1.
Exfoliation (cosmetology)
–
Exfoliation involves the removal of the oldest dead skin cells on the skins outermost surface. Exfoliation is involved in the process of all facials, during microdermabrasion or chemical peels at medical spas, exfoliation can be achieved through mechanical or chemical means. Credit is given to the ancient Egyptians for the practice of exfoliation, in the Middle Ages, wine was used as a chemical exfoliant, with tartaric acid as the active agent. In Asia, the practice of exfoliation started hundreds of years ago, the etymology of the word exfoliate comes from the Latin exfoliare. Exfoliation is achieved through mechanical or chemical means. This process involves physically scrubbing the skin with an abrasive, facial scrubs are available in over-the-counter products for application by the user. People with dry skin should avoid exfoliants which include a significant portion of pumice, pumice is considered a good material to exfoliate the skin of the feet. Microdermabrasion is another method of exfoliation. This type of exfoliation is recommended for treating acne. In beauty spa treatment on continental Europe, the properties of wine producing grapes are exploited in the practice of vinotherapy which is becoming increasingly popular. Some methods of hair removal also exfoliate the skin, waxing is a mechanical process that is performed with the intention of plucking the hair, which also functions as a mechanical exfoliant. It can be every two to eight weeks. It is not carried out as frequently as many exfoliate, so, it does not fully substitute for a regimen, but may substitute for a normal session in a regimen. Nair is an example of a hair removal product which also functions as a chemical exfoliant. It is done more frequently than waxing since it only destroys hair partially below the skin, using it weekly can substitute for a weekly exfoliant regime. It is a very aggressive chemical and cannot be used on the face so other exfoliants would need to be used on the face. Wetshaving also has exfoliating properties, first, the action of moving a shaving brush vigorously across the face washes the face, in popular media, exfoliants are advertised as treatments which promote beauty, youthful appearance, or health. One disadvantage to exfoliation is the price of some of the products
Exfoliation (cosmetology)
–
Exfoliation methods used in Canada in 2011. Shown: top right, a bath sponge made of plastic mesh; lower right, a brush with a
pumice stone on one side and a natural bristle brush on the other side, for foot exfoliation; lower left, a mud mask package for facial exfoliation; top left, a jar of perfumed body scrub to be used while bathing.
Exfoliation (cosmetology)
–
Cross-section of all skin layers.
2.
Massage
–
Massage involves working and acting on the body with pressure – structured, unstructured, stationary, or moving – tension, motion, or vibration, done manually or with mechanical aids. Massage can be applied with the hands, fingers, elbows, knees, forearm, feet, aquatic massage and bodywork is performed with recipients submersed or floating in a warm-water therapy pool. In distinction the ancient Greek word for massage was anatripsis, archaeological evidence of massage has been found in many ancient civilizations including China, India, Japan, Korea, Egypt, Rome, Greece, and Mesopotamia. BC2330, The Tomb of Akmanthor in Saqqara, Egypt depicts two men having work done on their feet and hands, presumably massage, BC 722-481, Huangdi Neijing is composed during the Chinese Spring and Autumn period. The Nei-jing is a compilation of knowledge known up to that date. Massage is referred to in 30 different chapters of the Nei Jing and it specifies the use of different massage techniques and how they should be used in the treatment of specific ailments, and injuries. BC700 Bian Que, the earliest known Chinese physician uses massage in medical practice, BC500 Jīvaka Komarabhācca, also known as Shivago Komarpaj, the founder of Traditional Thai massage and Thai medicine. According to the Pāli Buddhist Canon, Jivaka was Buddhas physician and he codified a healing system that combines acupressure, reflexology, and assisted yoga postures. Traditional Thai massage is based on a combination of Indian. Jivaka is known today as Father Doctor in Thailand, BC493, A possible biblical reference documents daily treatments with oil of myrrh as a part of the beauty regimen of the wives of Xerxes. BC460, Hippocrates wrote The physician must be experienced in many things, BC300 Charaka Samhita believed to be the oldest of the three ancient treatises of Ayurvedic medicine, including massage. Sanskrit records indicate that massage had been practiced in India long before the beginning of recorded history, AD581, Dr Sun Si Miao introduces ten new massage techniques and systematized the treatment of childhood diseases using massage therapy. AD581, China establishes a department of massage therapy within the Office of Imperial Physicians, middle-Ages, Medical knowledge, including that of massage, made its way from Rome to Persia in the Middle Ages. Many of Galens manuscripts, for instance, were collected and translated by Hunayn ibn Ishaq in the 9th century. Later in the 11th century copies were translated back into Latin, and again in the 15th and 16th centuries and this renewal of the Galenic tradition during the Renaissance played a very important part in the rise of modern science. One of the greatest Persian medics was Avicenna, also known as Ibn Sina and he was the foremost philosopher of medieval Islam and also a great philosopher, logician and medic. One of his books, Al-Qānūn fī aṭ-Ṭibb has been called the most famous book in the history of medicine in both East and West. AD1150, Evidence of massage abortion, involving the application of pressure to the pregnant abdomen and it depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld
Massage
–
Massage
Massage
–
Drawings of
accupressure points on Sen lines at
Wat Pho temple in
Thailand
Massage
–
Akmanthor
Massage
–
Marathon runners receiving massages at the 2004 ING Taipei International Marathon
3.
Beauty salon
–
A beauty salon or beauty parlor is an establishment dealing with cosmetic treatments for men and women. Other variations of this type of business include hair salons and spas, massage for the body is a popular beauty treatment, with various techniques offering benefits to the skin and for increasing mental well-being. Hair removal is offered at some beauty salons through treatments such as waxing and threading, some beauty salons style hair instead of going to a separate hair salon, and some also offer sun tanning. Other treatments of the face are known as facials, specialized beauty salons known as nail salons offer treatments such as manicures and pedicures for the nails. Beauty salons have proven to be an industry in the United States. Although sales had declined from 2008 highs, they remain robust with long term positive forecast, the market is distributed widely across America, with a concentration in the Northeast and Midwest. The US Labor Department estimates employment in the United States will increase 20% between 2008–2014, with greatest employment growth from skin care specialists
Beauty salon
–
Hair salon styling floor
Beauty salon
–
Facials may include the use of a
facial mask.
4.
Spa treatment
–
A spa is a location where mineral-rich spring water is used to give medicinal baths. Spa towns or spa resorts offer various health treatments, which are also known as balneotherapy. The belief in the powers of mineral waters goes back to prehistoric times. Such practices have been worldwide, but are especially widespread in Europe. Day spas are also popular, and offer various personal care treatments. The word spa itself denotes fountain, some experts also suggest that the word spa originated from the name of the Belgian town named Spa where a curative natural spring was discovered in the 14th century. Since medieval times, illnesses caused by iron deficiency were treated by drinking chalybeate spring water and it is commonly claimed, in a commercial context, that the word is an acronym of various Latin phrases such as Salus Per Aquam or Sanitas Per Aquam meaning health through water. Spa therapies have existed since the times when taking bath with water was considered as a popular means to treat illnesses. The practice of traveling to hot or cold springs in hopes of effecting a cure of some ailment dates back to pre-historic times, archaeological investigations near hot springs in France and Czech Republic revealed Bronze Age weapons and offerings. In Great Britain, ancient legend credited early Celtic kings with the discovery of the hot springs in Bath, many people around the world believed that bathing in a particular spring, well, or river resulted in physical and spiritual purification. Forms of ritual purification existed among the Native Americans, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, today, ritual purification through water can be found in the religious ceremonies of Jews, Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus. These ceremonies reflect the ancient belief in the healing and purifying properties of water, complex bathing rituals were also practiced in ancient Egypt, in pre-historic cities of the Indus Valley, and in Aegean civilizations. Most often these ancient people did little building construction around the water, some of the earliest descriptions of western bathing practices came from Greece. The Greeks began bathing regimens that formed the foundation for modern spa procedures and these Aegean people utilized small bathtubs, wash basins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest such findings are the baths in the complex at Knossos, Crete. They established public baths and showers within their gymnasium complexes for relaxation, Greek mythology specified that certain natural springs or tidal pools were blessed by the gods to cure disease. Around these sacred pools, Greeks established bathing facilities for those desiring healing, supplicants left offerings to the gods for healing at these sites and bathed themselves in hopes of a cure. The Spartans developed a primitive vapor bath, at Serangeum, an early Greek balneum, bathing chambers were cut into the hillside from which the hot springs issued
Spa treatment
–
The Blue Lagoon (Icelandic: "Bláa lónið"), geothermal spa in Iceland. The steamy waters are part of a lava formation. Its warm waters are rich in minerals like silica and sulphur.
Spa treatment
–
Ancient
Roman Baths in
Bath, England
Spa treatment
–
The spa town of
Hisarya in
Bulgaria. An ancient Roman city was built in the 1st century AD because of the mineral springs in the vicinity.
Spa treatment
–
Coriovallum Roman baths in
Heerlen, The Netherlands (reconstructed)
5.
Cactus
–
A cactus is a member of the plant family Cactaceae, a family comprising about 127 genera with some 1750 known species of the order Caryophyllales. The word cactus derives, through Latin, from the Ancient Greek κάκτος, kaktos, Cacti occur in a wide range of shapes and sizes. Most cacti live in habitats subject to at least some drought, many live in extremely dry environments, even being found in the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places on earth. Cacti show many adaptations to conserve water, almost all cacti are succulents, meaning they have thickened, fleshy parts adapted to store water. Unlike many other succulents, the stem is the part of most cacti where this vital process takes place. Most species of cacti have lost true leaves, retaining only spines, as well as defending against herbivores, spines help prevent water loss by reducing air flow close to the cactus and providing some shade. In the absence of leaves, enlarged stems carry out photosynthesis, Cacti are native to the Americas, ranging from Patagonia in the south to parts of western Canada in the north—except for Rhipsalis baccifera, which also grows in Africa and Sri Lanka. Cactus spines are produced from specialized structures called areoles, a kind of highly reduced branch, areoles are an identifying feature of cacti. As well as spines, areoles give rise to flowers, which are usually tubular, Cactus stems are often ribbed or fluted, which allows them to expand and contract easily for quick water absorption after rain, followed by long drought periods. Like other succulent plants, most cacti employ a mechanism called crassulacean acid metabolism as part of photosynthesis. Transpiration, during which carbon enters the plant and water escapes, does not take place during the day at the same time as photosynthesis. The plant stores the carbon dioxide it takes in as malic acid, retaining it until daylight returns, because transpiration takes place during the cooler, more humid night hours, water loss is significantly reduced. Many smaller cacti have globe-shaped stems, combining the highest possible volume for water storage, the tallest free-standing cactus is Pachycereus pringlei, with a maximum recorded height of 19.2 m, and the smallest is Blossfeldia liliputiana, only about 1 cm in diameter at maturity. A fully grown saguaro is said to be able to absorb as much as 200 U. S. gallons of water during a rainstorm, a few species differ significantly in appearance from most of the family. At least superficially, plants of the genus Pereskia resemble other trees and they have persistent leaves, and when older, bark-covered stems. Their areoles identify them as cacti, and in spite of their appearance, they, Pereskia is considered close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved. In tropical regions, other cacti grow as forest climbers and epiphytes and their stems are typically flattened, almost leaf-like in appearance, with fewer or even no spines, such as the well-known Christmas cactus or Thanksgiving cactus. Cacti have a variety of uses, many species are used as ornamental plants, others are grown for fodder or forage, cochineal is the product of an insect that lives on some cacti
Cactus
Cactus
–
Cultivated cacti in the
Singapore Botanic Gardens
Cactus
–
Many species of cactus have long, sharp
spines, like this
Opuntia.
Cactus
–
Ferocactus species, a cactoid, in its native
Arizona habitat
6.
Cucumber
–
Cucumber is a widely cultivated plant in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae. It is a vine that bears cucumiform fruits that are used as vegetables. There are three varieties of cucumber, slicing, pickling, and seedless. Within these varieties, several cultivars have been created, in North America, the term wild cucumber refers to plants in the genera Echinocystis and Marah, but these are not closely related. The cucumber is originally from South Asia, but now grows on most continents, many different types of cucumber are traded on the global market. The cucumber is a vine that roots in the ground and grows up trellises or other supporting frames, wrapping around supports with thin. The plant may also root in a medium and will sprawl along the ground if it does not have supports. The vine has large leaves form a canopy over the fruits. The fruit of cultivars of cucumber is roughly cylindrical, but elongated with tapered ends. Botanically speaking, the cucumber is classified as a pepo, a type of berry with a hard outer rind. Much like tomato and squash, it is perceived, prepared. Cucumber fruits are more than 90% water. A few cultivars of cucumber are parthenocarpic, the blossoms creating seedless fruit without pollination, pollination for these cultivars degrades the quality. In the United States, these are grown in greenhouses. In Europe, they are outdoors in some regions. Most cucumber cultivars, however, are seeded and require pollination, thousands of hives of honey bees are annually carried to cucumber fields just before bloom for this purpose. Cucumbers may also be pollinated by bumblebees and several other bee species, most cucumbers that require pollination are self-incompatible, so pollen from a different plant is required to form seeds and fruit. Some self-compatible cultivars exist that are related to the Lemon cultivar, symptoms of inadequate pollination include fruit abortion and misshapen fruit
Cucumber
–
Cucumber
Cucumber
Cucumber
–
Slicing cucumbers
Cucumber
–
Pickling cucumbers
7.
Plaster
–
Plaster is a building material used for the protective and/or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. In English plaster usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, another imprecise term used for the material is stucco, which is also often used for plasterwork that is worked in some way to produce relief decoration, rather than flat surfaces. The most common types of plaster mainly contain either gypsum, lime, or cement, the plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and the hydrated plaster then hardens, plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools or even sandpaper, and can be moulded, either on site or to make pre-formed sections in advance, which are put in place with adhesive. Plaster is not a material, it is suitable for finishing, rather than load-bearing. Forms of plaster have several other uses, in medicine plaster orthopedic casts are still often used for supporting set broken bones. In dentistry plaster is used to make dental models, various types of models and moulds are made with plaster. In art, lime plaster is the matrix for fresco painting. Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is produced by heating gypsum to about 300 °F, when the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum. The setting of unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes, if plaster or gypsum is heated above 266 °F, hemihydrate is formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water. On heating to 180 °C, the nearly water-free form, called γ-anhydrite is produced, γ-Anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrate state, a property exploited in some commercial desiccants. On heating above 250 °C, the anhydrous form called β-anhydrite or dead burned plaster is formed. A large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris led calcined gypsum to be known as plaster of Paris. Plasterers often use gypsum to simulate the appearance of surfaces of wood, stone, or metal, on movie, nowadays, theatrical plasterers often use expanded polystyrene, although the job title remains unchanged. Plaster of Paris can be used to impregnate gauze bandages to make a material called plaster bandages. It is used similarly to clay, as it is shaped when wet, yet sets into a resilient. This is the material that was used to make classic plaster orthopedic casts to protect limbs with broken bones, set Modroc is an early example of a composite material. The hydration of plaster of Paris relies on the reaction of water with the dehydrated or partially hydrated calcium sulfate present in the plaster, lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand
Plaster
–
Early 19th Century plasterer at work - painting by
John Cranch (1751 - 1821).
Plaster
–
19th century
stucco plasterwork from
House of Borujerdies in
Kashan,
Iran.
Plaster
–
19th century, plasterwork in
Mazandaran,
Behshahr,
Iran.
Plaster
–
Plasterwork in
Pompeii (79 AD)
8.
Glycolic acid
–
Glycolic acid, chemical formula C2H4O3, is the smallest α-hydroxy acid. This colorless, odorless, and hygroscopic crystalline solid is soluble in water. It is used in various skin-care products, glycolic acid is found in some sugar-crops. A glycolate or glycollate is a salt or ester of glycolic acid, the name glycolic acid was coined in 1848 by the French chemist Auguste Laurent. He proposed that the amino acid glycine — which was then called glycocolle — might be the amine of a hypothetical acid, when the team of Strecker and Sokolov finally produced glycolic acid in 1851, they bestowed, on their acid, the name of Laurents hypothetical acid. They then boiled the ester for days with dilute acid, thereby obtaining benzoic acid. There are multiple routes of synthesis of glycolic acid that are practiced today, the majority of the worlds supply of glycolic acid is made in a catalyzed reaction of formaldehyde with synthesis gas, as this is a particularly economical preparative route. It is also prepared by the reaction of chloroacetic acid with sodium hydroxide followed by re-acidification, in this way, a few million kilograms are produced annually. Other methods, not apparently in use, include hydrogenation of oxalic acid, some of todays glycolic acids are formic acid-free. Glycolic acid can be isolated from sources, such as sugarcane, sugar beets, pineapple, cantaloupe. Glycolic acid can also be prepared using an enzymatic biochemical process which may require less energy in production, each route can be evaluated for its relative costs and benefits. Glycolic acid is used in the industry as a dyeing and tanning agent, in food processing as a flavoring agent and as a preservative. It is also used in adhesives and plastics, glycolic acid is often included into emulsion polymers, solvents and additives for ink and paint in order to improve flow properties and impart gloss. It is used in surface treatment products that increase the coefficient of friction on tile flooring, in addition to concentration, pH also plays a large part in determining the potency of glycolic acid in solution. Physician-strength peels can have a pH as low as 0.6, glycolic acid is used to improve the skins appearance and texture. It may reduce wrinkles, acne scarring, hyperpigmentation and improve many other conditions, including actinic keratosis, hyperkeratosis. Once applied, glycolic acid reacts with the layer of the epidermis. This allows the stratum corneum to be exfoliated, exposing live skin cells, highly purified grades of glycolic acid are commercially available for personal care applications
Glycolic acid
9.
Pharmacy
–
Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing and dispensing drugs. It is a profession that links health sciences with chemical sciences and aims to ensure the safe. Pharmacists, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the health professionals who optimize use of medication for the benefit of the patients. An establishment in which pharmacy is practiced is called a pharmacy or a chemists, often, collaborative teams from various disciplines work together toward the introduction of new therapeutics and methods for patient care. However, pharmacy is not a basic or biomedical science in its typical form, medicinal chemistry is also a distinct branch of synthetic chemistry combining pharmacology, organic chemistry, and chemical biology. Pharmacology is sometimes considered as the 4th discipline of pharmacy, although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Both disciplines are distinct. Those who wish to practice both pharmacy and pharmacology receive separate training and degrees unique to either discipline, pharmacoinformatics is considered another new discipline, for systematic drug discovery and development with efficiency and safety. The World Health Organization estimates that there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists, pharmacists are healthcare professionals with specialised education and training who perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients through the quality use of medicines. Pharmacists may also be small-business proprietors, owning the pharmacy in which they practice, pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation. In some cases, the body is also the registering body. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice, the American Board of Applied Toxicology certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology. A Pharmacy Technician in the UK has recently referred to by some as a professional. Legislation requires the supervision of certain pharmacy technicians activities by a pharmacist, the majority of pharmacy technicians work in community pharmacies. In hospital pharmacies, pharmacy technicians may be managed by other senior pharmacy technicians, Pharmacy technicians are registered with the General Pharmaceutical Council. The GPhC is the regulator of pharmacists, pharmacy technicians and pharmacy premises, in the US, pharmacy technicians perform their duties under supervision of pharmacists. The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances was the Sushruta Samhita, however, the earliest text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century AD. Many Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets record prescriptions for medicine, Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri such as the Ebers Papyrus of 1550 BC, and the Edwin Smith Papyrus of the 16th century BC. In Ancient Greece, Diocles of Carystus was one of several men studying the properties of plants
Pharmacy
–
The Apothecary or The Chemist by
Gabriël Metsu (c. 1651–67)
Pharmacy
–
Pharmacy
Pharmacy
–
Pharmacy,
tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (14th century)
Pharmacy
–
Physician and Pharmacist, illustration from Medicinarius (1505) by
Hieronymus Brunschwig.
10.
Clay
–
Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
Clay
–
Gay Head cliffs in
Martha's Vineyard consist almost entirely of clay.
Clay
–
Electron microscope photograph of smectite clay – magnification 23,500
Clay
–
Quaternary clay in
Estonia
Clay
–
Deforestation for clay extraction in
Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. The picture is of Morro da Covanca, Jacarepaguá.
11.
Paraffin wax
–
Paraffin wax is a white or colourless soft solid derivable from petroleum, coal or oil shale, that consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between twenty and forty carbon atoms. It is solid at room temperature and begins to melt above approximately 37 °C, common applications for paraffin wax include lubrication, electrical insulation, and candles, dyed paraffin wax can be made into crayons. It is distinct from kerosene, another product that is sometimes called paraffin. Paraffin candles are odorless, and bluish-white in color, paraffin wax was first created in the 1850s, and marked a major advancement in candlemaking technology, as it burned more cleanly and reliably than tallow candles, and was cheaper to produce. In chemistry, paraffin is used synonymously with alkane, indicating hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2, the name is derived from Latin parum + affinis, meaning lacking affinity or lacking reactivity, referring to paraffins unreactive nature. Paraffin wax is mostly found as a white, odorless, tasteless, waxy solid and it is insoluble in water, but soluble in ether, benzene, and certain esters. Paraffin is unaffected by most common chemical reagents but burns readily and its heat of combustion is 42 kJ/g. Paraffin wax is an excellent electrical insulator, with a resistivity of between 1013 and 1017 ohm metre and this is better than nearly all other materials except some plastics. It is a neutron moderator and was used in James Chadwicks 1932 experiments to identify the neutron. Paraffin wax is an excellent material for storing heat, with a heat capacity of 2. 14–2.9 J g−1 K−1. Paraffin wax phase-change cooling coupled with retractable radiators was used to cool the electronics of the Lunar Rover, wax expands considerably when it melts and this allows its use in wax thermostatic element thermostats for industrial, domestic and, particularly, automobile purposes. Paraffin wax was first created in the 1850s when chemists first developed the means to efficiently separate, paraffin represented a major advance in the candlemaking industry because it burned more cleanly and reliably, and was cheaper to manufacture than any other candle fuel. Paraffin wax initially suffered from having a low melting point, however, the production of paraffin wax enjoyed a boom in the early 20th century as a result of the growth of the meatpacking and oil industries, which created paraffin and stearic acid as byproducts. The feedstock for paraffin is slack wax, which is a mixture of oil and wax, the first step in making paraffin wax is to remove the oil from the slack wax. The oil is separated through crystallization, most commonly, the slack wax is heated, mixed with one or more solvents such as a ketone and then cooled. As it cools wax crystallizes out of the solution, leaving only oil in the solution and this mixture is filtered into two streams, solid and liquid. After the solvent is recovered by distillation, the products are called product wax. The lower the percentage of oil in the wax the more refined it is considered, the product wax may be further processed to remove colors and odors
Paraffin wax
–
Paraffin wax
12.
Cosmetics
–
Cosmetics, also known as make-up, are substances or products used to enhance or alter the appearance or fragrance of the body. Many cosmetics are designed for use of applying to the face and they are generally mixtures of chemical compounds, some being derived from natural sources, and some being synthetics. Common cosmetics include lipstick, mascara, eye shadow, foundation, rouge, skin cleansers and skin lotions, shampoo, hairstyling products, perfume and this broad definition includes any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category, Egyptian women and men also used makeup. They were very fond of eyeliner and eyeshadows in dark colors including blue, red, Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick, about 5,000 years ago. They crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians extracted red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. Six thousand year old relics of the hollowed out tombs of the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs are discovered, according to one source, early major developments include, Kohl used by ancient Egypt as a protective of the eye kohl Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protective balm. Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rose water, vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century. The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics as the Ancient Romans did, Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings 9,30, where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described. One of the most popular traditional Chinese medicines is the fungus Tremella fuciformis, used as a beauty product by women in China, the fungus reportedly increases moisture retention in the skin and prevents senile degradation of micro-blood vessels in the skin, reducing wrinkles and smoothing fine lines. Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history, for example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared make-up improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors. During the sixteenth century, the attributes of the women who used make-up created a demand for the product among the upper class. As of 2016, the worlds largest cosmetics company is LOréal, the market was developed in the US during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II, during the 18th century, there was a high number of incidences of lead-poisoning because of the fashion for red and white lead makeup and powder. This led to swelling and inflammation of the eyes, attacked tooth enamel, heavy use was known to lead to death. Concealer is commonly used by men, Cosmetics brands release products especially tailored for men, and men are increasingly using them. Cosmetics are intended to be applied externally, a subset of cosmetics is called make-up, refers primarily to products containing color pigments that are intended to alter the users appearance
Cosmetics
–
Effects include light
foundation,
rouge on
cheekbones,
eyebrow plucking, simple black
eye liner
Cosmetics
–
Woman wearing several forms of cosmetics, including
lipstick,
eye liner, eye shadow and
hair dye
Cosmetics
–
Make up by an artist himself for an Indian classical dance
Cosmetics
–
Assorted cosmetics and tools
13.
BB cream
–
BB cream stands for blemish balm, blemish base, beblesh balm, and in Western markets, beauty balm. Compared to a cream which would be just a cream with a very light tint. On top of that, it provides a sunblock. The CC cream came later on and describes a Color Correction cream, a CC cream has all the benefits of a BB cream but with the specific feature of homogenizing the coloration of the skin, by correcting the complexion concerns such as redness or dullness. What became BB cream was originally formulated in the 1960s in Germany by dermatologist Dr. Christine Schrammek to protect her patients skin after facial peels, BB creams come in a variety of different formulations. Because Korean companies focused initially on the Korean and East Asian markets, instead of offering multiple shades for different skin colors, most formulae are designed to oxidize to match the users skin tone. The skin-whitening properties of the cream as sold in the Asian market are an important element in its popularity, the coverage is often mineral-based, and is intended to both cover and treat blemishes such as acne, sun spots and age spots. It also has anti-wrinkle, anti-inflammatory and soothing effects, several contain hyaluronic acid and Vitamin C. BB creams make up 13 percent of the market in South Korea. Some Korean brands also offer BB creams for men, notable Korean brands include Etude House, Missha, Nature Republic, Skin Food, Sulhwasoo, and The Face Shop. Early arrivals included Boscia, Clinique, Dior, Estée Lauder, Garnier, Marcelle, Maybelline, Revlon, lab Series makes a BB cream for men. Certain BB creams have been tailored for Western markets, Estée Lauder, BB creams advertised as cruelty-free include Smashbox and The Body Shop. As of May 2013, Amore Pacific, which has as its subsidiaries Etude House and Laneige, has ended animal testing on all ingredients, products certified as cruelty-free may still contain animal products and may not be suitable for vegans. Miracle creams we can believe in, Hull Daily Mail, March 31,2012, beauty for dark skin, the BB cream debate, The Guardian, March 15,2013. Learn your BB CCs, Global Times, March 24,2013,10 Best BB Creams, Vogue, January 17,2013. The BB cream is here to stay, The Times of India, beautys all in one, The balm that claims to be a moisturiser, sun block, primer AND foundation, but does it work. The Daily Mail, June 14,2011, for it being introduced to South Korea and Japan in the 1980s, see Macleans, January 11,2012. For the rest, see Koh Young-aah, perfect your look in Korea, The Korea Herald/Naver News, September 2,2009
BB cream
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Selection of BB creams
BB cream
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Christine Schrammek Blemish Balm from 1960s
14.
Botulinum toxin
–
Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxic protein produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum and related species. It prevents the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from axon endings at the neuromuscular junction, infection with the bacterium causes the disease botulism. The toxin is used commercially in medicine, cosmetics. Botulinum is the most acutely lethal toxin known, with an estimated median lethal dose of 1. 3–2.1 ng/kg intravenously or intramuscularly. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration requires a warning stating that when locally administered the toxin may spread from the injection site to other areas of the body. The warning was the result of associated with its uses. There are seven types of toxin, named type A–G. Type A and B are capable of causing disease in humans, types C–G are less common, types E and F can cause disease in humans, while the other types cause disease in other animals. Botulinum toxin types A and B are used in medicine to treat muscle spasms. The commercial form is marketed under the brand name Botox, among others, botulinum toxin is used to treat a number of problems. Similarly, botulinum toxin is used to relax clenching of muscles, including those of the oesophagus, jaw, lower urinary tract and bladder and it may also be used for improper eye alignment. In cosmetic applications, botulinum toxin is considered safe and effective for reduction of facial wrinkles, injection of botulinum toxin into the muscles under facial wrinkles causes relaxation of those muscles, resulting in the smoothing of the overlying skin. Smoothing of wrinkles is usually three days after treatment and is maximally visible two weeks following injection. The treated muscles gradually regain function, and generally return to their former appearance three to four months after treatment, muscles can be treated repeatedly to maintain the smoothed appearance. Botulinum toxin is used to treat disorders of hyperactive nerves including excessive sweating, neuropathic pain. In addition to uses, botulinum toxin is being evaluated for use in treating chronic pain. While botulinum toxin is considered safe in a clinical setting. Most commonly, botulinum toxin can be injected into the muscle group or spread from the injection site
Botulinum toxin
–
Botulinum toxin A
15.
Concealer
–
A concealer or colour corrector is a type of cosmetic that is used to mask dark circles, age spots, large pores, and other small blemishes visible on the skin. It is similar to foundation, but thicker and used to hide different pigments by blending the imperfection into the skin tone. It is normally applied after primer, after foundation and used on the face, both concealer and foundation are typically used to make skin appear more uniform in color, and make a clean base for all the other cosmetics. These two types of cosmetics differ in that concealers tend to be heavily pigmented, though they are available in a wide range of opacity. It also comes in different forms from liquid to solid, also, foundation is usually applied to larger areas. The first commercially available concealer was Max Factors Erace, launched in 1954, concealer can be used alone or with foundations. Camouflage makeup is a much heavier pigmented form of concealer and it is used to cover serious skin discolorations such as birthmarks, scars and vitiligo. An example of a modern camouflage makeup is Colortration, which is a liquid cover makeup, concealer is available in a variety of shades, from lightest to deepest. When picking a concealer, people tend to one or two shades lighter than their skin tone to better hide their blemishes and dark circles under the eye. Some colors are intended to look like a skin tone. Concealers with yellow undertones are used to hide dark circles, green and blue can counteract red patches on the skin, such as those caused by pimples, broken veins, or rosacea. A purple-tinted concealer can make sallow complexions look brighter, colored concealers such as these are usually applied sparingly beneath a concealer or foundation that matches the wearers skin tone. Skin-toned concealers are not only the most common type, but are often sufficient on their own at hiding or blurring imperfections, baking, a make-up technique http, //bestconcealerreview. com/ http, //beauty. about. com/od/concealers/qt/concealershade. htm http, //www. quinceanerasmagazine. com/articles/what-is-concealer-used-for
Concealer
–
Liquid concealer
16.
Foundation (cosmetics)
–
Foundation is a skin coloured makeup applied to the face to create an even, uniform colour to the complexion, to cover flaws and, sometimes, to change the natural skintone. Some foundations also function as a moisturizer, sunscreen, astringent or base layer for more complex cosmetics, foundation applied to the body is generally referred to as body painting. The use of cosmetics to enhance complexion reaches back into antiquity, “Face painting” is mentioned in the Old Testament. In 200 B. C. ancient Greek women applied white lead powder and it was considered fashionable for Greek women to have a pale complexion. Roman women also favoured a pale complexion, wealthy Romans favoured white lead paste, which could lead to disfigurements and death. Men also wore makeup to lighten their skin tone and they used white lead powder, chalk, and creams to lighten their skin tone. The cream was made from fat, starch, and tin oxide. The fat was rendered from animal carcasses and heated to remove the color, tin oxide was made out of heating tin metal in open air. The animal fat provided a smooth texture, while the tin oxide provided color to the cream, in the 6th century, women would often bleed themselves to achieve a pale complexion. During the Italian Renaissance, many women applied water–soluble lead paint to their faces, throughout the 17th century and the Elizabethan era, women wore ceruse, a lethal mixture of vinegar and white lead. They also applied egg whites to their faces to create a shiny complexion, many men and women died from wearing lead-based make-up. In the 18th century, Louis XV made it fashionable for men to wear lead-based makeup, theatrical actors wore heavy white base. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Victorian women wore little or no makeup, queen Victoria abhorred make-up and deemed that it was only appropriate for prostitutes and loose women to wear it. It was only acceptable for actors or actresses to wear make-up, in the late 19th century, women would apply a whitening mixture made out of zinc oxide, mercury, lead, nitrate of silver, and acids. Some women stayed out of the sun, ate chalk, in the Edwardian era, women wore base and did not bleach their skin as much as they did in previous centuries. Modern foundation can trace its roots to Carl Baudin of the Leipziger Stadt theatre in Germany and he is the inventor of greasepaint. He wanted to conceal the joint between his wig and forehead, so he developed a flesh-coloured paste made of zinc, ochre and this formulation was so popular with other actors that Baudin began producing it commercially, and, as such, gave birth to the first theatrical makeup. This would be the standard for theatrical make-up until 1914, when makeup artist Max Factor created Flexible Greasepaint that was more reflective under the lighting on movie sets
Foundation (cosmetics)
–
Thick, unblended foundation on skin
17.
Moisturizer
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Moisturizers or emollients are complex mixtures of chemical agents specially designed to make the external layers of the skin softer and more pliable. They increase the skins hydration by reducing evaporation, naturally occurring skin lipids and sterols, as well as artificial or natural oils, humectants, emollients, lubricants, etc. may be part of the composition of commercial skin moisturizers. They usually are available as products for cosmetic and therapeutic uses. Moisturizers prevent and treat dry skin, protect sensitive skin, improve skin tone and texture, moisturizers can be used to prevent the skin from becoming too dry or oily, such as with light, non-greasy water-based moisturizers. Such moisturizers often contain lightweight oils, such as alcohol, or silicone-derived ingredients. For treating skin dryness, the most appropriate moisturizers are heavier, oil-based moisturizers that contain ingredients such as antioxidants, for very dry, cracked skin, petrolatum-based products are preferable, as they are longer-lasting than creams and are more effective in preventing water evaporation. For oily skin, moisturizers can still be useful after activities causing skin dryness, such as skin care products. For oily skin, water-based moisturizers that are specifically non-comedogenic are preferable, appropriate moisturizers to keep aging skin soft and well hydrated are oil-based ones that contain petrolatum as the base, along with antioxidants or alpha hydroxy acids against wrinkles. In eczema it is generally best to match thicker ointments to the driest, flakiest skin, light emollients such as aqueous cream may not have any effect on severely dry skin. Some common emollients for the relief of eczema include Oilatum, Balneum, Medi Oil, Diprobase, bath oils, sebexol, Epaderm ointment, Exederm and Eucerin lotion or cream may also be helpful with itching. Lotions or creams may be applied directly to the skin after bathing to lock in moisture, moisturizing gloves can be worn while sleeping. Generally, twice-daily applications of emollients work best, while creams are easy to apply, they are quickly absorbed into the skin, and therefore need frequent reapplication. Ointments, with water content, stay on the skin for longer and need fewer applications. Recently, ceramides, which are the major constituent of the stratum corneum, have been used in the treatment of eczema. They are often one of the ingredients of modern moisturizers and these lipids were also successfully produced synthetically in the laboratory. Emollients are best applied immediately after bathing when the skin is well hydrated, three methods are used to moisturize skin, Occlusives, These work by forming a thin film on the surface of the skin to prevent loss of moisture. Humectants, These attract water vapor from the air to moisturize the skin, restoration of deficient materials, These are more complex and try to restore natural moisturizing factors on the skin, such as amino-lipids. Four popular moisturizers were tested, providing the same result and it is not yet known if the same applies to humans
Moisturizer
–
Moisturizer
18.
Permanent makeup
–
It is also used to restore or enhance the breasts areola, such as after breast surgery. Permanent makeup dates back at least to the start of the 20th century, of injecting vegetable dyes under the top layer of the skin. Permanent makeup results in enhanced features of the face—definition is rendered to eyebrows, eyes, results can imitate topically applied cosmetics or can be quite unnoticeable, depending upon the design, color value and amount of pigment used. At first, permanent makeup results may look darker and this is due to colour remaining in the outermost epidermal layers of skin at the start. Colour softens within a few days during the process as the upper layers of epidermis slough and are replaced by new epidermal cells. The best possible colour results can perform for many years or may begin to fade over time, the amount of time required for this, depends per person. While permanent makeup pigment remains in the dermis its beauty-span may be influenced by several possible factors and these can be environmental, procedural and/or individual factors. The amount and colour of pigment deposit at the level can affect the length of time that permanent makeup looks its best. Very natural-looking applications are likely to require a touch-up before more dramatic ones for this reason, individual influences include lifestyles that find an individual in the sun regularly such as with gardening or swimming. Skin tones are a factor in colour value changes over time, there are cases of undesired results. The four most common complaints are too dark, wrong colour, uneven, a skilled, experienced, permanent makeup professional is able to adjust the colour and evenness of permanent makeup results in most cases. A design that is too large presents a challenge, however. Costly pigment lightening techniques and/or removal may be the only solutions, as with tattoos, permanent makeup can be difficult to remove. Common techniques used for this are laser resurfacing, dermabrasion, camouflaging—adding a new pigment which counteracts the tattoo color and attempts to emulate normal skin color is considered a poor choice by professionals. Removal is more painful and laborious than the tattooing itself, as with tattoos, permanent makeup may have complications, such as allergies to the pigments, formation of scars, granulomas and keloids, skin cracking, peeling, blistering and local infection. The use of unsterilized tattooing instruments may infect the patient with serious diseases such as HIV, removal problems may also ensue, due to patient dissatisfaction or regret, and they may be particularly difficult to remove in places such as eyelids and lips without leaving permanent sequelae. Compliance with standard precautions and a code of safe practice should be insisted upon by a person considering undergoing a cosmetic tattoo procedure. The causes of a change of colour after cosmetic tattooing are both complex and varied and this client had her eyebrows and top eyeliner permanently tattooed
Permanent makeup
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Permanent makeup (before, immediately after, and healed) from brow, eyeliner, and lip procedures
Permanent makeup
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Eyebrow & Top Eyeliner Procedure
19.
Face powder
–
Face powder is a cosmetic powder applied to the face to set a foundation after application. It can also be reapplied throughout the day to minimize shininess caused by oily skin, there is translucent sheer powder, and there is pigmented powder. Certain types of pigmented facial powders are meant be worn alone with no base foundation, powder tones the face and gives an even appearance. Besides toning the face, some powders with sunscreen can also reduce damage from sunlight. It comes packaged either as a compact or as loose powder and it can be applied with a sponge, brush, or powder puff. Uniform distribution over the face is achieved more easily when a powder is applied. Because of the variation among human skin tones, there is a corresponding variety of colors of face powder. There are also types of powder. A common powder used in beauty products is talc, which is absorbent and it can also be applied generously to the higher points of the face to brighten, colour correct and highlight, through a technique termed baking. This technique also helps to increase the coverage of the make-up whilst helping the makeup stay in place for longer, face powder should be carefully chosen to match the skin tone in order to show the best results
Face powder
–
Loose mineral powder
20.
Rouge (cosmetics)
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Rouge, also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic typically used by women to redden the cheeks so as to provide a more youthful appearance, and to emphasize the cheekbones. Rouge was used as early as in ancient Egypt and it was also applied on the lips, the way lipstick would be used today. In some times and places, such as the English Regency, in Britain in the late Victorian Age, wearing visible makeup such as rouge was associated with low morals. Ladies resorted to pinching their cheeks to make them appear red instead, various substances have been used as rouge. In ancient Greece for example, crushed mulberries were favoured, while red beet juice, crushed strawberries, modern rouge generally consists of a red-coloured talcum-based powder that is applied with a brush to the cheek. The colouring is usually either the substance of safflor, or a solution of carmine in ammonium hydroxide, a cream-based variant of rouge is schnouda, a colourless mixture of Alloxan with cold cream, which also colours the skin red. The majority of blushes found in drugstore or high-end stores are in the form of pressed-powder, the blush lies flat on the pan, unlike baked blushes. These are best suited for people with oily skin, using a pressed-powder blush for people with dry skin is not recommended because the powder might cling to dry patches of their skin. Pressed-powder blushes usually last long on the skin, are easily blended and are very buildable, for these reasons, pressed powder blushes are usually used by makeup artists during special occasions like weddings or events that project harsh lighting. Pressed-powder blushes come in many finishes, including matte, shimmer, cream blushes usually come in a short, round container, much like a lip balm or solid perfume. These blushes are best suited for people with dry skin, cream blush is typically blended using fingers or a stippling brush. Since the nature of the blush is a cream, it can be layered with a blush to improve longevity of use. Mineral baked blush can be differentiated from pressed-powder blushes mainly because of its appearance on the pan and it is luminous, has shimmery veins and shaped like a dome. Mineral baked blushes are made from a liquid that is baked into solid form and this means that there is less talc and more pigment. Because it is originally liquid form, spraying the pan with water can make the blush creamy, however, it does change back to its solid form when it dries. Mineral baked powder is very sheer when applied, but is buildable and can be the choice for someone who is going for a more flushed. Stippling brush, suitable for softening out harsh lines and blend together blush, bronzer and it is most suitable for applying cream blush. Fluffy brush, suitable for dispersing the colour of the blush, flat brush, The type of brush included with many, especially drugstore, blushes
Rouge (cosmetics)
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A set of rouge with a brush
Rouge (cosmetics)
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A dancer wearing rouge
Rouge (cosmetics)
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Shale rouge palette of the
Naqada I culture, c. 4000–3500 BCE
21.
Skin whitening
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Skin whitening is the practice of using substances, mixtures, or physical treatments to lighten skin color. Skin whitening treatments work by reducing the content of melanin of the skin, many agents have been shown to be effective in skin whitening, some have beneficial side effects, some are a significant risk to health. Specific zones of abnormally high such as lentigo spots, moles. In cases of vitiligo, unaffected skin may be lightened to achieve a uniform appearance. Thus, the development and discovery of melanogenesis inhibitors illustrates many of the used in drug design. Some of the most potent competitive reversible tyrosinase inhibitors are synthetic compounds with a potency hundreds of times that of kojic acid, for a review of mechanism of action of skin whitening agents, see Chang or Ebanks, Wickett, Boissy. Melanin is the substance responsible for the color of the skin. Melanin is class of dark polymers generated by the body through the process of melanogenesis, the variation of skin color among individuals is mostly because of variation of the content of melanin in the skin. Skin with little or no melanin is almost white, other factors influence skin color in a lesser degree, including the amount of blood in blood vessels, skin thickness and content of carotenoids in skin. Melanin in synthesized in melanosomes which are produced in melanocytes. Melanocytes are cells dedicated to this function that are present in the skin, hair follicles, the synthesis of melanin involves a chain of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions and non-enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The main precursor to melanin is L-tyrosine, L-tyrosine is taken by the melanocytes from the intercellular medium, then transported to the melanosomes. L-tyrosine is also synthesized within the melanocytes from L-phenylalanine by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase.1164 Melanosomes are transferred to keratinocytes, most of the melanin of skin is found in keratinocytes. Additionally, melanocytes interact with keratinocytes through chemical signaling, see § Preventing the transfer of melanosomes to keratinocytes. Skin whitening agents work by reducing the presence of melanin in the skin, to accomplish this, there are several possible mechanism of actions, Inhibition of the activity of tyrosinase, The catalytic action of tyrosinase is inhibited by the skin whitening agent. Inhibition of the expression or activation of tyrosinase, The antimelanogenic agent causes that less tyrosinase is generated or that tyrosinase is not activated to its functional form, scavenging of the intermediate products of melanin synthesis. Preventing the transfer of melanosomes to keratinocytes, many tyrosinase inhibitors have been discovered or developed. Very many inhibitors of tyrosinase are known, most are of the reversible type, for a review of tyrosinase inhibitors see Chang
Skin whitening
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Satirical cartoon of a
quack selling "universal pills" to turn a man's skin white. 19th-century, London.
22.
Venetian ceruse
–
Venetian Ceruse, also known as Spirits of Saturn, was a 16th-century cosmetic used as a skin whitener. It was in demand and considered the best available at that time. The cosmetics use of lead as a pigment caused lead poisoning, damaging the skin. Usage over an extended period could cause death, elizabeth I of England is popularly imagined to have been a notable user, although critics Anna Riehl and Kate Maltby have argued that little historical evidence exists to support this claim. Ceruse was what killed the Countess of Coventry, aged 27, Ceruse caused blemishes, which she applied more makeup on, which in turn caused more blemishes. Eventually she died of lead poisoning
Venetian ceruse
–
Pale faced
Elizabeth I of England wearing Venetian Ceruse
23.
Lipstick
–
Lipstick is a cosmetic product containing pigments, oils, waxes, and emollients that apply color, texture, and protection to the lips. Many colors and types of lipstick exist, as with most other types of makeup, lipstick is typically, but not exclusively, worn by women. Some lipsticks are also lip balms, to add color and hydration, ancient Americas oldest manual from the 13th century The Grolier Codex shows two Mayan woman wearing lipstick. Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick and they crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips and around the eyes. Also Egyptians like Cleopatra crushed bugs to create a colour of red on their lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians wore lipstick to show social status rather than gender and they extracted the red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, but this dye resulted in serious illness. Lipsticks with shimmering effects were made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. In Australia, Aboriginal girls would paint their mouths red with ocher for puberty rituals, lip colouring started to gain some popularity in 16th-century England. During the time of Queen Elizabeth I bright red lips and a white face became fashionable. At that time, lipstick was made from a blend of beeswax, only upper class women and male actors wore makeup. It was considered brazen and uncouth to wear makeup, in the 1850s, reports were being published warning women of the dangers of using lead and vermilion in cosmetics applied to the face. By the end of the 19th century, Guerlain, a French cosmetic company, the first commercial lipstick had been invented in 1884, by perfumers in Paris, France. It was covered in paper and made from deer tallow, castor oil. Prior to this, lipstick had been created at home, complete acceptance of the undisguised use of cosmetics in England appears to have arrived for the fashionable Londoner at least by 1921. In the 19th century, lipstick was colored with carmine dye, Carmine dye was extracted from cochineal, scale insects native to Mexico and Central America which live on cactus plants. Cochineal insects produce carminic acid to deter predation by other insects, carminic acid, which forms 17% to 24% of the weight of the dried insects, can be extracted from the insects body and eggs. Mixed with aluminum or calcium salts it makes carmine dye and this lipstick did not come in a tube, it was applied with a brush. Carmine dye was expensive and the look of carmine colored lipstick was considered unnatural and theatrical, only actors and actresses could get away with wearing lipstick
Lipstick
–
A tube of lipstick
Lipstick
–
A woman applying lipstick
Lipstick
–
Woman applying lipstick with a
compact in
Washington D.C., 1943
Lipstick
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Elizabeth Taylor helped to popularize red lipstick.
24.
Lip balm
–
Lip balm or lip salve is a wax-like substance applied topically to the lips of the mouth to moisturize and relieve chapped or dry lips, angular cheilitis, stomatitis, or cold sores. Lip balm often contains beeswax or carnauba wax, camphor, cetyl alcohol, lanolin, paraffin, some varieties contain dyes, flavor, fragrance, phenol, salicylic acid, and sunscreens. The primary purpose of lip balm is to provide a layer on the lip surface to seal moisture in lips. Dry air, cold temperatures, and wind all have an effect on skin by drawing moisture away from the body. Lips are particularly vulnerable because the skin is so thin, lip balm can be applied where a finger is used to apply it to the lips, or in a lipstick-style tube from which it can be applied directly. Lip balm was first marketed in the 1880s by Charles Browne Fleet, child observed that, Those who are troubled with cracked lips have found this remedy successful when others have failed. It is one of those sorts of cures, which are likely to be laughed at. Lip balm manufacturers sometimes state in their FAQs that there is nothing addictive in their products or that all ingredients are listed and approved by the FDA. Snopes found the claim there are substances in Carmex that are irritants necessitating reapplication, such as ground glass
Lip balm
–
Homemade lip balms
25.
Lip gloss
–
Lip gloss is a product used primarily to give lips a glossy lustre, and sometimes to add a subtle color. It is distributed as a liquid or a solid or lipstick. The product is available in ranges of opacity from translucent to solid, and can have various frosted, glittery, glossy, like lipstick, lip gloss comes in a variety of forms and may be applied in different ways. It can be contained in a cylinder and applied with a rounded or sloped applicator wand or with a built in lip brush. It can come in a small, soft, squeezable plastic tube designed to be passed over the lips or applied with a fingertip or lip brush, solid or semisolid glosses come in boxes or tubes and sometimes blur the distinction between lip gloss and lip balm. Basic lip gloss, adds basic shine to your lips without color, colored lip gloss, adds a combination of color and shine. Glittery lip gloss, can be with or without color, but has a glitter base, new types of plumping lip gloss contain ingredients that make the lips appear softer and plumper. These are a cheap, easy, and usually harmless alternative if compared to collagen, Restylane, Juvederm and they are not as effective, however because the effects are temporary. Lip gloss is used when a person wants to have some color on their lips. Lip gloss is often used as an introduction to makeup. It is often used by preteen and young girls who want to wear some makeup. Lip gloss is also common for women who dont like to wear makeup but have to attend a formal occasion. Lip gloss can be applied on top of lipstick to increase the gloss of a color, or to add depth as in the case of glitter gloss, like lipstick, lip gloss is a mixture of waxes, oils, and pigments. However, lip gloss contains less pigments, and those used are often pale in color or diluted, furthermore, the free-flowing nature of the product requires less wax. The principal components are lanolin, which feels good on the due to its moisturizing qualities and imparts gloss. Lip gloss was invented by Max Factor in 1930 and he wanted to create a lip product that would make lips shiny and glossy for films. Factor created makeup for the movie industry and he developed makeup specifically for actresses starring in black and white films. Women were inspired by movie actresses to embrace this makeup trend and this led to the popularity of lip gloss
Lip gloss
–
Lip gloss being applied with a retractable lip brush.
Lip gloss
–
Lip gloss in squeezable tube and wand applicator formats
26.
Lip liner
–
Lip liner, also known as lip pencil, is a cosmetic product. It is intended to fill uneven areas on the edges of the lips before applying Prost lipstick. It is also used to outline the lips, keeping lipstick inside the lip area and preventing it from bleeding, therefore creating a bigger contrast and making the lips stand out more. Alternatively, lip liner can be used to fill in the entire lip before the application of lipstick and in some cases, the product is usually sold in a retractable tube or pencil form which can be sharpened. Lip liner is usually available in the range of colors as lipsticks, e. g. reds, pinks, browns, plums. Lip liner also comes in invisible, for giving the illusion of smooth lips without adding or affecting color, like lipstick, lip liner is composed of waxes, oils, and pigments. Compared to lipstick, lip liners are firmer in consistency and deeply pigmented, for these reasons, lip liners have less oils and more waxes and pigments than a lipsticks. A popular wax is Japan wax, designer brands such as Chanel, Dior, and Marc Jacobs produce their own lip liners. Other brands include but are not limited to Urban Decay, Clinique, Lip gloss Lip plumper Lip stain lip remover
Lip liner
–
Lip liner
27.
Circle contact lens
–
A circle contact lens, also known as a big eye contact lens and circle lens, is a cosmetic contact lens that makes the eyes iris appear larger. It has become a trend throughout East, South and Southeast Asia and is produced in Japan, South Korea. Some circle lenses are made in toric prescriptions to correct astigmatism and are available from online retailers. Circle lenses make ones eyes appear larger and come in a variety of colors and they have been around since 2004 and are very popular in countries such as South Korea, Japan, Taiwan and China. The diameter of regular contact lenses that are sold in the United States are on average 14mm–16mm, similar to the diameter of regular contact lenses, circle lenses have no more than 15mm since larger sizes would be harmful to the eyes at daily wear. When the diameter of the lens is described as 16mm or 18mm. The difference between the two types of lenses is that circle lenses are tinted not only in areas that cover the iris of the eye, the result is the appearance of a bigger, wider iris, with a limbal ring, and create an illusion of large eyes. The optical zone in the middle is transparent and it is enough to provide clear vision. When big eye contacts first launched, they were available in yearly disposable format, but as the trend spread. The lenses are popular among teenagers and young adults, many people consider circle lenses to be a fashion accessory rather than a medical device. In Hong Kong, many young female models wear them as fashion icons. They can be purchased without a prescription or with prescription and their legality in the West varies with the local laws, and in the United States they are currently classified as a medical device and are not legal for sale without a valid prescription. Adverse effects have been reported, Cosmetically tinted contact lenses increase ocular higher-order aberrations, increases in higher-order aberrations are responsible for decreased contrast sensitivity under the photopic condition. Tinted contact lens wearers should be informed about the possible reduction in optical quality of the eye. However, a reported that cosmetically tinted lenses appear to be safe when properly prescribed. Concerns with these lenses in the United States arise from people buying lenses without consulting their optometrists, devices that have not been cleared by the FDA may be subject to seizure by US Customs. Korean contact lens companies Geo Medical Inc. and Migwang Contact Lens have been approved by the FDA for sale in the United States, circle lenses manufactured in Korea are under the approval and guidelines of the Korean Food and Drug Administration. Eyelid glue East Asian blepharoplasty Epicanthic fold
Circle contact lens
–
A girl wearing circle contact lenses.
28.
Eye liner
–
Eye liner or eyeliner is a cosmetic used to define the eyes. It is applied around the contours of the eye to create a variety of aesthetic effects, eye liner was first used in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia as a dark black line around the eyes. As early as 10,000 BC, Egyptians and Mo wore various cosmetics including eye liner not only for aesthetics, research has also speculated that eye liner was worn to protect the wearer from the evil eye. The characteristic of having heavily lined eyes has been depicted in ancient Egyptian art. They produced eye liner with a variety of materials, including copper ore, Ancient Egyptian kohl contained galena, which was imported from nearby regions in the Land of Punt, Coptos and Western Asia. In the 1920s, Tutankhamuns tomb was discovered, introducing the use of eye liner to the Western world, the 1920s were an era commonly associated with many changes in womens fashion, and women felt freer to apply make-up more liberally. In the 1960s, liquid eye liner was used to create thick black, in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century, heavy eye liner use has been associated with Gothic fashion and Punk fashion. Eye liner of varying degrees of thickness has also associated with the emo subculture. Eye liner is used in a daily make-up routine to define the eye or create the look of a wider or smaller eye. Eye liner can be used as a tool to create various looks as well as highlighting different features of the eyes, eye liner can be placed in various parts of the eye to create different looks with a winged eye liner or tight lined at the waterline. Eye liner can be drawn above upper lashes or below lower lashes or both, even on the lines of your eyes. Its primary purpose is to make the lashes look lush, but it draws attention to the eye. Eye liner can also be used for showing depression in photographs, although many users of eye liner use it on a day-to-day basis for a simple definer of the eyes, there are others who use it for more than just an easy eye enlarger. There are many styles of eye liner, most of them usually revolve around the winged eye liner, which is defining around your top eyelid shape and a line, about halfway toward the end of the eyebrow. It is usually connected to the defining around the top, however today there are some drastically toned eye liner. Tight lining is the use of eye liner tight against the waterline under the lashes of the upper lid, due to the proximity to the membranes, and the surface of the eye itself, waterproof eye liner is preferred. Tight lining is a technique which makes the eyelashes appear to start back on the eyelid. Gel eye liner and an angled brush may be used to create this look
Eye liner
–
Dark
teal eye liner along the rim of the eye
Eye liner
–
Ancient Egyptian women and men wearing
kohl eyeliner, from the tomb of
Nakht in
Thebes (15th century BC).
Eye liner
–
A girl wearing eyeliner.
Eye liner
–
An eye with brown eyeliner under the bottom lashes.
29.
Eye shadow
–
Eye shadow is a cosmetic that is applied on the eyelids and under the eyebrows. It is commonly used to make the wearers eyes stand out or look more attractive, eye shadow can add depth and dimension to ones eyes, complement the eye color, make ones eyes appear larger, or simply draw attention to the eyes. Eye shadow comes in different colors and textures. It is usually made from a powder and mica, but can also be found in liquid, pencil, civilizations across the world use eye shadow predominantly on females but also occasionally on males. In Western society, it is seen as a feminine cosmetic, in Gothic fashion, black or similarly dark-colored eye shadow and other types of eye makeup are popular among both sexes. Many people use eye shadow simply to improve their appearance, but it is commonly used in theatre and other plays, to create a memorable look, with bright. Depending on skin tone and experience, the effect of eye shadow usually brings out glamour, the use of eye shadow attempts to replicate the natural eye shadow that some women exhibit due to a natural contrasting pigmentation on their eyelids. Natural eye shadow can range anywhere from a glossy shine to ones eyelids, to a pinkish tone, eye shadow can be applied in a wide variety of ways depending upon the desired look and formulation. Typically application is done using fingers or brushes, the most important aspect of applying eye shadow, and makeup in general, is blending well. However, you must not forget to include a primer to limit the chances of creases in your eye shadow later, to remove eye shadow, a commercial eye makeup remover can be utilized, though a rich face wash will usually remove all traces of color. Generally it is easy to remove, and simple water and soap can be used, eye shadow, eyeliner, and mascara may also be removed using baby oil. There are also makeup wipes that can be used, cosmetics have been used for as long as there have been people to use them. Face painting is mentioned in the Old Testament, and eye shadow was used in Egyptian burials dating back to 10,000 BC, the word cosmetae was first used to describe Roman slaves whose duty was to bathe men and women in perfume. As early as 10,000 BC, men and women used scented oils and ointments to clean and soften their skin, dyes and paints were used to color the skin, body and hair. They rouged their lips and cheeks, stained their nails with henna, kohl was a dark-colored powder made of crushed antimony, burnt almonds, lead, oxidized copper, ochre, ash, malachite, and chrysocolla or any combination thereof. It was applied with a small stick, the upper and lower eyelids were painted in a line that extended to the sides of the face for an almond effect. In addition to reducing sun glare, it was believed that kohl eyeliner could restore good eyesight, kohl was kept in a small, flat-bottomed pot with a wide, tiny rim and a flat, disk-shaped lid. According to images of the time, the use of makeup was not limited to women, highly polished silver and copper mirrors aided the application of makeup
Eye shadow
–
An eye with heavy purple eye shadow
Eye shadow
–
A powder eye shadow palette with brown shades for normal day wear; the two center colors are sparkly while the silver and white shades are for creating shadows and highlights.
Eye shadow
–
Nefertiti bust with eye shadow applied
30.
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
Kohl is an ancient eye cosmetic, traditionally made by grinding stibnite for similar purposes to charcoal used in mascara. It is widely used in South Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and it is worn mostly by women, but also by some men and children. Kohl has also used in India as a cosmetic for a long time. In addition, mothers would apply kohl to their infants eyes soon after birth, some did this to strengthen the childs eyes, and others believed it could prevent the child from being cursed by the evil eye. The Arabic name كحل kuḥl and the Biblical Hebrew כחל kaḥal are cognates, transliteration variants of Arabic dialectal pronunciation include kohl or kuhl. The Persian word for kohl is sormeh and it is known as either surmah or kājal in South Asia. In West Africa, it is known as tozali or kwalli. The English word alcohol is a loan of the Arabic word, the Russian word for antimony, сурьма, is a loan from the Persian term. The cosmetic palettes used for its preparation assumed a prominent role in the late Predynastic Egyptian culture, Kohl was originally used as protection against eye ailments. There was also a belief that darkening around the eyes would protect one from the rays of the sun. Galena eye paint was applied in Ancient Egypt. Upper eyelids were painted black and lower ones were colored green, Ancient graves from the pre-historic Tasian culture point to the early application of galena in Egypt, a custom stretching from the Badarian period through to the Coptic era. Although found locally, both black galena and green malachite were also imported from regions in Western Asia, Coptos. The 18th Dynasty Ancient Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut would also grind charred frankincense into kohl eyeliner and this is the first recorded use of the resin. The frankincense itself had originally been obtained during an expedition to the ancient Land of Punt in this New Kingdom dynasty, additionally, the pioneering Muslim scholar Ibn Abi Shayba described in a legal compilation how to apply kohl to the eye, as narrated by earlier authorities. Berber and Arab women in North Africa and the Middle East, respectively, a vertical line is drawn from the bottom lip to the chin and along the bridge of the nose. Originally the line from the lip to the chin shows whether a women is married or not. This form of using Kohl on the face originates from the Arabian Peninsula, usage of kohl eye paint in the Horn of Africa dates to the ancient Kingdom of Punt
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
A 4th-century AD double cosmetic tube for kohl from the
Louvre Museum in
Paris.
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
Ancient kohl cosmetic tube from western
Iran, dated 800-500 BCE.
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
An
18th Dynasty Ancient Egyptian kohl container inscribed for Queen
Tiye (1410-1372 BCE).
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
Ancient Egyptian women wearing kohl, from a tomb mural in
Thebes (1420-1375 BCE).
31.
Mascara
–
Mascara is a cosmetic commonly used to enhance the eyelashes. It may darken, thicken, lengthen, and/or define the eyelashes, normally in one of three forms—liquid, cake, or cream—the modern mascara product has various formulas, however, most contain the same basic components of pigments, oils, waxes, and preservatives. The Collins English Dictionary defines mascara as, a substance for darkening, lengthening, curling, coloring. The Oxford English Dictionary adds that mascara is used on the eyebrows as well. The OED also references mascaro from works published in the late 15th century. In 1886, the Peck & Snyder Catalogue advertises, “Mascaro or Water Cosmetique… For darkening the eyebrow and moustaches without greasing them and making them prominent. ”In 1890, the Century Dictionary defined mascara as “a kind of paint used for the eyebrows and eyelashes by actors. ”And in 1894, N. Lynn advises in Lynn’s Practical Hints for Making-up, “to darken eyelashes, paint with mascara, or black paint, with a small brush. The Oxford English Dictionary also cites an alternative Catalan definition that describes soot or a black smear, there is even strong support for a possible source from the Arabic word maskharah or ‘buffoon’. The Hebrew word משקרות as relating to womens eyes is found in Isaiah 3,16, latin treatises sometimes used the word mascara when referring to witches. Aesthetic adornment is a universal and mascara can be documented in ancient Egypt. Records from around 4000 BC refer to a substance called kohl that was used to darken eyelashes, eyes, kohl was used to mask the eyes, believed to ward off evil spirits and protect the soul, by both men and women. Often composed of galena, malachite, and charcoal or soot, crocodile stool, honey, through Egypt’s influence, kohl usage persisted in the subsequent Babylonian, Greek and Roman empires. Makeup was considered unsightly and uncouth in Western culture until the Victorian era, during the Victorian era, social opinion shifted radically towards the promotion of cosmetics, and women were known to spend a majority of their day occupied with beauty regimens. Great efforts were made to create the illusion of long, dark eyelashes, attempting this, Victorian women made a type of mascara in their own homes. They would heat a mixture of ash or lampblack and elderberry juice on a plate, the product that people would recognize as mascara today did not develop until the 19th century. A chemist named Eugene Rimmel developed a cosmetic using the newly invented petroleum jelly, the name Rimmel became synonymous with the substance and still translates to “mascara” in the Portuguese, Spanish, Greek, Turkish, Romanian, and Persian languages today. Across the Atlantic Ocean and at roughly the time, in 1913. Later in 1917, he started a business from the product that grew to become the company Maybelline. The mascara developed by two men consisted of petroleum jelly and coal in a set ratio
Mascara
–
A mascara tube and a wand applicator
Mascara
–
Mascara being applied.
Mascara
–
Mascara coated eyelashes.
32.
Hair conditioner
–
Hair conditioner is a hair care product that changes the texture and appearance of hair. Hair conditioner is often a liquid that is applied and massaged into the hair. Hair conditioner is used after washing the hair with shampoo. Hair conditioners may contain moisturizers, oils and sunscreen, among other ingredients, for centuries, natural oils have been used to condition human hair. Modern hair conditioner was created at the turn of the 20th century when perfumer Édouard Pinaud presented a product he called Brilliantine at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris and his product was intended to soften mens hair, including beards and mustaches. Since the invention of Pinauds early products, modern science has advanced the hair conditioner industry to include those made with silicone, fatty alcohols and these chemical products have the benefits of hair conditioner without feeling greasy or heavy. Hair conditioner is different from creme rinse, a creme rinse is simply a detangler that has a thinner consistency than conditioner, as its name implies. Hair conditioner is a liquid that coats the cuticle of the hair itself. Pack conditioners are heavy and thick, with a content of surfactants that are able to bind to the hair structure. These are usually applied to the hair for a longer time, the surfactants are based on long, straight aliphatic fatty acid chains similar to saturated fatty acids. Their molecules have a tendency to crystallize easily, giving the higher viscosity. Leave-in conditioners are thinner and have different surfactants, which add only a material to the hair. They are based on unsaturated fatty acid chains, which are bent and this shape makes them less prone to crystallizing, making a lighter, less viscous mixture and providing a significantly thinner layer on the hair. The difference between pack and leave-in conditioners is similar to the difference between fats and oils, the latter being less viscous, leave-in conditioner is designed to be used in a similar way to hair oil, preventing the tangling of hair and keeping it smooth. Its use is particularly prevalent by those with curly or kinky hair. Ordinary conditioners combine some aspects of pack and leave-in conditioners, ordinary conditioners are generally applied directly after using shampoo, and manufacturers usually produce a conditioner counterpart for different types of shampoo for this purpose. Hold conditioners, based on cationic polyelectrolyte polymers, hold the hair in a desired shape and these have a function and composition similar to diluted hair gels. There are several types of hair conditioner ingredients, differing in composition and functionality, Moisturizers, usually these contain high proportions of humectants
Hair conditioner
–
A 19th-century
advertisement for 9
hair care products from a company named Dupuy.
33.
Hair coloring
–
Hair coloring, or hair dyeing, is the practice of changing the hair color. Hair coloring can be done professionally by a hairdresser or independently at home, today, hair coloring is very popular, with over 75% of American women dyeing their hair. At home coloring in the United States reached $1.9 billion in 2011 and is expected to raise to $2.2 billion by 2016, the dyeing of hair is an ancient art that involves treatment of the hair with various chemical compounds. In ancient times, the dyes were obtained from plants, some of the most well known are henna, indigo, Cassia obovata, senna, turmeric and amla. Others include katam, black hulls, red ochre and leeks. In the 1661 book Eighteen Books of the Secrets of Art & Nature, various methods of coloring hair black, gold, green, red, yellow, the development of synthetic dyes for hair is traced to the 1860s discovery of the reactivity of para- phenylenediamine with air. Eugène Schueller, the founder of LOréal, is recognized for creating the first synthetic dye in 1907. In 1947 the German cosmetics firm Schwarzkopf launched the first home color product, Hair dyeing is now a multibillion-dollar industry that involves the use of both plant-derived and synthetic dyes. Hair color was applied to the hair as one overall color. The modern trend is to use colors to produce streaks or gradations. These are referred to as, Highlighting, where sections of hair are treated with lighteners, lowlighting, where sections of hair are treated with darker hair color. This keeps the only on the desired pieces of hair. Cap, when a plastic cap is placed tight on the head and this method is not frequently practiced anymore with the exception of short hair highlighting. Balayage, where color is painted directly onto sections of the hair with no foils used to keep the color contained. This method is growing in popularity because of its ability to more natural. Dipping or tip dyeing, similar to balayage in that the color is painted directly on the hair, all application techniques can be used with any type of color. For lightening, the hair will sometimes have to be bleached before coloring, Hair coloring can also be applied on the scalp for a more solid level of coverage Root Touch-Up, where color is applied only to the most recent section of re-growth. Usually the first inch of hair from the scalp, generally those getting root touch-ups get this service repeated every 4–6 weeks as the natural color grows in and becomes apparent
Hair coloring
–
A hairdresser colors a client's hair.
Hair coloring
–
Portrait of
Lafayette in 1830, aged 73, with pitch-black hair.
Hair coloring
–
Hair with blonde highlights
Hair coloring
–
Hair and beard colored blue.
34.
Hair removal
–
Hair removal, also known as epilation or depilation, is the deliberate removal of body hair. Hair typically grows all over the human body, Hair can become more visible during and after puberty and men tend to have thicker, more visible body hair than women. Both men and women have visible hair on the head, eyebrows, eyelashes, armpits, pubic region, arms, Hair does not generally grow on the lips, the underside of the hands or feet or on certain areas of the genitalia. Forms of hair removal are practised for various and mostly cultural, sexual, medical or religious reasons, forms of hair removal have been practised in almost all human cultures since at least the Neolithic era. The methods used to remove hair have varied in different times and regions, each culture of human society has developed social norms relating to the presence or absence of body hair, which has changed from one time to another. Different standards can apply to females and males, people whose hair falls outside a cultures aesthetic standards may experience real or perceived social acceptance problems. For example, for women in several societies, exposure in public of body hair other than hair, eyelashes and eyebrows is generally considered to be unaesthetic, unattractive. In Middle Eastern societies, removal of the body hair has been considered proper hygiene, necessitated by local customs. In the United States, for example, the vast majority of women regularly shave their legs and armpits, people may also remove some or all of their pubic hair for aesthetic or sexual reasons. However, some women in Western cultures choose not to remove hair from their bodies, either as a preference or as an act of defiance against what they regard to be an oppressive ritual. Many men in Western cultures shave their hair, so only a minority of men have a beard. Some men shave because their beards are very coarse, causing itchiness, some men grow a beard or moustache from time to time to change their appearance. A much smaller number of Western women also shave their heads, within the gay, bi and straight male cultures, some men are known to eliminate or trim pubic hair, a practice that is referred to as being a part of manscaping. This custom can be motivated by reasons of potentially increased cleanliness and hygiene, heightened enjoyment during fellatio and analingus, some women also shave their heads for cultural or social reasons. In India, tradition required widows in some sections of the society to shave their heads as part of being ostracized, the outlawed custom is still infrequently encountered mostly in rural areas. The society at large and the government are working to end the practice of ostracizing widows, in addition, it continues to be common practice for men to shave their heads prior to embarking on a pilgrimage. Head-shaving is a part of some Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, Jain, Buddhist and Christian monks generally undergo some form of head-shaving or tonsure during their induction into monastic life, in Thailand monks shave their eyebrows as well. Brahmin children have their heads shaved before beginning school
Hair removal
–
A woman's unshaven underarm...
Hair removal
–
Sample distribution of
body hair in women and men. (Excluding underarm hair)
Hair removal
–
...and one that has been shaved
Hair removal
–
Body hair on an unusually
hirsute male
35.
Laser hair removal
–
Laser hair removal is the process of removing unwanted hair by means of exposure to pulses of laser light that destroy the hair follicle. It had been performed experimentally for about twenty years before becoming available in the mid-1990s. One of the first published articles describing laser hair removal was authored by the group at Massachusetts General Hospital in 1998, many reviews of laser hair removal methods, safety, and efficacy have been published in the dermatology literature. Lasers can cause localized damage by selectively heating dark target matter, melanin, in the area that causes hair growth, light is absorbed by dark objects, so laser energy can be absorbed by dark material in the skin, but with much more speed and intensity. This dark target matter, or chromophore, can be naturally occurring or artificially introduced, melanin is considered the primary chromophore for all hair removal lasers currently on the market. Melanin occurs naturally in the skin, and gives skin and hair their color, there are two types of melanin in hair. Eumelanin gives hair brown or black color, while pheomelanin gives hair blonde or red color, because of the selective absorption of photons of laser light, only black or brown hair can be removed. Laser works best with coarse hair. Light skin and dark hair are a combination, being most effective and producing the best results. Hair removal lasers have been in use since 1997 and have approved for permanent hair reduction in the United States by the Food. Under the FDAs definition, permanent hair reduction is the long-term, indeed, many patients experience complete regrowth of hair on their treated areas in the years following their last treatment. This means that although laser treatments with these devices will permanently reduce the number of body hairs. Some will need touch-up treatments, especially on areas, after the initial set of 3-8 treatments. A2006 review article in the journal Lasers in Medical Science compared intense pulsed light epilators, the review found no statistical difference in short term effectiveness, but a higher incidence of side effects with diode laser based treatment. Hair reduction after 6 months was reported as 68. 75% for alexandrite lasers,71. 71% for diode lasers, side effects were reported as 9. 5% for alexandrite lasers,28. 9% for diode lasers, and 15. 3% for IPL. All side effects were found to be temporary and even pigmentation changes returned to normal within 6 months, IPL, though technically not containing a laser, are sometimes incorrectly referred to as laser hair removal. IPL-based methods, sometimes called phototricholysis, or photoepilation, use xenon flash lamps that emit full spectrum light, IPL systems typically output wavelengths between 400 nm and 1200 nm. Filters are applied to block shorter wavelengths, thereby only utilizing the longer, redder wavelengths for clinical applications, iPLs offer certain advantages over laser, principally in the pulse duration
Laser hair removal
–
Hair-removal
laser working at 755 and 1064
nm. The device to the right provides air cooling.
36.
Plucking (hair removal)
–
Plucking or tweezing can mean the process of removing human hair, animal hair or a birds feathers by mechanically pulling the item from the owners body. In humans, this is done for personal grooming purposes, usually with tweezers, an epilator is a motorised hair plucker. Those under the influence of deliriants or trichotillomania may pluck their own out of habit. Roman baths employed personnel solely to pluck hair from their clients bodies, in birds and animals, plucking is usually carried out by humans, sometimes called pluckers, to the carcass of the subject as part of food preparation. Feathers can be removed manually or in a tumbling machine. Both methods require the feathers to be first loosened by submerging the slaughtered bird in hot water, manual plucking involves pulling out the larger feathers then removing the down with a rubbing action. Automated plucking machines use rubber posts protruding from the inside of a drum to pull the feathers from the bird. This process takes less than 30 seconds, whereas manual plucking typically takes several minutes, eyebrow Feather-plucking, a behavioural disorder in captive birds Hair removal Trichotillomania, the compulsive urge to pull out ones own hair Unibrow Tweezing or Plucking - About. com Hair Removal
Plucking (hair removal)
–
Eyebrow plucking
Plucking (hair removal)
–
Poultry plucking machine
37.
Shaving
–
Shaving is the removal of hair, by using a razor or any other kind of bladed implement, to slice it down—to the level of the skin or otherwise. Shaving is most commonly practiced by men to remove their hair and by women to remove their leg. A man is called if he has had his beard entirely removed. Both men and women shave their chest hair, abdominal hair, leg hair, underarm hair, pubic hair. Head shaving is much more common among men and it is often associated with religious practice, the armed forces and some competitive sports such as swimming, running and extreme sports. The shaving of hair is also sometimes done by cancer patients when their treatment may result in partial hair loss. Before the advent of razors, hair was removed using two shells to pull the hair out or using water and a sharp tool. Around 3000 BC when copper tools were developed, copper razors were invented, the idea of an aesthetic approach to personal hygiene may have begun at this time, though Egyptian priests may have practiced something similar to this earlier. Alexander the Great strongly promoted shaving during his reign in the 4th century BC because he believed it looked tidier, in some Native American tribes, at the time of contact with British colonists, it was customary for men and women to remove all bodily hair using these methods. Shaving can be done with a razor or safety razor or an electric razor or beard trimmer. The removal of a full beard often requires the use of scissors or an electric trimmer to reduce the mass of hair, there are two types of manual razors, straight razor and safety razors. Safety razors are further subdivided into double-edged razors, single edge, injector razors, cartridge razors, double-edge razors are named so because the blade that they use has two sharp edges on opposite sides of the blade. Before wet shaving, the area to be shaved is usually doused in warm to hot water by showering or bathing or covered for several minutes with a hot wet towel to soften the skin and hair. A lathering or lubricating agent such as cream, shaving soap, gel, lubricating and moisturizing the skin to be shaved helps to prevent a painful razor burn. Many razor cartridges include a strip, made of polyethylene glycol. It also lifts and softens the hairs, causing them to swell and this enhances the cutting action and sometimes permits cutting the hairs slightly below the surface of the skin. Additionally, during shaving, the lather indicates areas that have not been addressed, when soap is used, it is generally applied with a shaving brush, which has long, soft bristles. It is worked up into a usable lather by the brush, either against the face, in a mug, bowl, scuttle
Shaving
–
A man shaving his neck using a
straight razor.
Shaving
–
Closeup of a disposable razor shaving stubble off the underside of a chin. Note the direction of razor travel is the same as the direction of the stubble hairs or 'grain'.
Shaving
–
Cartridge razor with two blades
Shaving
–
Alexander the Great's shaven image on the
Alexander Mosaic, 2nd Century BC
38.
Threading (epilation)
–
Threading is a method of hair removal originating in Asia. In more recent times it has gained popularity in Western countries, in threading, a thin thread is doubled, then twisted. It is then rolled over areas of unwanted hair, plucking the hair at the follicle level, unlike tweezing, where single hairs are pulled out one at a time, threading can remove short rows of hair. Advantages cited for eyebrow threading, as opposed to eyebrow waxing, are that it more precise control in shaping eyebrows and is gentler on the skin. It can be painful as several hairs are removed at once, there are a few different techniques for threading. These include the method, mouth method and neck. Each technique has advantages and disadvantages, however, the mouth holding method is the fastest and most precise, Threading allows for a more defined and precise shape and can create better definition for eyebrows. It is also used as a method of removing unwanted hair on the entire face, Threading is not a good method for removing hair on arms or legs, as the hair in those regions is typically quite coarse and there is too much to remove. It is unknown where threading originated first, Central Asia or India, according to one theory, the practice started in India over 6000 years ago and spread throughout Asia, the Middle East, and in recent times Europe. The Arabic word for threading is Khite, in Egypt it is also called Fatlah, Threading is widely practiced amongst Iranians, but it was originally only done when a woman was getting married or for special occasions. In ancient Persia, threading was a sign that a girl had reached adulthood, Threading is also popular in China and other East Asian countries such as Korea and was only historically done on brides and married women. Eyebrow threading, A popular hair-removal procedure and its seldom-discussed complications, litak, J. Krunic, A. L. Antonijevic, S. Pouryazdanparast, P. Gerami, P. Eyebrow Epilation by Threading, An Increasingly Popular Procedure with Some Less-Popular Outcomes—A Comprehensive Review, wagner, R. Khite, A non-Western technique for temporary hair removal
Threading (epilation)
–
Eyebrow threading
39.
Waxing
–
Waxing is a form of semi-permanent hair removal which removes the hair from the root. Almost any area of the body can be waxed, including eyebrows, face, pubic area, legs, arms, back, abdomen, knuckles, there are many types of waxing suitable for removing unwanted hair. Strip waxing is accomplished by spreading a wax thinly over the skin, a cloth or paper strip is applied and pressed firmly, adhering the strip to the wax and the wax to the skin. The strip is quickly ripped against the direction of hair growth. This removes the wax along with the hair, strip-less wax, also referred to as hard wax, is applied somewhat thickly and with no cloth or paper strips. The wax then hardens when it cools, thus allowing the removal by a therapist without the aid of cloths. This waxing method is beneficial to people who have Sensitive skin. The strip-less waxing method can also be less painful, Waxing on sensitive body parts is best performed by an expert such as a licensed esthetician. Most parts of the body can be waxed, including nose, areas individuals should never wax include eyelashes and eyelids. These areas can be damaged if waxed. There are many benefits to waxing versus other forms of hair removal and it is an effective method to remove large amounts of hair at one time. It is a method, as hair in waxed areas will not grow back for two to eight weeks. When hair is shaved or removed by depilatory cream, the hair is removed at the rather than the hair root. Within a few days, the hair can reappear back at the surface, with these methods, hair tends to grow back in a rough stubble. Areas that are repeatedly waxed over long periods of time often exhibit regrowth that is softer, there are many drawbacks of waxing as well. Waxing can be painful when the strip is removed from the skin, although the pain is not long-lasting, it can be intense, particularly in sensitive areas. There are do-it-yourself waxing supplies, but they may be difficult to use on oneself on some areas on the body, another drawback of waxing is that some people experience ingrown hairs, red bumps, and minor bleeding. This is more likely to occur when waxing areas with thick hair, electrolysis Bikini waxing Body treatment Persian waxing Kutty, Ahmad Islamic Ruling on Waxing Unwanted Hair Retrieved March 29,2006
Waxing
–
Male chest before and after waxing.
40.
Shampoo
–
Shampoo is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for cleaning hair. Less commonly, shampoo is available in bar form, like a bar of soap, Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the hair, and then rinsing it out. Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner, the goal of using shampoo is to remove the unwanted build-up in the hair without stripping out so much sebum as to make hair unmanageable. Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium sulfate, with a co-surfactant. There are also intended for animals that may contain insecticides or other medications to treat skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas. The word shampoo entered the English language from India during the colonial era and it dates to 1762, and is derived from Hindi chāmpo, itself derived from the Sanskrit root chapayati. Sake Dean Mahomed is identified as a promoter of the practice in Britain. In India, a variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times, a very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is called Ksuna in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contains saponins which are a natural surfactant, the extract of soapberries, a tropical tree widespread in India, creates a lather which Indian texts called phenaka. It leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable, other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai, soapnuts, hibiscus flowers, ritha and arappu. Guru Nanak, the prophet and the first Guru of Sikhism, made references to soapberry tree. Cleansing with hair and body massage during daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India, when they returned to Europe, they introduced the newly learnt habits, including hair treatment they called shampoo. During the early stages of shampoo in Europe, English hair stylists boiled shaved soap in water and added herbs to give the hair shine, commercially made shampoo was available from the turn of the 20th century. A1914 ad for Canthrox Shampoo in American Magazine showed young women at camp washing their hair with Canthrox in a lake, magazine ads in 1914 by Rexall featured Harmony Hair Beautifier and Shampoo. In 1927, liquid shampoo was invented by German inventor Hans Schwarzkopf in Berlin, originally, soap and shampoo were very similar products, both containing the same naturally derived surfactants, a type of detergent. Modern shampoo as it is today was first introduced in the 1930s with Drene. Early shampoos used in Indonesia were made from the husk and straw of rice, the husks and straws were burned into ash, and the ashes are mixed with water to form lather. The ashes and lather were scrubbed into the hair and rinsed out, leaving the hair clean, afterwards, coconut oil was applied to the hair in order to moisturize it
Shampoo
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Shampoo lather in hair
Shampoo
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Bottles of shampoo and
lotions manufactured in the early 20th century by the C.L. Hamilton Co. of
Washington, D.C.
Shampoo
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Swedish ad for toiletries, 1905/1906.
Shampoo
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Typical liquid shampoo
41.
Hairstyling product
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Hairstyle products are used to change the texture and/or shape of hair, or to hold a hairstyle in place. Hairstyling products have had a significant impact on the creation of various hairstyles, for the ancient Egyptians, physical appearance was very important to the embalming process. Hair was often styled to maintain the individuality of the deceased, a fatty substance, now known as hair gel, was used to style hair and keep it in place. The ancient Gauls had invented a waxy substance, similar to hair wax. Many years later, the same substance was used as a cleaning agent. In 1948, Chase Products became the first company to package hair spray, Hair spray became very popular in the 1950s due to its ability to keep hair in place and prevent hair from falling out of a styled look. Hair gel is a product that is used to stiffen hair into a particular hairstyle. The end result is similar to, but stronger than, those of hair spray, Hair gel is most commonly used in the hairstyling of men, but it is not gender specific. Hair gel can come in tubes, pots, small bags, Hair wax is a thick hair styling product containing wax, which helps hold hair in place. Unlike some products such as hair gel which leave the hard in texture. Many manufacturers are now releasing different versions of hair wax, such as pomade, putty, glue, glypto, whip, Hair mousse is a product added to hair for extra volume and shine. It is most commonly produced as a cream, but can also be found as a spray, Hair mousse adds volume without causing clumps or buildup. It is an alternative to hair gel. Mousse is generally applied to the roots of damp hair before drying or styling. Mousse may also be used to add definition to curls, or to add texture to hair for a beach blown effect, pomade is a greasy or waxy substance that makes hair look slick and shiny. Unlike hair spray and hair gel, pomade does not dry, a special shampoo can be used to quicken the removal process. Other products which have the effect as pomade but make hair less greasy include olive oil, dish washing liquid. Most pomades contain petroleum jelly and mineral oil, and many also contain some sort of wax and they may also contain perfume and coloring agents
Hairstyling product
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A small pot of hair wax
Hairstyling product
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Hair styled with hair gel
42.
Hair gel
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Hair gel is a hairstyling product that is used to harden hair into a particular hairstyle. Analysis of ancient Egyptians mummies has shown that they styled their hair using a fat-based gel, the researchers behind the analysis say that the Egyptians used the product to ensure that their style stayed in place in both life and death. Natalie McCreesh, an archaeological scientist from the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology at the University of Manchester, England, and her colleagues studied hair samples taken from 18 mummies. The oldest is approximately 3,500 years old, but most were excavated from a cemetery in the Dakhleh Oasis in the Western Desert and date from Greco-Roman times, around 2,300 years ago. In 1929, the British company Chemico Works invented Brylcreem, which became the leader among hair styling products in both the U. K. and the U. S. during the following decades. In the 1960s, modern hair gel was invented in the United States, many brands of hair gel in North America and the UK come in numbered variants. Higher numbered gels maintain a hold on hair, while lower numbers do not make the hair as stiff. A category typically referred to as ethnic gels is designed and manufactured specifically for sculpting the hair texture common to African Americans, some forms of hair gel are marketed to consumers who want to spike their hair in the style that emerged from the hardcore punk subculture in the 1980s. Some hair gels include temporary hair coloring, which includes variants in unnatural colors associated with various subcultures, such as the goths, cationic polymers are among the main functional components of hair gel. The positive charges in the polymers causes them to stretch, making the gel more viscous, the positive charges also bind the gel to the negatively charged amino acids on the surface of the keratin molecules in the hair. More complicated polymer formulas exist, i. e. a copolymer of vinylpyrrolidone, methacrylamide, Hair mousse Hair wax Pomade Summer Storm. Big Red Toybox, The Vintage Toy Encyclopedia
Hair gel
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Hair styled with hair gel
43.
Hair mousse
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Hair mousse, also referred to as styling foam, is a hairstyling product added to hair for extra volume and shine. Mousse originates from a French term meaning foam, hair mousse originated in France and was brought to the North American retail market by LOreal in the 1980s, the first mousse product coming out under the label Valence. It is often dispensed in a foam spray or in cream form. Hair mousse adds volume to hair and often provides both conditioning and hold, without any clumps or build-up and it is a hairstyling product which works by using synthetic resins to coat the hairs, to assist the hair in taking a certain shape. Hair mousse is purple while in the can and turns an off-white color upon coming in contact with the air, one of the lighter-weight hair styling products, hair mousse is applied to wet hair before drying and styling. Hair mousse can be used on naturally curly or permed hair to reduce frizz, the early 1980s arrival of hair mousse in North America was known as mousse mania, as hairdressers unveiled the new foam product to their clientele. Throughout its first years on the market, hair mousse quickly became a multimillion dollar product,1984 domestic retail sales for the product ranged from $100–$150 million and almost $200 million in sales by 1986. Due to the mid-1980s, the big hair style trend and the usage of mousse, due to the chemical makeup of the hairstyling product it was not commonly deemed environmentally friendly. Today, the product is not only produced and marketed under different brand names. There are mousse products sold specifically for those with curly hair, as a versatile hair styling product, hair mousse is a popular choice for both short and long hairstyles. When hair mousse is applied to wet hair that is dried with a dryer, it provides additional volume. Usually, the first ingredient in a canister of hair mousse is water, another key ingredient is alcohol which helps dissolve the ingredients already added to the water as well as help produce a quick breaking foam. The next ingredient used is polymer or resin, polymers are the most effective and important component of hair mousse, which acts as a conditioning agent. These resins are long chain molecules that form a film on the hair allowing a tighter grip on the strands, making it harder to brush off. This allows users to comb or brush their hair, as well as heat from a blow dryer without the mousse leaving the hair stiff. Cationic resin is often blended with another film former to give a firmer hold on the hair, in order for this to be successful, the polymer chosen must be nonionic in nature and should be compatible with the cationic resin. Emulsifiers are used to blend the product creating foam. Mousses do not require long-lasting foam stability, ideally, the foam will break down immediately once worked into the hair
Hair mousse
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Hair mousse.
44.
Pomade
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Pomade is a greasy, waxy, or a water-based substance that is used to style hair. Pomade gives the hair a shiny, slick appearance. It lasts longer than most hair care products, often requiring multiple washes to completely remove, the original pomade of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries consisted mainly of bear fat or lard. Lanolin, beeswax, and petroleum jelly have been used extensively in the manufacture of modern pomades, the English word pomade is derived from French pommade meaning ointment, itself arising from the Latin pomum via the Italian pomata or pomo. Modern pomades may contain fragrances, but they are not particularly fruity. During the Roman era, soap was used as a pomade by some European tribes, in the 19th century, bear fat was usually the main pomade ingredient. By the early 20th century, petroleum jelly, beeswax, early 20th century examples of pomades include Murrays Superior Pomade, Brylcreem, and Royal Crown Hair Dressing. Dixie Peach Hair Pomade was popular with boys in the U. S. from World War II through the 1960s. Modern hairstyles involving the use of pomade include the ducktail, pompadour, in 2001, a water-based pomade was produced by Layrite. Unlike the petroleum and oil based pomade, water-based pomade washes out easily, unlike hair spray and hair gel, pomade does not dry, and can last much longer. Pomade is used to style hair, giving it a darker, slicker, shinier look, applying common olive oil and rinsing with warm water will also remove pomade. Because of the difficulty of washing out of the hair, many brands of pomade are now primarily water based. These products are more easily washable but often do not give the same versatility, some pomade products, such as mustache wax, are marketed for a specific use, while products such as Ultra Sheen, are marketed for specific consumers. Pomade is often used with Afro-textured hair to keep it from drying out, all these products come in various textures and consistencies, and essentially achieve the same effect as either hair wax or pomade. Traditionally, the difference between hair wax and pomade was that gave the hair a slicker, shinier appearance. Today the difference between pomade and hair wax is becoming somewhat ambiguous especially since many heavier pomades contain beeswax, Hair wax and pomade are often not marketed by those names, being labelled instead as paste, putty, glue, or whip among others. Hair wax and pomade are closely related, however, with pliability their main common property and this differentiates both wax and pomade from gel and hairspray, both of which are not designed to be restyled once the product is applied
Pomade
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A tin of Royal Crown Hair Dressing
Pomade
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Swedish ad for toiletries, 1905/1906.
45.
Hair spray
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Hair spray is a common cosmetic product that is sprayed onto hair to keep it stiff or in a certain style. The spray can be dispensed from a pump or aerosol spray nozzle, modern hair sprays were developed around the time of the aerosol can in the 1940s, and the first patents describing copolymers for hair styling were published in the 1940s. Hair spray products are a blend of industrial polymers that provide structural support to hair. These frequently include copolymers of polyvinylpyrrolidone and polyvinyl acetate and these active ingredients make up only a small portion of a hairspray. The majority of a canister is filled with volatile solvents necessary to solubilize and aerosolize the copolymer mixture and these include simple alcohols like ethanol or tert-butanol to solubilize the active ingredients, and dimethyl ether or mixed hydrocarbons as propellants. The copolymer mixture, solubilizing agents, and propellants are highly volatile and flammable. For this reason, hair sprays have been used for combustion in potato cannons. Hairspray became common after the patent of the process and the making of the aerosol spray can during the 1940s. The first to package it was Chase products in 1948, as the beauty industry saw that the aerosol cans used in World War II for insecticides could be used as a dispenser for hairspray. It thrived and became popular and mass-produced, as updos. By 1964, it became the highest selling beauty product on the market, however, sales declined in the 1970s as hairstyles became predominately worn straight and loose. By the 1980s, hairspray’s popularity came back as big hairstyles resurged with the metal scene. Today, hairsprays are formulated as flexible, medium, and maximum hold, hairspray is an aerosol product containing many harmful chemicals. Because of its application, hair spray is extremely flammable. In 1993, the FDA released a statement to prevent hair spray-related fires. Prior to this statement, many caused by the use of this product had been reported. Volatile Organic Compounds, which cause smog, are found in these types of products. These compounds, known as CFCs, can cause harm to the ozone and are related to global warming and these are harmful to people as well
Hair spray
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Two varieties of modern hair sprays.
46.
Hair wax
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Hair wax is a thick hairstyling product containing wax, used to assist with holding the hair. In contrast with hair gel, most of which contain alcohol, consequently, hair wax is currently experiencing an increase in popularity, often under names such as pomade, putty, glue, whip, molding gum, or styling paste. The texture, consistency, and purpose of these products varies widely, traditionally, pomade is a type of hair wax that also adds shine to ones hair. Hair wax has been used for years and a waxy soap-like substance was invented by the ancient Gauls as a hair styling agent and was not used as a cleaning agent until many years later. The following are some of the ingredients found in commercial hair wax products. Beeswax Candelilla wax Carnauba wax Castor wax Emulsifying wax Japan wax Lanolin Ozokerite Some stylists prefer making their own blends of hair wax customized for their clientele, various recipes exist, including some with secret ingredients
Hair wax
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A small tin of hair wax
47.
Artificial nails
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Artificial nails, also known as acrylics, fake nails, false nails, fashion nails, nail enhancements, nail wraps, or nail extensions, are coverings placed over fingernails as fashion accessories. Some artificial nails attempt to mimic the appearance of real fingernails as closely as possible, while other designs may deliberately stray in appearance from real fingernails, Artificial nails are made from a wide variety of materials. Unlike most manicures, Artificial Nails require constant up keeping, and is recommended that you get a fill every 2 weeks, the artificial nails are not a replacement, but an extension for natural nails. There are two approaches to creating artificial nails—tips and forms. Tips are made of lightweight plastic plates that are nail-shaped and they are glued on the end of the natural nail and acrylic or gel or a combination of both is then applied over the entire nail. Tips are now available in different colors and designs, ranging from simple colors such as yellow or blue to flamboyant designs such as animal prints. Forms are fitted over the nail and then a nail is sculpted out of acrylic or gel. One popular material commonly called Polymethyl methacrylate acrylics is a mixture of a polymer powder, the mixture starts to harden in 20–30 seconds after application and continues to harden to final hardness typically within fifteen minutes. Powder and liquid acrylics can be removed by using a variety of solvents, usually it takes 20 to 30 minutes to remove the nail while using a nail file to help take off each layer of the artificial nail. Another material, commonly called UV Top Coat cures under ultraviolet light, depending on brand these can show a broader variety of quality and properties but may be more expensive. They generally cannot be removed by solvents, but only be removed by filing. There are, however, a variety of soak off UV gels which can be quickly and easily removed using acetone, another popular alternative to acrylic or gel preparations are fiberglass or silk wraps. They are done by cutting pieces of fiberglass or silk fabric to fit on the surface of the nail or tip. These are an alternative for those who are allergic to chemicals used in the acrylic or gel process. These sort of treatments are used to protect the nails if they have been broken. The silk or fiberglass overlay acts as a layer of nail. Other materials can be used, as well as combinations of them, there are also temporary, cheaper flexible tips that can be quickly glued at home without help from a professional. However, since Artificial Nails can be shaped, cut, and formed in anyway you please and these shapes include Square, Squared Oval/Squoval, Rounded, Almond, Ballerina/Coffin, or Stiletto
Artificial nails
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Artificial nails
48.
Nail buffing
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Nail buffing is the act of polishing the nail using buffers of successively finer grit in order to make nails look more consistent and shiny. A paste is used to fill ridges on nail surfaces, the emery board nail file should not be used to buff the surface of the nails. They are meant only to them from the side. The medium grit can be used to smooth ridges and surface irregularities and this can be done before applying nail polish or as a first step before finer buffing. The fine-grained buff is used to smooth the nail to a matte surface, the finest finishing grit gives the nails a glossy shine. Traditionally, a cream and chamois skin have been used. Modern instruments are more efficient and are similar in appearance to a large rubber eraser. As buffing is gentle surface abrasion, it should not be performed too strongly or too often or thinning of the nail may result, in manicure, nail buffing is an alternative to chemical nail polish, and buffing may be more socially comfortable for men
Nail buffing
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Nail buffer
49.
Manicure
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A manicure is a cosmetic beauty treatment for the fingernails and hands, performed at home or in a nail salon. A manicure consists of filing and shaping of the edge, pushing and clipping any nonliving tissue, treatments, massage of the hand. When applied to the toenails and feet, this treatment is referred to as a pedicure, some manicures can include the painting of pictures or designs on the nails, or applying small decals or imitation jewels. Other nail treatments may include the application of artificial nail gel nails, tips, or acrylics, in many areas, manicurists are licensed and follow regulations. Since skin is manipulated and is trimmed, there is a certain risk of spreading infection when tools are used across many people, therefore. The English word manicure comes from the French word manucure, meaning care of the hands, which in turn originates from the Latin words manus, for hand, similarly, the English word pedicure comes from the Latin words ped, for foot, and cura, for care. Jeff Pink founder of professional nail brand Orly is famed with creating the Natural nail look later called the French manicure in 1976. French manicures can be made with artificial nails, which are designed to resemble natural ones and are characterized by lack of color, or natural pink base nails with white tips. The nail tips are painted white, while the rest of the nails are polished in a pink or a suitable nude shade, however, it is also as common to perform a French manicure on natural nails. Another technique is to whiten the underside of the nail with white pencil, a hot oil manicure is a specific type of manicure that cleans the cuticles and softens them with oil. Types of oils that can be used are oil, olive oil. Hands can be dipped in melted paraffin wax for softening and moisturizing, paraffin wax is used because it can be heated to temperatures of over 95 °F without burning or injuring the hand. The intense heat allows for deeper absorption of emollients and essential oils. The wax is usually infused with various ingredients such as aloe vera, azulene, chamomile, or tea tree oil, and fruit waxes such as apple, peach. Paraffin wax treatments are often charged in addition to the standard manicure nail treatments, as such, they are often not covered in general training and are a rare treatment in most nail salons. Occasionally, lotion is rubbed on the hand before submersion into the paraffin bath, the hand is usually dipped more than once to allow a thicker wax coat to form, making the coating stay warm longer and less likely to break or tear prematurely. The hands are left for a few minutes before the paraffin is cooled and dried, the kits are often kept in the salon and given to the client to take home, or are thrown away after use. They are only used when that client comes in for a treatment, another option is to give the client the files and wooden cuticle sticks after the manicure
Manicure
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Example of an acrylic French manicure
Manicure
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In an Asian salon
Manicure
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The Manicure
Manicure
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A standard cuticle nipper used during manicure.
50.
Nail polish
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Nail polish is a lacquer that can be applied to the human fingernails or toenails to decorate and protect the nail plates. The formulation has been revised repeatedly to enhance its decorative effects, Nail polish consists of a mix of an organic polymer and several other components, depending on the brand. Nail polish originated in China, and dates back to 3000 BC, around 600 BC, during the Zhou dynasty, the royal house preferred the colors gold and silver. However, red and black eventually replaced these metallic colors as royal favorites, during the Ming dynasty, nail polish was often made from a mixture that included beeswax, egg whites, gelatin, vegetable dyes, and gum Arabic. In Egypt, the lower classes wore pale colors, whereas high society painted their nails a reddish brown and it was also known that mummified pharaohs would have their nails painted by henna. By the turn of the century, nails were tinted with scented red oils. In the nineteenth and early centuries, people preferred a polished rather than a painted look by mixing tinted powders and creams into their nails. One type of polishing product sold around this time was Grafs Hyglo nail polish paste, Nail polish consists of a film-forming polymer dissolved in a volatile organic solvent. Nitrocellulose that is dissolved in butyl acetate or ethyl acetate is common and this basic formulation is expanded to include the following, Plasticizers to yield non-brittle films. Dibutylphthalate and camphor are typical plasticizers, representative compounds include chromium oxide greens, chromium hydroxide, ferric ferrocyanide, stannic oxide, titanium dioxide, iron oxide, carmine, ultramarine, and manganese violet. The glittery/shimmer look in the color can be conferred by mica, bismuth oxychloride, natural pearls, adhesive polymers ensure that the nitrocellulose adheres to the nails surface. One modifier used is tosylamide-formaldehyde resin, thickening agents are added to maintain the sparkling particles in suspension while in the bottle. A typical thickener is stearalkonium hectorite, thickening agents exhibit thixotropy, their solutions are viscous when still but free flowing when agitated. This duality is convenient for easily applying the freshly shaken mixture to give a film that quickly rigidifies, ultraviolet stabilizers resist color changes when the dry film is exposed to sunlight. This type of nail polish is a clear, milky-colored, or opaque pink polish formula that is used specifically before applying nail polish to the nail, the purpose of it is to strengthen nails, restore moisture to the nail, and/or help polish adhere to the nail. Some base coats are marketed as ridge fillers which can create a smooth surface and this type of nail polish is a clear colored polish formula that is used specifically after applying nail polish to the nail. It forms a barrier for the nail that can prevent chipping, scratching and peeling. Many top coats are marketed as quick-drying, top coats can help the underlying colored polish dry quickly as well
Nail polish
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Fingernails before and after application of red nail polish
Nail polish
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Manganese violet is a typical
pigment in nail polish.
Nail polish
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Nail polish
Nail polish
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