium-alloy anodes replaced calcium or magnesium anodes, with cathodes of calcium chromate, vanadium or tungsten oxides. Lithium-silicon alloys are favored over the earlier lithium-aluminium alloys, the corresponding cathode for use with the lithium-alloy anodes is mainly iron disulfide replaced by cobalt disulfide for high-power applications. The electrolyte is normally a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride
30.
Identification friend or foe
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Identification, friend or foe is an identification system designed for command and control. It enables military and national interrogation systems to identify aircraft, vehicles or forces as friendly and to determine their bearing, IFF may be used by both military and civilian aircraft. IFF was first developed during the Second World War, with the arrival of radar, despite the name, IFF can only positively identify friendly targets, not hostile ones. If an IFF interrogation receives no reply or a reply, the object cannot be identified as friendly. There are in addition many reasons that friendly aircraft may not properly reply to IFF, the broadest characterization is that of friend, enemy, neutral, or unknown. CID not only can reduce friendly fire incidents, but also contributes to overall tactical decision-making and this led to incidents such as the battle of Barking Creek, over Britain, and the air attack on the fortress of Koepenick, over Germany. Already before the deployment of their Chain Home radar system, the RAF had considered the problem of IFF, robert Watson-Watt had filed patents on such systems in 1935 and 1936 respectively. By 1938, researchers at Bawdsey Manor began experiments with reflectors consisting of a dipole antennas tuned to resonate at the frequency of the CH radars. When a pulse from the CH transmitter hit the aircraft, the antennas would resonate for a short time, the antenna was connected to a motorized switch that periodically shorted it out, preventing it from producing a signal. This caused the return on the CH set to periodically lengthen and shorten as the antenna was turned on and off. It was suspected this system would be of use in practice. This consisted of a set of tracking stations using HF/DF radio direction finders and their aircraft radios were modified to send out a 1 kHz tone for 14 seconds every minute, allowing the tracking stations ample time to measure the aircrafts bearing. Known as pip-squeak, the system worked but was labour-intensive and did not display its information directly to the radar operators, a system that worked directly with the radar was clearly desirable. The first active IFF transponder was the IFF Mark I and was put into operation in 1939, on receipt of a signal from the CH radar, an oscillator in the system began to ring with the same frequency. This signal was amplified and sent out an omnidirectional monopole antenna, the oscillator circuit rang only for a short time, causing the signal to quickly disappear again. Since the signal was received at the time as the original reflection of the CH signal. Mark I was technically complete as the war began, but a lack of sets meant it was not available in quantity, pip-squeak was kept in operation during this period, but as the Battle ended, IFF Mark I was quickly put into operation. Pip-squeak was still used for areas over land where CH did not cover, the primary problem with the Mark I was that it operated at a single set frequency
31.
Proportional navigation
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Proportional navigation is a guidance law used in some form or another by most homing air target missiles. It is based on the fact that two vehicles are on a course when their direct Line-of-Sight does not change direction as the range closes. PN dictates that the velocity vector should rotate at a rate proportional to the rotation rate of the line of sight. For example, if the line of sight rotates slowly from north to east and this factor is called the Navigation Constant. Since the line of sight is not in general co-linear with the velocity vector. In practice, in the absence of engine throttling capability, this type of control may not be possible and this acceleration depends explicitly on the velocity difference vector, which may be difficult to obtain in practice. By contrast, in the expressions that follow, dependence is only on the change of the line of sight and these missiles use a rapidly rotating parabolic mirror as a seeker. Simple electronics detect the error the seeker has with its target. Since the mirror is in fact a gyroscope it will keep pointing at the direction if no external force or moment is applied. Although this does not result in a rate that is always exactly proportional to the LOS-rate. The basis of proportional navigation was first discovered at sea, and was used by navigators on ships to avoid collisions, simply altering course until a change in bearing occurs, will provide some assurance of avoidance of collision. Obviously not foolproof, the officer of the vessel having made the course change. Significant course change, rather than a modest alteration, is prudent, international Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea dictate which vessel must give way but they, of course, provide no guarantee that action will be taken by that vessel
32.
Airframe
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The airframe of an aircraft is its mechanical structure. It is typically considered to include fuselage, wings and undercarriage, airframe design is a field of aerospace engineering that combines aerodynamics, materials technology and manufacturing methods to achieve balances of performance, reliability and cost. Modern airframe history began in the United States when a 1903 wood biplane made by Orville, in 1912 the Deperdussin Monocoque pioneered the light, strong and streamlined monocoque fuselage formed of thin plywood layers over a circular frame, achieving 210 km/h. Many early developments were spurred by military needs during World War I and these used hybrid wood and metal structures. In 1916 the German Albatros D. German engineer Hugo Junkers first flew all-metal airframes in 1915 with the all-metal, cantilever-wing, commercial aircraft development during the 1920s and 1930s focused on monoplane designs using Radial engines. Some were produced as single copies or in small quantity such as the Spirit of St. Louis flown across the Atlantic by Charles Lindbergh in 1927, william Stout designed the all-metal Ford Trimotors in 1926. They were among the most successful designs to emerge from the era through the use of all-metal airframes, during World War II, military needs again dominated airframe designs. The first jets were produced during the war but not made in large quantity, postwar commercial airframe design focused on airliners, on turboprop engines, and then on Jet engines, turbojets and later turbofans. The generally higher speeds and tensile stresses of turboprops and jets were major challenges, Airbus and Boeing are the dominant assemblers of large jet airliners while ATR, Bombardier and Embraer lead the regional airliner market, many manufacturers produce airframe components. It has a carbon fiber fuselage, said to replace 1,200 sheets of aluminum and 40,000 rivets. In February 2017, Airbus installed a 3D printing machine for titanium aircraft structural parts using electron beam additive manufacturing from Sciaky, airframe production has become an exacting process. Manufacturers operate under strict quality control and government regulations, departures from established standards become objects of major concern. A landmark in aeronautical design, the worlds first jet airliner, early models suffered from catastrophic airframe metal fatigue, causing a series of widely publicised accidents. The Royal Aircraft Establishment investigation at Farnborough Airport founded the science of aircraft crash reconstruction, after 3000 pressurisation cycles in a specially constructed pressure chamber, airframe failure was found to be due to stress concentration, a consequence of the square shaped windows. The windows had been engineered to be glued and riveted, but had been punch riveted only, unlike drill riveting, the imperfect nature of the hole created by punch riveting may cause the start of fatigue cracks around the rivet. The Lockheed L-188 Electra turboprop, first flown in 1957 became a lesson in controlling oscillation. Its 1959 crash of Braniff Flight 542 showed the difficulties that the airframe industry, the A300 had experienced other structural problems but none of this magnitude. Longeron Former Chord Aircraft fairing Vertical stabilizer
33.
Infrared
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It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers, to 1000000 nm. Most of the radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Like all EMR, IR carries radiant energy, and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon, slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an effect on Earths climate. Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements and it excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range, Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected, Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatuses. Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes, military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm, Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Below infrared is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sunlight, at a temperature of 5,780 kelvins, is composed of near thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level, of this energy,527 watts is infrared radiation,445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers. On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wiens displacement law. Therefore, the band is often subdivided into smaller sections. Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical hot objects, such as exhaust pipes, the three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space
34.
Ultraviolet
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Ultraviolet is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation constitutes about 10% of the light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as lamps, tanning lamps. Consequently, the effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects. Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earths atmosphere. More-energetic, shorter-wavelength extreme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground, Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has both beneficial and harmful to human health. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans, the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm, near-UV radiation is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays, this gives birds true UV vision, reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears, who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some species look identical to the human eye. Ultraviolet means beyond violet, violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light, Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light. He called them oxidizing rays to emphasize chemical reactivity and to them from heat rays. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm, in 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann
35.
Flare (countermeasure)
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A flare or decoy flare is an aerial infrared countermeasure used by a plane or helicopter to counter an infrared homing surface-to-air missile or air-to-air missile. Flares are commonly composed of a composition based on magnesium or another hot-burning metal. The aim is to make the infrared-guided missile seek out the signature from the flare rather than the aircrafts engines. In contrast to radar-guided missiles, IR-guided missiles are very difficult to find as they approach aircraft and they do not emit detectable radar, and they are generally fired from a rear visual-aspect, directly toward the engines. In most cases, pilots have to rely on their wingmen to spot the missiles smoke trail, more advanced electro-optical systems can detect missile launches automatically from the distinct thermal emissions of a missiles rocket motor. The aircraft would then pull away at an angle from the flare. Optimally, the seeker head is then confused by this change in temperature and flurry of new signatures. The most modern IR-guided missiles have sophisticated on-board electronics that help discriminate between flares and targets, reducing the effectiveness of countermeasures, consequently, flare dispensers are now fitted to helicopters. Indeed almost all of the UKs helicopters, whether they are transport or attack models, are equipped with flare dispenser or missile approach warning systems, similarly, the US armed forces have adopted defensive technology on their helicopters. This caused concerns in some European countries, which proceeded to ban such aircraft from landing at their airports, a flare goes through three main stages, ignition, deployment, and decoying. Most flares, like the MJU-27A/B flares, must be kept in a storage compartment before deployment. These flares, known as flares, are made of special materials that ignite when they come in contact with the air. This is a safety and convenience factor, since attempting to ignite a flare inside the fuselage, flares are most commonly gravity-fed from a dispenser inside the aircrafts fuselage. These dispensers can be programmed by the pilot or ground crew to dispense flares in short intervals, one at a time, long intervals, or in clusters. Most currently used flares are of the variety, and thus the dispensers do not have to ignite. With pyrotechnic flares, a lanyard automatically pulls off a friction cap covering the end of the flare as it falls from the dispenser. A friction surface inside the cap rubs against the end of the flare. Flares burn at thousands of degrees, which is hotter than the exhaust of a jet engine
36.
FIM-43 Redeye
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The General Dynamics FIM-43 Redeye was a man-portable surface-to-air missile system. It used infrared homing to track its target, Production began in 1968 and ended in September 1969 after about 85,000 rounds had been built - in anticipation of the Redeye II, which later became the FIM-92 Stinger. The Redeye was withdrawn gradually between 1982 and 1995 as the Stinger was deployed, in 1948 the United States Army began seeking new infantry air-defense weapons, as machine guns were ineffective against new fast jets. Several gun/rocket systems were investigated but none were promising, in the mid-1950s Convair began studies of a man portable infrared guided missile. In November 1956 the results of studies were shown to the US Army. In 1957 official requirements were formulated, and in 1958 Convair was awarded a contract to start development of the system, in July 1959 the development project began, in March 1960, the first test rounds were fired. Launches from a launch tube followed in May 1961, with a launch occurring in 1961. Technical problems prevented the missile entering full production, the missile did not live up to its specifications - being slower, less maneuverable, during the testing, substantial use was made of the Atlantic Research MQR-16 Gunrunner expendable target missile. Limited production began as XM41 Redeye Block I, the missile was designated XMIM-43A in June 1963. Block I systems were evaluated between 1965 and 1966. Block II systems designated XM41E1 began development in 1964, the missile being designated XMIM-43B, the missiles were delivered in April 1966, and included a new gas-cooled detector cell, a slightly redesigned launcher and an improved warhead. In 1965 to 1966 General Dynamics developed the final Redeye Block III configuration, the missiles retained the seeker from the Block II missile, but included a new rocket motor, warhead and fuze. The launcher now had an XM-62 open sight and upgraded electronics, the new missile could turn at up to 3g. The missile achieved a kill probability against F9F tactical drones travelling at 430 knots at an altitude of 100 meters of 0.51. From this it was calculated that the kill probability versus a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 at similar altitude would be 0.403, kill probability against larger propeller driven aircraft like the AN-12 was estimated at 0.43. Production of the Block III systems began in May 1967, in 1968 Block III was declared operational. By November 1986 it had largely replaced by the dramatically more successful FIM-92 Stinger missiles. The Redeye was known as Hamlet in Danish service and as RBS69 in Swedish service, the Redeye was also used by the Nicaraguan Contras to shoot down at least four Soviet Mi-8 helicopters during the Nicaraguan Revolution
37.
Read-only memory
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Read-only memory is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM can only be modified slowly, with difficulty, or not at all, strictly, read-only memory refers to memory that is hard-wired, such as diode matrix and the later mask ROM, which cannot be changed after manufacture. Although discrete circuits can be altered in principle, integrated circuits cannot and that such memory can never be changed is a disadvantage in many applications, as bugs and security issues cannot be fixed, and new features cannot be added. More recently, ROM has come to include memory that is read-only in normal operation, the simplest type of solid-state ROM is as old as the semiconductor technology itself. Combinational logic gates can be joined manually to map n-bit address input onto arbitrary values of m-bit data output, with the invention of the integrated circuit came mask ROM. In mask ROM, the data is encoded in the circuit. This leads to a number of disadvantages, It is only economical to buy mask ROM in large quantities. The turnaround time between completing the design for a mask ROM and receiving the finished product is long, for the same reason, mask ROM is impractical for R&D work since designers frequently need to modify the contents of memory as they refine a design. If a product is shipped with faulty mask ROM, the way to fix it is to recall the product. Subsequent developments have addressed these shortcomings, PROM, invented in 1956, allowed users to program its contents exactly once by physically altering its structure with the application of high-voltage pulses. This addressed problems 1 and 2 above, since a company can order a large batch of fresh PROM chips. The 1971 invention of EPROM essentially solved problem 3, since EPROM can be reset to its unprogrammed state by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. All of these technologies improved the flexibility of ROM, but at a significant cost-per-chip, rewriteable technologies were envisioned as replacements for mask ROM. The most recent development is NAND flash, also invented at Toshiba, as of 2007, NAND has partially achieved this goal by offering throughput comparable to hard disks, higher tolerance of physical shock, extreme miniaturization, and much lower power consumption. Every stored-program computer may use a form of storage to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution. Likewise, every non-trivial computer needs some form of memory to record changes in its state as it executes. Forms of read-only memory were employed as non-volatile storage for programs in most early stored-program computers, consequently, ROM could be implemented at a lower cost-per-bit than RAM for many years. Most home computers of the 1980s stored a BASIC interpreter or operating system in ROM as other forms of storage such as magnetic disk drives were too costly
38.
Random-access memory
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Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory. RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed. Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. These include most types of ROM and a type of memory called NOR-Flash. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early 1970s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions. Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in 1947. It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access. The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible. Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away
39.
Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
40.
Software
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Computer software, or simply software, is that part of a computer system that consists of data or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs, computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be used on its own. At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor—typically a central processing unit, a machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a storage location in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also cause something to appear on a display of the computer system—a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to jump to a different instruction, the majority of software is written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for programmers, meaning closer to a natural language. High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or an interpreter or a combination of the two, an outline for what would have been the first piece of software was written by Ada Lovelace in the 19th century, for the planned Analytical Engine. However, neither the Analytical Engine nor any software for it were ever created, the first theory about software—prior to creation of computers as we know them today—was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. This eventually led to the creation of the academic fields of computer science and software engineering. Computer science is more theoretical, whereas software engineering focuses on practical concerns. However, prior to 1946, software as we now understand it—programs stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers—did not yet exist, the first electronic computing devices were instead rewired in order to reprogram them. On virtually all platforms, software can be grouped into a few broad categories. There are many different types of software, because the range of tasks that can be performed with a modern computer is so large—see list of software. System software includes, Operating systems, which are collections of software that manage resources and provides common services for other software that runs on top of them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating system bundled with additional software so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has an operating system. Device drivers, which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to a computer, utilities, which are computer programs designed to assist users in the maintenance and care of their computers
41.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
42.
Warship
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A warship is a naval ship that is built and primarily intended for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the forces of a state. As well as being armed, warships are designed to damage and are usually faster. Unlike a merchant ship, which carries cargo, a warship typically carries weapons, ammunition. Warships usually belong to a navy, though they have also operated by individuals, cooperatives. In wartime, the distinction between warships and merchant ships is often blurred, in war, merchant ships are often armed and used as auxiliary warships, such as the Q-ships of the First World War and the armed merchant cruisers of the Second World War. Until the 17th century it was common for merchant ships to be pressed into naval service, until the threat of piracy subsided in the 19th century, it was normal practice to arm larger merchant ships such as galleons. Warships have also often used as troop carriers or supply ships. The development of catapults in the 4th century BC and the subsequent refinement of technology enabled the first fleets of artillery-equipped warships by the Hellenistic age. During late antiquity, ramming fell out of use and the galley tactics against other ships used during the Middle Ages until the late 16th century focused on boarding. Naval artillery was redeveloped in the 14th century, but cannon did not become common at sea until the guns were capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a required to carry a large number of cannons made oar-based propulsion impossible. The sailing man-of-war emerged during the 16th century, by the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannon on their broadsides and tactics evolved to bring each ships firepower to bear in a line of battle. The man-of-war now evolved into the ship of the line, in the 18th century, the frigate and sloop-of-war – too small to stand in the line of battle – evolved to convoy trade, scout for enemy ships and blockade enemy coasts. During the 19th century a revolution took place in the means of propulsion, naval armament. Marine steam engines were introduced, at first as an auxiliary force, the Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the development of guns. The introduction of explosive shells soon led to the introduction of iron, the first ironclad warships, the French Gloire and British Warrior, made wooden vessels obsolete. Metal soon entirely replaced wood as the material for warship construction
Bangladesh[4]
Bosnia and Herzegovina[4]
Croatia[4]
Chad[4]
Chile[4]
Colombia[47]
Denmark[4]
Egypt[4]
Finland[48]
Georgia[4]
Germany: Stingers made under license by EADS.[49]
Greece[4]
Iran[50][51][52]
Iraq[4]
Israel[4]
India[4]
Italy 150 launchers, 450 FIM-92A missiles delivered in 1986–1988 for 51 million dollars, 50 missiles delivered in 2000–2002 for 10 million dollars to operate from A-129 Mangusta and 200 missiles delivered in 2003–2004 (SIPRI).[4]
Japan[4]
South Korea[53]
Latvia[4][54]
Lithuania[4]
Netherlands[4]
Norway[4]
Pakistan: 350 in service with the Pakistan Army.[55][56]
Philippines
Portugal[4]
Republic of China (Taiwan): Republic of China Marine Corps, Republic of China Army[57]
Slovenia[4]
Switzerland[4]
Turkey: Stingers made under license by Roketsan.[58]
UNITA[34]
United Kingdom[4]
United States[4]
