1.
Glazed architectural terra-cotta
–
Glazed architectural terra-cotta is a ceramic masonry building material used as a decorative skin. It has been popular in the United States from the late 19th century until the 1930s and it is the glazed version of architectural terra-cotta, the material in both its glazed and unglazed versions is sturdy and relatively inexpensive, and can be molded into richly ornamented detail. Glazed terra-cotta played a significant role in architectural styles such as the Chicago School, buildings incorporating glazed terra-cotta include the Woolworth Building in New York City and the Wrigley Building in Chicago. Glazed architectural terra-cotta offered a modular, varied and relatively inexpensive approach to wall and it was particularly adaptable to vigorous and rich ornamental detailing. It was created by Luca della Robbia, and was used in most of his works, terra-cotta is an enriched molded clay brick or block. It was usually hollow cast in blocks which were open in the back, webbing substantially strengthened the hollow blocks with minimal weight increase. The blocks were finished with a glaze, with a wash or an aqueous solution of metal salts. Late 19th century advertising for the material promoted the durable, impervious and it could accommodate subtle nuances of modeling, texture and color. Compared to stone, it was easier to handle, quickly set, the cost of producing the blocks, when compared to carving stone, was a considerable saving, especially when casts were used in a modular fashion—that is, used repeatedly. It never needed paint, and periodic washings restored its appearance, variations in the color and pattern of the glaze could make it look like granite or limestone, this flexibility helped make it attractive for architects. Four major types of terra-cotta were widely used Brownstone was the earliest type, fireproof was developed as a direct result of the growth of the high rise building in America. Cheap, light and fireproof, the hollow blocks were ideally suited to span the I-beam members in floor, wall. Certain varieties are still in production today, veneer was developed during the 1930s and is still used today. Unlike traditional architectural terra-cotta, ceramic veneer is not hollow cast and it is a veneer of glazed ceramic tile which is ribbed on the back like bathroom tile and usually attached to a grid of metal ties which have been anchored to the building. Glazed architectural terra-cotta was the most complex building material developed, the hollow units were hand cast in molds or carved in clay and heavily glazed, then fired. This is the associated with the architecture of Cass Gilbert, Louis Sullivan. It was the last exclusive manufacturer of architectural terra cotta by the time it ceased production in 1966, from its founding in time to rebuild the fire-ravished city of Chicago until its closing, it was the major producer of architectural glazed terra cotta in North America. Guastavino tile was used in places, including the Bridgemarket under the Manhattan side of the Queensboro Bridge
Glazed architectural terra-cotta
–
Elmslea Chambers in
Goulburn, New South Wales,
Australia - built in 1933, it was one of the first buildings in Australia to use coloured polychrome terracotta in its façade which features a fine relief of birds, flowers, leaves and typical Art Deco sunbursts under the windows.
Glazed architectural terra-cotta
–
Polychrome glazed capital, circa 1915. Randalls Lost NYC collection
Glazed architectural terra-cotta
–
White glazed Sullivanesque, circa 1925. Randalls Lost NYC collection
Glazed architectural terra-cotta
–
6715-6725 S. Paxton Ave., c. 1925, Chicago, IL
2.
Egyptian faience
–
Egyptian faience is a sintered-quartz ceramic displaying surface vitrification which creates a bright lustre of various colours, with blue-green being the most common. Notably, faience is considerably more porous than glass proper and can be cast in molds to create vessels or objects, Egyptian faience was very widely used for small objects from beads to small statues, and is found in both elite and popular contexts. It was the most common material for scarabs and other forms of amulet and shabti figures, larger applications included cups and bowls, and wall tiles, mostly used for temples. 9-centimetre faience sceptre from Egypt dated 1427–1400 BC. It is called Egyptian faience to distinguish it from faience, the tin-glazed pottery associated with Faenza in northern Italy, the term is therefore unsatisfactory in several respects, although clear in an Ancient Egyptian context, and is increasingly rejected in museum and archaeological usage. The bodies are usually colourless but natural impurities give them a brown or greyish tint, colourants can also be added to give it an artificial colour. It can be modelled by hand, thrown or moulded, and this material is used in the context of Islamic ceramics where it is described as stonepaste. Glazed composition is related to glass, but glass is formed by fusing the ingredients in a liquid melted at high temperature. This material is also popularly called faience in the contexts of Ancient Egypt, however, this is a misnomer as these objects have no relationship to the glazed pottery vessels made in Faenza, from which the faience term derives. From the inception of faience in the record of Ancient Egypt. Glazed in these colours, faience was perceived as substitute for blue-green materials such as turquoise, found in the Sinai peninsula, and lapis lazuli, from Afghanistan. As early as the Predynastic graves at Naqada, Badar, el-Amrah, Matmar, Harageh, Avadiyedh and El-Gerzeh, glazed steatite and faience beads are found associated with these semi-precious stones. The symbolism embedded in blue glazing could recall both the Nile, the waters of heaven and the home of the gods, whereas green could possibly evoke images of regeneration, rebirth and vegetation. Such close relationship is reflected in the prominent similarity of the formulations of faience glaze, Faience has been defined as the first high technology ceramic, to emphasize its status as an artificial medium, rendering it effectively a precious stone. Plant ash, from halophyte plants typical of dry and sea areas, was the source of alkali until the Ptolemaic Period. Typical faience mixture is thixotropic, that is thick at first and then soft and this property, together with the angularity of silica particles, accounts for the gritty slumps formed when the material is wetted, rendering faience a difficult material to hold a shape. If pressed too vigorously, this material will resist flow until it yields and cracks, due to its limited plastic deformation and low yield strength. A number of possible binding agents, amongst Arabic gum, clay, lime, egg white, the use of alkalis as binders, in the form of natron or plant ash, produced suitable results in experiments. Three methods have been hypothesized to shape the body of faience objects, modeling, moulding and abrasion, modeling, scraping and grinding are the techniques most widely used in earlier times, as represented in the material qualities of Predynastic and Protodynastic faience objects
Egyptian faience
–
Egyptian faience
ushabti of Lady Sati.
New Kingdom,
Dynasty XVIII, reign of
Amenhotep III, c. 1390-1352 BC. Possibly from
Saqqara.
Egyptian faience
–
Faience Vessel with Procession of Four Bulls, ca. 775-653 B.C.E.
Brooklyn Museum
Egyptian faience
–
Tile Frieze with
lotus and grapes
Egyptian faience
–
Group of 16 amulets strung as a necklace, in the typical bright faience blue,
Late Period
3.
Maiolica
–
Maiolica, also called Majolica is Italian tin-glazed pottery dating from the Renaissance period. It is decorated in colours on a background, sometimes depicting historical and mythical scenes. By the late 15th century, several places, mainly small cities in northern and central Italy, were producing sophisticated pieces for a market in Italy. The name is thought to come from the medieval Italian word for Majorca, moorish potters from Majorca are reputed to have worked in Sicily and it has been suggested that their wares reached the Italian mainland from Caltagirone. An alternative explanation of the name is that it comes from the Spanish term obra de Malaga, denoting “ wares from Malaga”. or obra de mélequa, the Spanish name for lustre. In the 15th century, the term maiolica referred solely to lusterware, eventually the term came to be used when describing ceramics made in Italy, lustred or not, of tin-glazed earthenware. With the Spanish conquest of Mexico, tin-glazed maiolica wares came to be produced in the Valley of Mexico as early as 1540, mexican maiolica is known famously as Talavera. By a convenient extension and limitation the name may be applied to all tin-glazed ware, of whatever nationality, the name faïence being reserved for the later wares of the 17th Century onwards, either in original styles or, more frequently, in the Dutch-Chinese tradition. The term maiolica is sometimes applied to modern tin-glazed ware made by studio potters, the word, majolica, is also used for Victorian majolica, a hard-wearing type of pottery where coloured lead glazes are applied direct to the biscuit. Tin glazing creates a brilliant white, opaque surface for painting, the colours are applied as metallic oxides or as fritted underglazes to the unfired glaze, which absorbs pigment like fresco, making errors impossible to fix, but preserving the brilliant colors. Sometimes the surface is covered with a glaze that lends greater shine. In the case of lustred wares, a further firing at a temperature is required. Kilns required wood as well as suitable clay, glaze was made from sand, wine lees, lead compounds and tin compounds. Analysis of samples of Italian maiolica pottery from the Middle Ages has indicated that tin was not always a component of the glaze, such archaic wares are sometimes called proto-maiolica. During the later fourteenth century, the palette of colours was expanded from the traditional manganese purple and copper green to include cobalt blue, antimony yellow. Sgraffito wares were produced, in which the white tin-oxide glaze was scratched through to produce a design from the revealed body of the ware. Refined production of tin-glazed earthenwares made for more local needs was concentrated in central Italy from the later thirteenth century. The medium was adopted by the Della Robbia family of Florentine sculptors
Maiolica
–
Istoriato decoration on a plate from
Castel Durante, c.1550-1570 (
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lille)
Maiolica
–
Istoriato charger,
Faenza, ca 1555 (
Dallas Museum of Art)
Maiolica
–
Dish with bird, in Islamic-derived style,
Orvieto, ca.1270-1330 (
Victoria and Albert Museum)
Maiolica
–
Dish from
Deruta, 2nd quarter of the 16th century, shows the full range of glaze colors (
Victoria and Albert Museum)
4.
Faenza
–
Faenza is an Italian city and comune, in the province of Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna, situated 50 kilometres southeast of Bologna. Faenza is noted for its manufacture of glazed earthenware pottery. In the nearby valleys of the rivers Samoggia and Lamone there are great number of 18th and 19th century stately homes. According to mythology, the name of the first settlement, Faoentia, had Etruscan and Celtic roots, meaning in Latin Splendeo inter deos or I shine among the gods, in modern English. The very name, coming from the Romans who developed this center under the name of Faventia, has become synonymous with ceramics in various languages, including French, here Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius defeated populares army of Gnaeus Papirius Carbo in 82 BC. Here Totila and an Ostrogothic army defeated the Byzantine army in Italy in the Battle of Faventia in 542 CE, after a period of decadence from the 2nd century to the early Middle Ages it regained prosperity from 8th century on. The first consuls were elected in 1141 and in 1155 a podestà was in charge of government of the city, in the wars between Guelphs and Ghibellines that began in the following years Faenza was at first loyal to the emperor. In 1178, however, it changed side and entered the Lombard League, the inner disputes anyway favoured acquisition of power by Maghinardo Pagano, who remained podestà and capitano del popolo for several years. At the beginning of the 14th century the Guelph Manfredi began a rule over Faenza that was to last for almost two centuries, the peak of splendour was reached under Carlo II Manfredi, in the second half of the century, when the city centre was renewed. In 1488 Galeotto Manfredi was assassinated by his wife, his son Astorre III succeeded him, but was in turn killed in Rome as a prisoner of Cesare Borgia, after a brief period of Venetian domination Faenza became part of the Papal States until 1797. Faenzas architectural attractions are concentrated in the two main squares, Piazza del Popolo, lined by two double order porticoed wings, and Piazza della Libertà. Faenza Cathedral, located along the east side of Piazza della Libertà, influenced by Tuscan style, it is one of the highest expressions of Renaissance art in Romagna. Built to Giuliano da Maianos design, it was begun in 1474, the marble decoration of the façade remained unfinished. Goldsmiths Portico opposite the Cathedral this open gallery and monumental fountain with bronzes were built in the first decade of the 17th century. Clock Tower, in front of the entrance to the Piazza, is a rebuilding of the 17th century tower that stood at the crossroad of the cardo. Among the other monuments of the centre are Palazzo Milzetti, the richest and most significant Neoclassical building in the region. In the nearby, the Villa Case Grandi dei Ferniani has a collection of 18th and 19th century Faenza ceramics, Faenza is home to the International Museum of Ceramics. Other interesting art collections are located in the Municipal Art Gallery, the Diocese Museum, the Bendandi Museum, the historic production of Faenza majolica is recognized worldwide as one of the highest moments of artistic creativity expressed through pottery
Faenza
–
Faenza
Faenza
–
Cathedral of Faenza.
Faenza
–
An example of Faenza Majolica in the so-called Garofano style.
5.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
6.
Tin-glazed pottery
–
Tin-glazed pottery is earthenware covered in glaze containing tin oxide which is white, shiny and opaque, usually this provides a background for brightly-painted decoration. It has been important in Islamic and European pottery, but very little used in East Asia, the pottery body is usually made of red or buff colored earthenware and the white glaze imitated Chinese porcelain. The makers of Italian tin-glazed pottery from the late Renaissance blended oxides to produce detailed, from there it spread to Egypt, Persia and Spain before reaching Italy in the Renaissance, Holland in the 16th century and England, France and other European countries shortly after. The rise in the cost of tin oxide during the First World War led to its substitution by zirconium compounds in the glaze. Tin-glazed pottery of different periods and styles is known by different names, the pottery from Muslim Spain is known as Hispano-Moresque ware. The decorated tin-glaze of Renaissance Italy is called maiolica, sometimes pronounced majolica by English speakers, when the technique was taken up in the Netherlands it became known as delftware as much of it was made in the town of Delft. Dutch potters brought it to England in around 1600 and wares produced there are known as English delftware or galleyware, in France it was known as faience. During the Renaissance, the term maiolica was adopted for Italian-made luster pottery copying Spanish examples, in the late 18th century, old Italian maiolica became popular among the British, who referred to it by the anglicized pronunciation majolica. The Minton pottery copied it and applied the term majolica ware to their product, at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Minton launched the colorful lead-glazed earthenware which they called Palissy ware soon also to become known as majolica. So now we have two distinct products with the same name, for the article about 19th century lead-glazed earthenware, see Victorian majolica W. B. The term maiolica is sometimes applied to modern tin-glazed ware made by studio potters, the Moors introduced tin-glazed pottery to Spain after the conquest of 711. With the Spanish conquest of Mexico, tin-glazed pottery came to be produced in the Valley of Mexico as early as 1540, although the Moors were expelled from Spain in the early 17th century, the Hispano-Moresque style survived in the province of Valencia. Later wares usually have a coarse reddish-buff body, dark blue decoration, such archaic wares are sometimes dubbed proto-maiolica. During the later 14th century, the palette of colors was expanded from the traditional manganese purple and copper green to embrace cobalt blue, antimony yellow. Sgraffito wares were produced, in which the white tin-oxide slip was decoratively scratched to produce a design from the revealed body of the ware. Refined production of tin-glazed earthenware made for more local needs was concentrated in central Italy from the later 13th century. The city itself declined in importance in the half of the 15th century. Italian cities encouraged the start of a new industry by offering tax relief, citizenship, monopoly rights
Tin-glazed pottery
–
Tin-glazed (Majolica) plate from
Faenza, Italy
Tin-glazed pottery
–
Chinese
porcelain white ware bowl (left) found in
Iran, and Iraqi tin-glazed earthenware bowl (right) found in
Iraq, both 9-10th century, an example of
Chinese influences on Islamic pottery.
British Museum.
Tin-glazed pottery
–
A Hispano-Moresque dish, approx 32cm diameter, with Christian monogram "IHS", decorated in cobalt blue and gold luster. Valencia, c. 1430–1500.
Burrell Collection
Tin-glazed pottery
–
An albarello (drug jar) from Venice or Castel Durante, 16th century. Approx 30cm high. Decorated in cobalt blue, copper green, antimony yellow and yellow ochre.
Burrell Collection
7.
Earthenware
–
Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery which has normally been fired below 1200°C. Porcelain, bone china and stoneware, all fired at high temperatures to vitrify, are the main other important types of pottery. Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29, 000–25,000 BCE, outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century, and then initially as an expensive luxury. Earthenware, when fired, is opaque and non-vitreous, soft, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities describes it as being made of selected clays sometimes mixed with feldspars and varying amounts of other minerals and white or light-colored. Generally, earthenware bodies exhibit higher plasticity than most whiteware bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, due to its porosity, earthenware, with a water absorption of 5-8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, darker-colored terracotta earthenwares, typically orange or red, due to a comparatively high content of iron oxide are widely used for flower pots, tiles and some decorative and oven wares. A general body formulation for contemporary earthenware is 25% kaolin, 25% ball clay, 35% quartz and 15% feldspar. Modern earthenware may be fired to temperatures between 1,000 and 1,150 °C and glost-fired to between 950 to 1,050 °C, the usual practice in factories and some studio potteries. Some studio potters follow the practice, with a low-temperature bisque firing. The firing schedule will be determined by the raw materials used, historically, such high temperatures were unattainable in most cultures and periods until modern times, though Chinese ceramics were far ahead of other cultures in this respect. Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C, much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C, giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. After firing most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red, for red earthenware, the firing temperature affects the color of the clay body. Lower temperatures produce a red terracotta color, higher temperatures will make the clay brown or even black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat, an Introduction to the Technology Of Pottery. Whitewares, Production, Testing And Quality Control, the Potters Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers Limited, London, England, Third Edition,1991
Earthenware
–
Painted, incised and glazed earthenware. Dated 10th century,
Iran. New York Metropolitan Museum of Art
Earthenware
–
Top Section of a Water Jug, earthenware, late 12th-early 13th century.
Brooklyn Museum.
Earthenware
–
Two panels of glazed earthenware tiles painted with
polychrome glazes over a white glaze. (19th)
Earthenware
–
Terracotta flower pots with terracotta tiles in the background.
8.
Pottery
–
Pottery is the craft of making ceramic material into pots or potterywares using mud. Major types of potterywares include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain, the place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery. Early Neolithic pottery have found in places such as Jomon Japan. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing, however, prior to shaping processes. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, after shaping, it is dried and then fired. Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the making of pottery, at sufficient moisture content, bodies at this stage are in their most plastic form. Leather-hard refers to a body that has been dried partially. At this stage the clay object has approximately 15% moisture content, clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state, bone-dry refers to clay bodies when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. It is now ready to be bisque fired, bisque refers to the clay after the object is shaped to the desired form and fired in the kiln for the first time, known as bisque fired or biscuit fired. This firing changes the body in several ways. Mineral components of the body will undergo chemical changes that will change the colour of the clay. Glaze fired is the stage of some pottery making. A glaze may be applied to the form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is glazed fired, which causes the material to melt
Pottery
–
A potter at work in
Bangalore,
India
Pottery
–
Unfired "green ware" pottery on a traditional drying rack at
Conner Prairie living history museum
Pottery
–
Pottery workshop reconstruction in the Museum of traditional crafts and applied arts,
Troyan,
Bulgaria
Pottery
–
A potter at work in Jaura,
Madhya Pradesh,
India.
9.
Ceramic glaze
–
Ceramic glaze is an impervious layer or coating of a vitreous substance which has been fused to a ceramic body through firing. Glaze can serve to color, decorate or waterproof an item, glazing renders earthenware vessels suitable for holding liquids, sealing the inherent porosity of terracotta, the term we now use for basic unglazed earthenware. It also gives a tougher surface, glaze is also used on stoneware and porcelain. In addition to their functionality, glazes can form a variety of finishes, including degrees of glossy or matte finish. Glazes may also enhance the design or texture either unmodified or inscribed, carved or painted. Most pottery produced in recent centuries has been glazed, tiles are almost always glazed, and modern architectural terracotta is very often glazed architectural terra-cotta. Domestic sanitary ware is invariably glazed, as are many used in industry. The most important groups of traditional glazes, named after their main ceramic fluxing agent, are, Lead-glazed earthenware, is shiny and transparent after firing, used for about 2,000 years around the Mediterranean, in Europe and China. Tin-glazed pottery, which coats the ware with a white glaze. Known in the Ancient Near East and then important in Islamic pottery, includes faience, maiolica, majolica and Delftware. Ash glaze, important in East Asia, simply made from wood or plant ash, modern materials technology has invented new vitreous glazes that do not fall into these traditional categories. Glazes need to include a ceramic flux which functions by promoting partial liquefaction in the clay bodies, fluxes lower the high melting point of the glass formers silica, and sometimes boron trioxide. These glass former may be included in the materials, or may be drawn from the clay beneath. Raw materials of ceramic glazes generally include silica, which will be the glass former. Various metal oxides, such as sodium, potassium and calcium, alumina, often derived from clay, stiffens the molten glaze to prevent it from running off the piece. Colorants, such as oxide, copper carbonate or cobalt carbonate. Most commonly, glazes in aqueous suspension of various powdered minerals, other techniques include pouring the glaze over the piece, spraying it onto the piece with an airbrush or similar tool, or applying it directly with a brush or other tool. Small marks left by these spurs are sometimes visible on finished ware, decoration applied under the glaze on pottery is generally referred to as underglaze
Ceramic glaze
–
Composite body, painted, and glazed bottle.
Iran, 16th century (
Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Ceramic glaze
–
Islamic pottery tiles
Ceramic glaze
–
Sancai ceramics of the Tang Dynasty
Ceramic glaze
–
Pottery,
Nara period
10.
Stannous oxide
–
Tin oxide is a compound with the formula SnO. It is composed of tin and oxygen where tin has the state of +2. There are two forms, a stable form and a metastable red form. Blue-black SnO can be produced by heating the tin oxide hydrate, metastable, red SnO can be prepared by gentle heating of the precipitate produced by the action of aqueous ammonia on a tin salt. SnO may be prepared as a substance in the laboratory. This method is applied to the production of ferrous oxide. SnC2O4·2H2O → SnO + CO2 + CO +2 H2O Tin oxide burns in air with a dim green flame to form SnO2. 2 SnO + O2 →2 SnO2 When heated in an inert atmosphere initially disproportionation occurs giving Sn metal and Sn3O4 which further reacts to give SnO2 and Sn metal. 4SnO → Sn3O4 + Sn Sn3O4 → 2SnO2 + Sn SnO is amphoteric, dissolving in strong acid to give tin salts and it can be dissolved in strong acid solutions to give the ionic complexes Sn32+ and Sn2+, and in less acid solutions to give Sn342+. Note that anhydrous stannites, e. g. K2Sn2O3, K2SnO2 are also known, SnO is a reducing agent and this appears to its role in the manufacture of so-called copper ruby glass. Black, α-SnO adopts the tetragonal PbO layer structure containing four coordinate square pyramidal tin atoms and this form is found in nature as the rare mineral romarchite. Non-stoichiometry has been observed in SnO, the electronic band gap has been measured between 2. 5eV and 3eV. The dominant use of oxide is as a precursor in manufacturing of other, typically trivalent. Stannous oxide may also be employed as an agent and in the creation of ruby glass. It has a use as an esterification catalyst. Cerium oxide in ceramic form, together with Tin oxide is used for illumination with UV light
Stannous oxide
Stannous oxide
–
Tin(II) oxide
Stannous oxide
Stannous oxide
–
Tin(II) oxide burning
11.
Slip (ceramics)
–
A slip is a liquid mixture or slurry of clay and/or other materials suspended in water. It has many uses in the production of pottery, and other ceramics ware, in pottery the two most important uses of slip are, firstly, to create the basic shape by slipcasting with moulds, and secondly, to decorate the pottery, which is discussed below. Engobe, from the French word for slip, is in English an American term for similar to a slip. Some American sources say it is synonymous with slip, and use it in preference to slip, while others draw distinctions, mainly in terms of engobe using materials other than clay. On one definition engobe, as compared to slip, has somewhat lower clay content, higher proportion of flux, and added filler and it is mostly used in relation to contemporary pottery, but sometimes for slip in historical contexts. Slipware is pottery decorated by slip placed onto a wet or leather-hard clay body surface by dipping, painting or splashing, decorative slips may be a different colour than the underlying clay body or offer other decorative qualities. Selectively applying layers of colored slips can create the effect of a painted ceramic, slip decoration is an ancient technique in Chinese pottery also, used to cover whole vessels over 4,000 years ago. Chinese pottery also used techniques where patterns, images or calligraphy were created as part-dried slip was cut away to reveal a lower layer of slip or the clay body in a contrasting colour. The latter of these is called the cut-glaze technique, slipware may be carved or burnished to change the surface appearance of the ware. Specialized slip recipes may be applied to biscuit ware and then refired, a slip may be made for various other purposes in the production and decoration of ceramics. Slip can be used, As a means of mixing the constituents of a clay body, to join sections of unfired ware or greenware, such as handles and spouts. To fix into place pieces of relief decoration produced separately, for example by moulding and this technique is known as sprigging, an example is Jasperware. An additive with deflocculant properties, such as silicate, can be added to the slip to disperse the raw material particles. This allows a higher solids content to be used, or allows a fluid slip to be produced with the a minimum of water so that shrinkage is minimised. Usually the mixing of slip is undertaken in a blunger although it can be using other types of mixers or even by hand. Chinese Pottery and Porcelain,1991, British Museum Press,9780714114705
Slip (ceramics)
–
Phenician plate with red slip, 7th century BCE, excavated in
Mogador island,
Essaouira.
Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum.
Slip (ceramics)
–
Cizhou ware, decorated with a transparent glaze applied on a white slipped-body.
Northern Song, 11-12th century,
China.
Slip (ceramics)
–
Miletus ware showing a red body covered by white slip, end of 14th-early 15th century,
Turkey.
12.
Lead
–
Lead is a chemical element with atomic number 82 and symbol Pb. When freshly cut, it is bluish-white, it tarnishes to a dull gray upon exposure to air and it is a soft, malleable, and heavy metal with a density exceeding that of most common materials. Lead has the second-highest atomic number of the stable elements. Lead is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal and its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature and tendency to form covalent bonds. Compounds of lead are found in the +2 oxidation state. Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds, like the lighter members of the group, lead exhibits a tendency to bond to itself, it can form chains, rings, and polyhedral structures. Lead is easily extracted from its ores and was known to people in Western Asia. A principal ore of lead, galena, often bears silver, Lead production declined after the fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels again until the Industrial Revolution. Nowadays, global production of lead is about ten million tonnes annually, Lead has several properties that make it useful, high density, low melting point, ductility, and relative inertness to oxidation. In the late 19th century, lead was recognized as poisonous, Lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones, damaging the nervous system and causing brain disorders and, in mammals, blood disorders. A lead atom has 82 electrons, arranged in a configuration of 4f145d106s26p2. The combined first and second ionization energies—the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of tin, leads upper neighbor in group 14. This is unusual since ionization energies generally fall going down a group as an elements outer electrons become more distant from the nucleus, the similarity is caused by the lanthanide contraction—the decrease in element radii from lanthanum to lutetium, and the relatively small radii of the elements after hafnium. The contraction is due to shielding of the nucleus by the lanthanide 4f electrons. The combined first four ionization energies of lead exceed those of tin, for this reason lead, unlike tin, mostly forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of +2, rather than +4. Relativistic effects, which become particularly prominent at the bottom of the periodic table, as a result, the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, a phenomenon called the inert pair effect. A related outcome is that the distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead is unusually long, the lighter group 14 elements form stable or metastable allotropes having the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic structure. The energy levels of their outer s- and p-orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four hybrid sp3 orbitals
Lead
–
Lead, 82 Pb
Lead
–
A sample of freshly solidified lead (from molten state)
Lead
–
World lead production peaking in the
Roman period and the rising
Industrial Revolution
Lead
–
Lead
ingots from
Roman Britain on display at the
Wells and Mendip Museum
13.
Kiln
–
A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles, various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to transform many other materials. The word kiln descends from the Old English cylene (/ˈkylene/, which was adapted from the Latin culīna kitchen, cooking-stove, burning-place. During the Middle English Period, the n was not pronounced, as evidenced by kiln having frequently been spelled without the n, Another word, miln, a place where wheat is ground, also had a silent n. Whereas the spelling of miln was changed to mill to match its pronunciation, kiln maintained its spelling, which most likely led to a common mispronunciation, however, there are small bastions where the original pronunciation has endured. Kiln, Mississippi, a town known for its wood drying kilns that once served the timber industry, is still referred to as the Kill by locals. Unwittingly adding the n sound at the end of kiln is due to people being introduced to the word through the language before ever hearing the actual pronunciation. Phonetically, the ln in kiln is categorized as a digraph, from English Words as Spoken and Written for Upper Grades by James A. Bowen 1900, The digraph ln, n silent, occurs in kiln. A fall down the kiln can kill you, Bowen was pointing out the humorous fact that kill and kiln are homophones. A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, the earliest known kiln dates to around 6000 BC, and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq. Neolithic kilns were able to produce greater than 900 °C. Ceramics require heat at high temperatures so chemical and physical reactions will occur to permanently alter the unfired body, in the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, after a first firing glazes may be used and the ware is fired a second time to fuse the glaze into the body. A third firing at a lower temperature may be required to fix overglaze decoration, modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical control systems to firing regime, although pyrometric devices are often also used. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a clay body. Part of the process includes sintering. This heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores, through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly
Kiln
–
Charcoal kilns, California
Kiln
–
Indian brick kiln
Kiln
–
Anagama kiln firing.
Kiln
–
Farnham Pottery,
Wrecclesham,
Surrey with the preserved:bottle kiln: on the right of photo
14.
Porcelain
–
Porcelain /ˈpɔːrsəlᵻn, ˈpɔːrslᵻn/ is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain was first developed in China around 2,000 years ago, then spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a range of decorative treatments in tablewares, vessels. It also has uses in technology and industry. The European name, porcelain in English, come from the old Italian porcellana because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell, Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine china in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in imports from China. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent, however, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases, a high proportion of modern porcelain is made of the variant bone china. Kaolin is the material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an old term for both the unfired and fired material, a more common terminology these days for the unfired material is body, for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse, the clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive and have high plasticity, short clays are cohesive and have lower plasticity. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays and they wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow. The following section provides information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around 1,000 °C, coated with glaze, another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation
Porcelain
–
Porcelain wares, such as those similar to these Yongle-era porcelain flasks, were often presented as trade goods during the 15th-century
Chinese maritime expeditions. (British Museum)
Porcelain
–
Soft-paste porcelain Swan
tureen, 1752-6,
Chelsea.
Porcelain
–
Flower centrepiece, 18th century, Spain.
Porcelain
–
Ming Dynasty Xuande Archaic Porcelain Vase
15.
Lead-glazed earthenware
–
Lead-glazed earthenware is one of the traditional types of glazed earthenware, which coat the ceramic body and render it impervious to liquids, as terracotta itself is not. The lead glaze is shiny and transparent after firing, modern materials technology has invented new vitreous glazes that do not fall into these traditional categories. In lead glazes tints provided by impurities render greenish to brownish casts, the Romans used lead glazes for high-quality oil lamps and drinking cups. Lead oxide was the principal flux in the glaze, polychrome effects were obtained by using as coloring agents copper, iron, much of Roman technology was lost in the West, but coarse lead-glazed earthenwares were universal in medieval Europe and in Colonial America. In England, lead-glazed Stamford Ware was produced in Stamford, Lincolnshire as early as the ninth century and it was widely traded across Britain and the near continent. In 16th-century France Bernard Palissy refined lead-glazed earthenware to a high standard, lead-glazed earthenwares in Britain include the Toby jugs, such as those made in the late 18th century by Ralph Wood the Younger at Burslem, Staffordshire
Lead-glazed earthenware
–
A
sancai lead-glazed earthenware saddled horse statuette,
Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)
Lead-glazed earthenware
–
Toby jug made by Ralph Wood the Younger, Burslem, ca. 1782-1795 (
Victoria & Albert Museum)
16.
Saint-Porchaire ware
–
Saint-Porchaire ware is the earliest very high quality French pottery. It is white lead-glazed earthenware often conflated with true faience, that was made for a restricted French clientele from the 1520s to the 1540s, only about sixty pieces of this ware survive, all of them well known before World War II. None have turned up in the last half-century and its style clearly showed the influence of the Fontainebleau School of Mannerist decor, which introduced the Italian Renaissance to France. In 1898 Edmond Bonaffé linked its source for the first time to the village of Saint-Porchaire, the attribution to this small village raises more questions than it answers. The production of Saint-Porchaire ware was labour-intensive, and in decorative design. Mould-formed sculptural decoration was applied with slip to make relief masks, festoons, additionally, hand-modelled figures might serve as handles for ewers. Further touches of colored slip, such as a green, were applied. The surface was covered with a lead glaze that fired to give a slightly golden transparency. Many armorials on Saint-Porchaire wares show that its clients were from the nobility, recent findings suggest Bernard Palissy may have employed some Saint-Porchaire techniques at his Paris workshop, 1565-72. Medici porcelain Palissy ware Wilson, Timothy H
Saint-Porchaire ware
–
Saint-Porchaire Standing Saltcellar, ca. 1555, just over six inches tall.
17.
Stoneware
–
Stoneware is a rather broad term for pottery or other ceramics fired at a relatively high temperature. A modern technical definition is a vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic made primarily from stoneware clay or non-refractory fire clay, whether vitrified or not, it is nonporous, it may or may not be glazed. Historically, across the world, it has usually been developed after earthenware and before porcelain, Stoneware is not recognised as a category in traditional East Asian terminology, and much Asian stoneware, such as Chinese Ding ware for example, is counted as porcelain by local definitions. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases, one widely recognised definition of stoneware is from the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities, a European industry standard. It states, Stoneware, which, though dense, impermeable and hard enough to resist scratching by a point, differs from porcelain because it is more opaque. It may be vitreous or semi-vitreous and it is usually coloured grey or brownish because of impurities in the clay used for its manufacture, and is normally glazed. Five basic categories of stoneware have been suggested, Traditional stoneware – a dense and it is opaque, can be of any colour and breaks with a conchoidal or stony fracture. Traditionally made of fine-grained secondary, plastic clays which can used to very large pieces. Fine stoneware – made from carefully selected, prepared. It is used to produce tableware and art ware, chemical stoneware – used in the chemical industry, and when resistance to chemical attack is needed. Purer raw materials are used than for other stoneware bodies, ali Baba is a popular name for a large chemical stoneware jars of up to 5,000 litres capacity used to store acids. Thermal shock resistant stoneware – has additions of materials to enhance the thermal shock resistance of the fired body. Electrical stoneware – historically used for electrical insulators, although it has replaced by electrical porcelain. The key raw material in stoneware is either naturally occurring stoneware clay or non-refractory fire clay, the mineral kaolinite is present but disordered, and although mica and quartz are present their particle size is very small. Stoneware clay is often accompanied by such as iron or carbon, giving it a dirty look. Non-refractory fire clay may be another key raw material, fire clays are generally considered refractory, because they withstand very high temperatures before melting or crumbling. Refractory fire clays have a concentration of kaolinite, with lesser amounts of mica. Non-refractory fire clays, however, have larger amounts of mica, Stoneware can be once-fired or twice-fired
Stoneware
–
A
Staffordshire stoneware plate from the 1850s with transferred copper print – (From the home of
J. L. Runeberg)
Stoneware
–
A handpainted stoneware bowl produced in
Portugal in 2008
Stoneware
–
A Chinese stoneware
vase from the
Song Dynasty, 11th century
18.
Predynastic Egypt
–
This Predynastic era is traditionally equivalent to the final part of the Neolithic period beginning c.6000 BC and corresponds to the Naqada III period. The Predynastic period is divided into cultural periods, each named after the place where a certain type of Egyptian settlement was first discovered. The Late Paleolithic in Egypt started around 30,000 BC, the Nazlet Khater skeleton was found in 1980 and dated in 1982 from nine samples ranging between 35,100 and 30,360 years. This specimen is the only complete human skeleton from the earliest Late Stone Age in Africa. Excavation of the Nile has exposed early stone tools, the earliest of these lithic industries were located within the 100-foot terrace, and were Chellean, primitive Acheulean and an Egyptian form of the Clactonian. Within the 50-foot terrace was developed Acheulean, originally reported as Early Mousterian but since changed to Levalloisean, other implements were located in the 30-foot terrace. The 15- and 10-foot terraces saw a more developed version of the Levalloisean, finally, tools of the Egyptian Sebilian technology and an Egyptian version of the Aterian technology were also located. Some of the oldest known buildings were discovered in Egypt by archaeologist Waldemar Chmielewski along the border near Wadi Halfa. They were mobile structures—easily disassembled, moved, and reassembled—providing hunter-gatherers with semi-permanent habitation, Aterian tool-making reached Egypt c.40,000 BC. The Khormusan industry in Egypt began between 40,000 and 30,000 BC, khormusans developed advanced tools not only from stone but also from animal bones and hematite. They also developed small arrow heads resembling those of Native Americans, the end of the Khormusan industry came around 16,000 B. C. with the appearance of other cultures in the region, including the Gemaian. The Halfan culture flourished along the Nile Valley of Egypt and Nubia between 18,000 and 15,000 BC, though one Halfan site dates to before 24,000 BC, people survived on a diet of large herd animals and the Khormusan tradition of fishing. Greater concentrations of artifacts indicate that they were not bound to seasonal wandering and they are viewed as the parent culture of the Ibero-Maurusian industry, which spread across the Sahara and into Spain. The Halfan culture was derived in turn from the Khormusan, which depended on specialized hunting, fishing, the primary material remains of this culture are stone tools, flakes, and a multitude of rock paintings. Qadan peoples developed sickles and grinding stones to aid in the collecting and processing of plant foods prior to consumption. However, there are no indications of the use of these tools after around 10,000 BC, in Egypt, analyses of pollen found at archaeological sites indicate that the Sebilian culture were gathering wheat and barley. It has been hypothesized that the sedentary lifestyle used by farmers led to increased warfare, continued expansion of the desert forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. The period from 9000 to 6000 BC has left little in the way of archaeological evidence
Predynastic Egypt
–
Predynastic artifacts: clockwise from top left: a
Bat figurine, a Naqada jar, an ivory figurine, cosmetic palette, a
flint knife, and a
diorite vase.
Predynastic Egypt
–
Female Figure, ca. 3500-3400 B.C.E. Terracotta, painted, 11 1/2 x 5 1/2 x 2 1/4 in. (29.2 x 14 x 5.7 cm).
Brooklyn Museum
Predynastic Egypt
–
A typical Naqada II pot with ship theme
19.
Ancient Near East
–
The ancient Near East is studied in the fields of Near Eastern archaeology and ancient history. The ancient Near East is considered one of the cradles of civilization and it also saw the creation of the first writing system and law codes, early advances that laid the foundations of astronomy and mathematics, and the invention of the wheel. During the period, states became increasingly large, until by the end the region was controlled by military empires who had conquered a number of different cultures. The phrase ancient Near East utilizes the 19th-century distinction between Near East and Far East as global regions of interest to the British Empire, the distinction began during the Crimean War. The two theatres were described by the statesmen and advisors of the British Empire as the Near East, shortly, they were to share the stage with Middle East, which came to prevail in the 20th century and continues in modern times. Meanwhile, ancient Near East had become distinct, the Near East ruled by the Ottoman Empire ranged from Vienna to the north to the tip of the Arabian Peninsula to the south, from Egypt in the west to the borders of Iraq in the east. The 19th-century archaeologists added Iran to their definition, which was never under the Ottomans, but they excluded all of Europe and, generally, Egypt, which had parts in the empire. Ancient Near East periodization is the attempt to categorize or divide time into discrete named blocks, or eras, the result is a descriptive abstraction that provides a useful handle on Near East periods of time with relatively stable characteristics. Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk, this saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia. It was followed by the Sumerian civilization, the late Uruk period saw the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script and corresponds to the Early Bronze Age. Sumer, located in southern Mesopotamia, is the earliest known civilization in the world, the Akkadian Empire, founded by Sargon the Great, lasted from the 24th to the 21st century BC, and was regarded by many as the worlds first Empire. The Akkadians eventually fragmented into Assyria and Babylonia, Ancient Elam lay to the east of Sumer and Akkad, in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of Khuzestan and Ilam Province. In the Old Elamite period, c.3200 BC, it consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered on Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered on Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Elam was absorbed into the Assyrian Empire in the 9th to 7th centuries BC, however, the Proto-Elamite civilization existed from c.3200 BC to 2700 BC, when Susa, the later capital of the Elamites, began to receive influence from the cultures of the Iranian plateau. In archaeological terms, this corresponds to the late Banesh period and this civilization is recognized as the oldest in Iran and was largely contemporary with its neighbour, the Sumerian civilization. The Proto-Elamite script is an Early Bronze Age writing system briefly in use for the ancient Elamite language before the introduction of Elamite Cuneiform, the Amorites were a nomadic Semitic people who occupied the country west of the Euphrates from the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. In the earliest Sumerian sources, beginning about 2400 BC, the land of the Amorites is associated with the West, including Syria and Canaan and they ultimately settled in Mesopotamia, ruling Isin, Larsa, and later Babylon. Assyria, after enduring a period of Mitanni domination, emerged as a great power from the accession of Ashur-uballit I in 1365 BC to the death of Tiglath-Pileser I in 1076 BC
Ancient Near East
–
Overview map of the ancient Near East
20.
Indus Valley Civilization
–
The Indus Valley Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread, at its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft, the Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, as of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered, a relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province as well, other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, Harappan Civilisation remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after its first findspot. John wrote, I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway and they were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of the track running from Karachi to Lahore. In 1872–75, Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal and it was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600–2450 BCE.
LACMA
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Excavated ruins of
Mohenjo-daro, with the
Great Bath in the front
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Indus Valley pottery, 2500–1900 BCE
21.
Frit
–
A frit is a ceramic composition that has been fused in a special fusing oven, quenched to form a glass, and granulated. However, not all glass that is fused and quenched in water is frit, according to the OED, the origin of the word frit dates back to 1662 and is a calcinated mixture of sand and fluxes ready to be melted in a crucible to make glass. Nowadays, the raw materials of glass making are more commonly called glass batch. In antiquity, frit could be crushed to make pigments or shaped to create objects and it may also have served as an intermediate material in the manufacture of raw glass. The definition of frit tends to be variable and has proved an issue for scholars. In recent centuries, frits have taken on a number of roles, such as biomaterials, frit in the form of alumino-silicate can be used in glaze-free continuous casting refractories. Archaeologists have found evidence of frit in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Europe, the definition of frit as a sintered, polycrystalline, unglazed material can be applied to these archaeological contexts. It is typically colored blue or green, Blue frit, also known as Egyptian blue, was made from quartz, lime, a copper compound, and an alkali flux, all heated to a temperature between 850 and 1000°C. Quartz sand may have used to contribute silica to the frit. The copper content must be greater than the content in order to create a blue frit. Ultimately the frit consists of crystals and “partially reacted quartz particles bonded together” by interstitial glass. Despite an argument to the contrary, scientists have found that, regardless of alkali content, high alkali content will yield “a large proportion of glass, ” thereby diluting the cuprorivaite crystals and producing lighter shades of blue. Regrinding and resintering the frit will create finer cuprorivaite crystals, also producing lighter shades, the earliest appearance of blue frit is as a pigment on a tomb painting at Saqqara dated to 2900 BC, though its use became more popular in Egypt around 2600 BC. Blue frit has also uncovered in the royal tombs at Ur from the Early Dynastic III period. Its use in the Mediterranean dates to the Thera frescoes from the Late Middle Bronze Age, while the glass phase is present in blue frits from Egypt, scientists have not detected it in blue frits from the Near East, Europe, and the Aegean. Natural weathering, which is responsible for the corrosion of glasses and glazes from these three regions, is the likely reason for this absence. At Amarna, archaeologists have found blue frit in the form of cakes, powder residues. Analysis of the microstructures and crystal sizes of these frits has allowed Hatton, Shortland, the cakes were produced by heating the raw materials for frit, then they were ground to make powders, and finally, the powders were molded and refired to create vessels
Frit
–
The facade of the
Anchorage Museum in
Anchorage, Alaska incorporates a large amount of custom insulated fritted glass.
22.
Minoan civilization
–
The Minoan civilization was an Aegean Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands which flourished from about 2600 to 1100 BC. It preceded the Mycenaean civilization of Ancient Greece, the civilization was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of British archaeologist Arthur Evans. It has been described as the earliest of its kind in Europe, the term Minoan, which refers to the mythical King Minos, originally described the pottery of the period. Minos was associated in Greek mythology with the labyrinth and the Minotaur, according to Homer, Crete once had 90 cities. The Minoan period saw trade between Crete and Aegean and Mediterranean settlements, particularly the Near East, traders and artists, the Minoan cultural influence reached beyond Crete to the Cyclades, Egypts Old Kingdom, copper-bearing Cyprus, Canaan and the Levantine coast, and Anatolia. Some of its best art is preserved in the city of Akrotiri on the island of Santorini, although the Minoan language and writing systems remain undecipherable and are subjects of academic dispute, they apparently conveyed a language entirely different from the later Greek. The reason for the end of the Minoan period is unclear, theories include Mycenaean invasions from mainland Greece, the term Minoan refers to the mythical King Minos of Knossos. Its origin is debated, but it is attributed to archeologist Arthur Evans. Minos was associated in Greek mythology with the labyrinth, which Evans identified with the site at Knossos. However, Karl Hoeck had already used the title Das Minoische Kreta in 1825 for volume two of his Kreta, this appears to be the first known use of the word Minoan to mean ancient Cretan, Evans said that applied it, not invented it. Hoeck, with no idea that the archaeological Crete had existed, had in mind the Crete of mythology, although Evans 1931 claim that the term was unminted before he used it was called a brazen suggestion by Karadimas and Momigliano, he coined its archaeological meaning. Instead of dating the Minoan period, archaeologists use two systems of relative chronology, the first, created by Evans and modified by later archaeologists, is based on pottery styles and imported Egyptian artifacts. Evans system divides the Minoan period into three eras, early, middle and late. These eras are subdivided—for example, Early Minoan I, II and III, another dating system, proposed by Greek archaeologist Nicolas Platon, is based on the development of architectural complexes known as palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Kato Zakros. Platon divides the Minoan period into pre-, proto-, neo-, the relationship between the systems in the table includes approximate calendar dates from Warren and Hankey. The Thera eruption occurred during a phase of the LM IA period. Efforts to establish the volcanic eruptions date have been controversial, the eruption is identified as a natural event catastrophic for the culture, leading to its rapid collapse. Although stone-tool evidence exists that hominins may have reached Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, evidence for the first anatomically-modern human presence dates to 10, the oldest evidence of modern human habitation on Crete are pre-ceramic Neolithic farming-community remains which date to about 7000 BC
Minoan civilization
–
Minoan civilization
Minoan civilization
–
Minoan
copper ingot.
Minoan civilization
–
Fresco showing three women who were possibly
queens. [
citation needed]
23.
Crete
–
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, 88th-largest island in the world and the fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and Corsica. Crete and a number of surrounding islands and islets constitute the region of Crete, the capital and the largest city is Heraklion. As of 2011, the region had a population of 623,065, Crete forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece, while retaining its own local cultural traits. It was once the centre of the Minoan civilization, which is regarded as the earliest recorded civilization in Europe. The island is first referred to as Kaptara in texts from the Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and it was also known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu, strongly suggesting a similar Minoan name for the island. The current name of Crete is thought to be first attested in Mycenaean Greek texts written in Linear B, through the words
Crete
–
NASA photograph of Crete
Crete
–
Lefka Ori
Crete
–
Port of Heraklion
Crete
–
Lefka Ori (White mountains).
24.
Knossos
–
Knossos is the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete and is considered Europes oldest city. The name Knossos survives from ancient Greek references to the city of Crete. The coins came from the Roman settlement of Colonia Julia Nobilis Cnossus, a Roman colony placed just to the north of, the Romans believed they had colonized Knossos. The second palace was built on a grander scale over the old Palace after an earthquake destroyed it. The structure and ruins we see today are from the second Palace, during the Bronze Age, the town surrounded the hill on which the palace was built. The site was discovered in 1878 by Minos Kalokairinos, the excavations in Knossos began in AD1900 by the English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans and his team, and they continued for 35 years. The palace was excavated and partially restored under the direction of Arthur Evans in the earliest years of the 20th century. Its size far exceeded his expectations, as did the discovery of two ancient scripts, which he termed Linear A and Linear B, to distinguish their writing from the pictographs also present. The palace of Knossos was undoubtedly the ceremonial and political centre of the Minoan civilization and it appears as a maze of workrooms, living spaces, and storerooms close to a central square. The palace was abandoned at some time at the end of the Late Bronze Age. The occasion is not known for certain, but one of the disasters that befell the palace is generally put forward. The hill was never again a settlement or civic site, although squatters may have used it for a time, however, fieldwork in 2015 revealed that during the early Iron Age, Knossos was rich in imports and was nearly three times larger than indicated by earlier excavations. Except for periods of abandonment, other cities were founded in the vicinity, such as the Roman colony. The population shifted to the new town of Chandax during the 9th century AD, by the 13th century, it was called Makruteikhos Long Wall, the bishops of Gortyn continued to call themselves Bishops of Knossos until the 19th century. Today, the name is used only for the site now situated in the expanding suburbs of Heraklion. In the first palace period around 2000 BC the urban area reached a size of up to 18,000 people, in its peak the Palace and the surrounding city boasted a population of 100,000 people shortly after 1700 BC. The name Knossos was formerly Latinized as Cnossus or Cnossos, and occasionally Knossus, Gnossus and this site history is to be distinguished from the ancient. In Greek mythology, King Minos dwelt in a palace at Knossos and he had Daedalus construct a labyrinth, a very large maze in which to retain his son, the Minotaur
Knossos
–
Restored North Entrance with charging bull fresco
Knossos
–
A
labrys from
Messara.
Knossos
–
View to the east from the northwest corner. In the foreground is the west wall of the Lustral Basin.
Knossos
–
View to the south. The hill in the background is Gypsades. Between it and Knossos is the Vlychia. The South Entrance is on the left.
25.
Archaeological
–
Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
Archaeological
–
Roman ruins,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
Archaeological
–
An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877
Archaeological
–
Artifacts discovered at the 1808
Bush Barrow excavation by Sir
Richard Colt Hoare and
William Cunnington.
Archaeological
–
Mortimer Wheeler pioneered
systematic excavation in the early 20th century. Pictured, are his excavations at
Maiden Castle, Dorset, in October 1937.
26.
Moors
–
Moors are not a distinct or self-defined people, and mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that The term Moors has no real ethnological value. Medieval and early modern Europeans variously applied the name to Arabs, Berber North Africans and Muslim Europeans. The term has also used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims in general, especially those of Arab or Berber descent. During the colonial era, the Portuguese introduced the names Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors in Sri Lanka, in 711, troops mostly formed by Moors from North Africa led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula then came to be known in classical Arabic as Al-Andalus, in 827, the Moors occupied Mazara on Sicily, developing it as a port. They eventually consolidated the rest of the island and some of southern Italy, in 1224 the Muslims were expelled from Sicily to the settlement of Lucera, which was destroyed by European Christians in 1300. The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, the Berber tribes of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as Moors in English and in related variations in other European languages. Mauri is recorded as the name by Strabo in the early 1st century. This appellation was also adopted into Latin, whereas the Greek name for the tribe was Maurusii, in medieval Romance languages, variations of the Latin word for the Moors developed different applications and connotations. During the context of the Crusades and the Reconquista, the term Moors included the suggestion of infidels. Apart from these associations and context, Moor and Moorish designate a specific ethnic group speaking Hassaniya Arabic. They inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Morocco, Niger, in Niger and Mali, these peoples are also known as the Azawagh Arabs, after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. Some authors have pointed out that in modern colloquial Spanish use of the term moro is derogatory for Moroccans in particular, however, this designation has gained more acceptance in the south. In the Philippines, a former Spanish colony, many modern Filipinos call the large, local Muslim minority concentrated in Mindanao, the word is a catch-all term, as Moro may come from several distinct ethno-linguistic groups such as the Maranao people. The term was introduced by Spanish colonisers, and has since been appropriated by Filipino Muslims as an endonym, moreno can mean dark-skinned in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and the Philippines. Also in Spanish, morapio is a name for wine, especially that which has not been baptized or mixed with water. Among Spanish speakers, moro came to have a broader meaning, Moro refers to all things dark, as in Moor, moreno, etc. It was also used as a nickname, for instance, the Milanese Duke Ludovico Sforza was called Il Moro because of his dark complexion, in Portugal, mouro may refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where moor implies alien and non-Christian
Moors
–
Depiction of Moors in
Iberia. Taken from the
Tale of Bayad and Riyad
Moors
–
Depiction of three Moorish knights found on
Alhambra 's Ladies Tower
Moors
–
Castillian ambassadors attempting to convince Moorish Almohad king
Abu Hafs Umar al-Murtada to join their alliance (contemporary depiction from The Cantigas de Santa María)
Moors
–
Reconstruction of costumes of Moorish
nobility from a German book published in 1880
27.
Tin-glazed earthenware
–
Tin-glazed pottery is earthenware covered in glaze containing tin oxide which is white, shiny and opaque, usually this provides a background for brightly-painted decoration. It has been important in Islamic and European pottery, but very little used in East Asia, the pottery body is usually made of red or buff colored earthenware and the white glaze imitated Chinese porcelain. The makers of Italian tin-glazed pottery from the late Renaissance blended oxides to produce detailed, from there it spread to Egypt, Persia and Spain before reaching Italy in the Renaissance, Holland in the 16th century and England, France and other European countries shortly after. The rise in the cost of tin oxide during the First World War led to its substitution by zirconium compounds in the glaze. Tin-glazed pottery of different periods and styles is known by different names, the pottery from Muslim Spain is known as Hispano-Moresque ware. The decorated tin-glaze of Renaissance Italy is called maiolica, sometimes pronounced majolica by English speakers, when the technique was taken up in the Netherlands it became known as delftware as much of it was made in the town of Delft. Dutch potters brought it to England in around 1600 and wares produced there are known as English delftware or galleyware, in France it was known as faience. During the Renaissance, the term maiolica was adopted for Italian-made luster pottery copying Spanish examples, in the late 18th century, old Italian maiolica became popular among the British, who referred to it by the anglicized pronunciation majolica. The Minton pottery copied it and applied the term majolica ware to their product, at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Minton launched the colorful lead-glazed earthenware which they called Palissy ware soon also to become known as majolica. So now we have two distinct products with the same name, for the article about 19th century lead-glazed earthenware, see Victorian majolica W. B. The term maiolica is sometimes applied to modern tin-glazed ware made by studio potters, the Moors introduced tin-glazed pottery to Spain after the conquest of 711. With the Spanish conquest of Mexico, tin-glazed pottery came to be produced in the Valley of Mexico as early as 1540, although the Moors were expelled from Spain in the early 17th century, the Hispano-Moresque style survived in the province of Valencia. Later wares usually have a coarse reddish-buff body, dark blue decoration, such archaic wares are sometimes dubbed proto-maiolica. During the later 14th century, the palette of colors was expanded from the traditional manganese purple and copper green to embrace cobalt blue, antimony yellow. Sgraffito wares were produced, in which the white tin-oxide slip was decoratively scratched to produce a design from the revealed body of the ware. Refined production of tin-glazed earthenware made for more local needs was concentrated in central Italy from the later 13th century. The city itself declined in importance in the half of the 15th century. Italian cities encouraged the start of a new industry by offering tax relief, citizenship, monopoly rights
Tin-glazed earthenware
–
Tin-glazed (Majolica) plate from
Faenza, Italy
Tin-glazed earthenware
–
Chinese
porcelain white ware bowl (left) found in
Iran, and Iraqi tin-glazed earthenware bowl (right) found in
Iraq, both 9-10th century, an example of
Chinese influences on Islamic pottery.
British Museum.
Tin-glazed earthenware
–
A Hispano-Moresque dish, approx 32cm diameter, with Christian monogram "IHS", decorated in cobalt blue and gold luster. Valencia, c. 1430–1500.
Burrell Collection
Tin-glazed earthenware
–
An albarello (drug jar) from Venice or Castel Durante, 16th century. Approx 30cm high. Decorated in cobalt blue, copper green, antimony yellow and yellow ochre.
Burrell Collection
28.
Al-Andalus
–
Al-Andalus, also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia, was a medieval Muslim territory and cultural domain occupying at its peak most of what are today Spain and Portugal. At its greatest geographical extent in the century, southern France—Septimania—was briefly under its control. Rule under these kingdoms led to a rise in cultural exchange, a number of achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus including major advances in trigonometry, astronomy, surgery, pharmacology, and other fields. Al-Andalus became an educational center for Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea as well as a conduit for culture. For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north, after the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into a number of minor states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under Alfonso VI, the Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, deposing the weak Andalusi Muslim princes and included al-Andalus under direct Berber rule. In the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Berber Muslim empires of the Almoravids and Almohads, ultimately, the Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In 1085, Alfonso VI captured Toledo, starting a gradual decline of Muslim power, with the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the Kingdom of Castile two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III, finally, on January 2,1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile, completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. The toponym al-Andalus is first attested to by inscriptions on coins minted by the new Muslim government in Iberia, the etymology of the name has traditionally been derived from the name of the Vandals. A number of proposals since the 1980s have contested this, Vallvé proposed a corruption of the name Atlantis, halm derives the name from a Gothic term *landahlauts. Bossong suggests derivation from a pre-Roman substrate and they crossed the Pyrenees and occupied Visigothic Septimania in southern France. Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expanding Umayyad Empire and it was organized as a province subordinate to Ifriqiya, so, for the first few decades, the governors of al-Andalus were appointed by the emir of Kairouan, rather than the Caliph in Damascus. Visigothic lords who agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs, resistant Visigoths took refuge in the Cantabrian highlands, where they carved out a rump state, the Kingdom of Asturias. In the 720s, the al-Andalus governors launched several raids into Aquitaine. At the Battle of Poitiers in 732, the al-Andalus raiding army was defeated by Charles Martel, in 734, the Andalusi launched raids to the east, capturing Avignon and Arles and overran much of Provence. In 737, they climbed up the Rhône valley, reached as far as Burgundy, Charles Martel of the Franks, with the assistance of Liutprand of the Lombards, invaded Burgundy and Provence and expelled the raiders by 739. Relations between Arabs and Berbers in al-Andalus had been tense in the years after the conquest
Al-Andalus
–
Al-Andalus and Christian kingdoms circa 1000 AD
Al-Andalus
–
Islamic-period garden in the
Alhambra.
Al-Andalus
–
A
gold Dinar minted in al-Andalus
29.
Lustreware
–
The first use of lustre decoration was as painting on glass. Staining glass vessels with copper and silver pigments was known from around the 3rd century AD, Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century, the technique later became popular in Persia and Syria. The reminiscence of shining metal, especially gold, made especially attractive. Lusterware was produced in quantity in Egypt during the Fatimid dynasty in the 10th-12th centuries, while the production of lusterware continued in the Middle East, it spread to Europe through Al-Andalus. Málaga was the first centre of Hispano-Moresque ware, before it developed in the region of Valencia, and then to Italy, in the 16th century lustred maiolica was a specialty of Gubbio, noted for a rich ruby red, and at Deruta. Unlike other Persian wares of the period, these use traditional Middle Eastern shapes and decoration rather than Chinese-inspired ones, designs featured plant forms and animals, and generally flowed freely over the whole surface, typically taking up over half the surface area. Production, which was never large, appears to have mostly been from about 1650-1750 and it is often thought to have been centred in Kirman, though firm evidence is lacking. Metallic lustre of another sort produced English lustreware, which imparts to a piece of pottery the appearance of an object of silver, gold or copper. Very dilute amounts of powdered gold or platinum were dissolved in aqua regia and added to spirits of tar for platinum, the mixture was applied to the glazed ware and fired in an enameling kiln, depositing a thin film of platinum or gold. Platinum produced the appearance of silver, and was employed for the middle class in shapes identical to those uses for silver tea services. Depending on the concentration of gold in the compound and the under slip on which it was applied. The gold lustre could be painted or stenciled on the ware, or it could be applied in the resist technique, in which the background was solidly lustred, in 1810 Peter Warburton of New Hall patented a method of transfer-printing in gold and silver lustre. Wedgwoods lusterware made in the 1820s spawned the production of quantities of copper and silver lustreware in England. Raised, multicolored patterns depicting pastoral scenes were created. Pitchers were produced in a range of sizes from cream pitchers to large milk pitchers, tea sets came a bit later, usually featuring creamers, sugar bowls, and slop bowls. Large pitchers with transfer printed commemorative scenes appear to have arrived around the middle of the 19th century and these were purely decorative and today command high prices because of their historical connections. Delicate lustre imitating mother-of-pearl was produced by Wedgwood and at Belleek in the mid-century, under the impetus of the Aesthetic Movement, William de Morgan revived lustrewares in a manner drawing from lustred majolica and Hispano-Moresque wares, with fine, bold designs. In the United States, copper lusterware became popular because of its lustrousness, apparently, as gaslights became available to the rich, the fad was to place groupings of lusterware on mirror platforms to be used as centerpieces for dinner parties
Lustreware
–
Upper part of the mihrab decorated with lusterware tiles (dating from the 9th century) in the
Mosque of Uqba also known as the Great Mosque of Kairouan,
Tunisia
Lustreware
–
Hispano-Moresque dish from Spain, after 1475 Tin-glazed earthenware with lustred decoration, Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Lustreware
–
Lustreware vase by Clement fr:Massier, circa 1900
Lustreware
–
Fragment of a Bowl Depicting a Mounted Warrior, 11th century. Fragment of a lustreware bowl, depicting a rider carrying a shield (and possibly a lance) atop a galloping horse, in which a metallic oxide glaze is applied to the body before firing, leaving a shimmering surface reminiscent of precious metals. Egypt, Fatimid dynasty (909–1171),
Brooklyn Museum
30.
Valencia, Spain
–
Its urban area extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 1. 5–1.6 million people. Valencia is Spains third largest metropolitan area, with a population ranging from 1.7 to 2.5 million, the Port of Valencia is the 5th busiest container port in Europe and the busiest container port on the Mediterranean Sea. The city is ranked at Gamma in the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, Valencia was founded as a Roman colony by the consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus in 138 BC, and called Valentia Edetanorum. In 1238 the Christian king James I of Aragon reconquered the city and divided the land among the nobles who helped him conquer it and he also created a new law for the city, the Furs of Valencia, which were extended to the rest of the Kingdom of Valencia. In the 18th century Philip V of Spain abolished the privileges as punishment to the kingdom of Valencia for aligning with the Habsburg side in the War of the Spanish Succession, Valencia was the capital of Spain when Joseph Bonaparte moved the Court there in the summer of 1812. It also served as capital between 1936 and 1937, during the Second Spanish Republic, the city is situated on the banks of the Turia, on the east coast of the Iberian Peninsula, fronting the Gulf of Valencia on the Mediterranean Sea. Valencia is integrated into an area on the Costa del Azahar. Valencias main festival is the Falles, the traditional Spanish dish, paella, originated in Valencia. The original Latin name of the city was Valentia, meaning strength, or valour, the Roman historian Livy explains that the founding of Valentia in the 2nd century BC was due to the settling of the Roman soldiers who fought against an Iberian rebel, Viriatus. It is not clear if the term Balansiyya was reserved for the entire Taifa of Valencia or also designated the city, by gradual sound changes, Valentia /waˈlentia/ has become Valencia or in Castilian and València in Valencian. In Valencian, the grave accent <è> /ɛ/ contrasts with the acute accent <é> /e/—but the word València is an exception to this rule and it is spelled according to Catalan etymology, though its pronunciation is closer to Vulgar Latin. Valencia stands on the banks of the Turia River, located on the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, at its founding by the Romans, it stood on a river island in the Turia,6.4 km from the sea. The Albufera, a lagoon and estuary about 11 km south of the city, is one of the largest lakes in Spain. The City Council bought the lake from the Crown of Spain for 1,072,980 pesetas in 1911, in 1986, because of its cultural, historical, and ecological value, the Generalitat Valenciana declared it a natural park. Valencia has a Mediterranean climate with short, very mild winters and long, hot and its average annual temperature is 18.4 °C.23.0 °C during the day and 13.8 °C at night. In the coldest month – January, the temperature typically during the day ranges from 14 to 21 °C. In the warmest month – August, the temperature during the day typically ranges from 28–34 °C. Generally, similar temperatures to those experienced in the part of Europe in summer last about 8 months
Valencia, Spain
–
Clockwise from top:
City of Arts and Sciences, modernist buildings in Town Hall Square, La Lonja, Queen Square with a view of the Cathedral and its tower the Miguelete, Business Offices in France Avenue, the America's Cup port and the Malvarrosa beach.
Valencia, Spain
–
Commercial zone
Valencia, Spain
–
Port of Valencia
Valencia, Spain
–
The North station (
Estació del Nord)
31.
Hispano-Moresque wares
–
It was the most elaborate and luxurious pottery being produced in Europe until the Italian maiolica industry developed sophisticated styles in the 15th century, and was exported over most of Europe. The industrys most successful period was the 14th and 15th centuries, around 711, the Moors conquered Spain. Over the following centuries, they introduced two techniques to Europe, glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and lustreware, which imitates metallic finishes with iridescent effects. Hispano-Moresque wares use both processes, applying the paint as an overglaze which is fired again. At first centred on Málaga in the south, and using typical Islamic decoration, by the 15th century the largest production was around Valencia, wares from Manises and other Valencian towns were mainly for the Christian market, and exported very widely. The earliest major centre of pottery in Al-Andalus was Málaga in southern Spain. This is the major centre whose best-known wares were produced in a Muslim kingdom, as opposed to by a workforce presumed to be largely Muslim, or Morisco, under Christian rule. It was already celebrated for its gold lustrewares in the 14th century, and remained under Muslim rule until 1487, shortly before the fall of Granada, murcia, Almería, and perhaps Granada itself were also early centres of production. This pottery stayed much closer to styles seen in other Islamic countries, although much of it was being exported to Christian markets, as can be seen by the coats of arms on many pieces. Already it was being exported, as some of the earliest evidence is bowls set as decoration into the facades of churches in Pisa when they were built, malagan ware was also exported to the Islamic world, and has been found at Fustat and elsewhere. The best known and most impressive examples of Andalucian wares are the Alhambra vases, a number of very large vases made to stand in niches in the Alhambra in Granada, and perhaps elsewhere. These are very atypical in Islamic pottery in having only a function, with no practical purpose. They are based on traditional shapes descended from the ancient amphora and they are thought to come from a range of dates covering the late 14th and the 15th centuries, and the decoration and precise shape of the body is different in each surviving example. According to Alan Caiger-Smith, few other pots in the world such a strong physical impression. All are now in museums, five in Spain and others in St Petersburg, Berlin, stockholm and Palermo, various large fragments also survive. Lustre tiles are still in place at the Alhambra. The Fortuny Tablet, a unique plaque measuring 90 x 44 cm, has a design, inside a border with an inscription praising Yusuf III. Its design resembles that of some Spanish carpets, in 1362 a cardinal commissioned floor-tiles in obra de Malicha for the Popes Palais des Papes in Avignon from two masters in Manises, at least one with an Arabic name
Hispano-Moresque wares
–
A Hispano-Moresque dish, approx 32cm diameter, with Christian monogram "
IHS ", decorated in cobalt blue and gold luster. Valencia, c.1430-1500.
Burrell Collection.
Hispano-Moresque wares
–
Manises dish, 1430-1450, Diameter: 14 in. (35.56 cm)
Hispano-Moresque wares
–
One of a number of large vases made for the
Alhambra in
Granada, 134 cm high
Hispano-Moresque wares
–
Detail of two gazelles from an
Alhambra vase, c. 1400
32.
Balearic Islands
–
The Balearic Islands are an archipelago of Spain in the western Mediterranean Sea, near the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The four largest islands are Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza and Formentera, there are many minor islands and islets close to the larger islands, including Cabrera, Dragonera and SEspalmador. The islands have a Mediterranean climate, and the four islands are all popular tourist destinations. Ibiza in particular is known as a party destination, attracting many of the worlds most popular DJs to its nightclubs. The islands culture and cuisine are similar to that of the rest of Spain but have their own distinctive features, the archipelago forms an autonomous community and a province of Spain, with Palma de Mallorca as the capital. The 2007 Statute of Autonomy declares the Balearic Islands as one nationality of Spain, the co-official languages in the Balearic Islands are Catalan and Spanish. Though now a part of Spain, throughout history the Balearic Islands have been under the rule of a number of different kingdoms, the official name of the Balearic Islands in Catalan is Illes Balears, while in Spanish they are known as the Islas Baleares. The term Balearic derives from Greek, of the various theories on the origins of the two ancient Greek and Latin names for the islands—Gymnasiae and Baleares—classical sources provide two. According to the Lycophrons Alexandra verses, the islands were called Γυμνησίαι/Gymnesiae because its inhabitants were often nude, the Greek and Roman writers generally derive the name of the people from their skill as slingers, although Strabo regards the name as of Phoenician origin. He observed it was the Phoenician equivalent for lightly armoured soldiers the Greeks would have called γυμνῆτας/gymnetas, the root bal does point to a Phoenician origin, perhaps the islands were sacred to the god Baal and the resemblance to the Greek root ΒΑΛ is accidental. Indeed, it was usual Greek practice to assimilate local names into their own language, but the common Greek name of the islands is not Βαλεαρεῖς/Baleareis, but Γυμνησίαι/Gymnesiai. The former was the used by the natives, as well as by the Carthaginians and Romans. The Balearic Islands are on a platform called the Balearic Promontory. They are cut by a network of northwest to southeast faults, the main islands of the autonomous community are Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza and Formentera, all popular tourist destinations. Amongst the minor islands is Cabrera, the location of the Cabrera Archipelago Maritime-Terrestrial National Park, the islands can be further grouped, with Majorca, Minorca, and Cabrera as the Gymnesian Islands, and Ibiza and Formentera as the Pityusic Islands, also referred to as the Pityuses. Located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, the Balearic Islands unsurprisingly have typical mediterranean climates, the below-listed climatic data of the capital Palma is typical for the archipelago, with minor differences to other stations in Majorca, Ibiza and Menorca. Little is recorded on the earliest inhabitants of the islands, though many legends exist, the story, preserved by Lycophron, that certain shipwrecked Greek Boeotians were cast nude on the islands, was evidently invented to account for the name Gymnesiae. There is also a tradition that the islands were colonised by Rhodes after the Trojan War, the islands had a very mixed population, of whose habits several strange stories are told
Balearic Islands
–
Ramon Llull.
Balearic Islands
–
Flag
Balearic Islands
–
Catalan Atlas, by the
sefardi Cresques Abraham.
Balearic Islands
–
King
James I of Aragon (furthest right) during his conquest of Mallorca in 1229.
33.
Island
–
An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, an island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge, examples are Singapore and its causeway, and the various Dutch delta islands, such as IJsselmonde. There are two types of islands in the sea, continental and oceanic. The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland, Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology, continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earths mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere. This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere, continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. A special type of island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable, oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, the few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, one type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring, examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles, another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples, Iceland, which is the second largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. A third type of oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the tectonic plate above it
Island
–
Atafu atoll in Tokelau
Island
–
São Miguel Island, in
Azores archipelago, is also referred as "The Green Island".
Island
–
A small
Fijian island
Island
–
The
British Isles are a large group of islands. The main islands include
Great Britain and
Ireland.
34.
Majorca
–
Majorca or Mallorca is the largest island in the Balearic Islands archipelago, which are part of Spain and located in the Mediterranean. The capital of the island, Palma, is also the capital of the community of the Balearic Islands. The Balearic Islands have been a region of Spain since 1983. The Cabrera Archipelago is administratively grouped with Majorca, the anthem of Majorca is La Balanguera. Like the other Balearic Islands of Minorca, Ibiza and Formentera, the island is a popular holiday destination, particularly for tourists from Germany. The international airport, Palma de Mallorca Airport, is one of the busiest in Spain, the name derives from Latin insula maior, larger island, later Maiorica, the larger one in comparison to Minorca, the smaller one. Little is recorded of the earliest inhabitants of the island, burial chambers and traces of habitation from the Neolithic period have been discovered, particularly the prehistoric settlements called talaiots, or talayots. They raised Bronze Age megaliths as part of their Talaiotic Culture, the island eventually came under the control of Carthage in North Africa, which had become the principal Phoenician city. After the Second Punic War, Carthage lost all of its overseas possessions, the island was occupied by the Romans in 123 BC under Quintus Caecilius Metellus Balearicus. It flourished under Roman rule, during which time the towns of Pollentia, in addition, the northern town of Bocchoris, dating back to pre-Roman times, was a federated city to Rome. The local economy was driven by olive cultivation, viticulture. Majorcan soldiers were valued within the Roman legions for their skill with the sling, in 427, Gunderic and the Vandals captured the island. Geiseric, son of Gunderic, governed Majorca and used it as his base to loot and plunder settlements around the Mediterranean, in 534, Majorca was recaptured by the Eastern Roman Empire, led by Apollinarius. Under Roman rule, Christianity thrived and numerous churches were built, from 707, the island was increasingly attacked by Muslim raiders from North Africa. Recurrent invasions led the islanders to ask Charlemagne for help, in 902, Issam al-Khawlani conquered the Balearic Islands, ushering in a new period of prosperity under the Emirate of Córdoba. The town of Palma was reshaped and expanded, and became known as Medina Mayurqa, later on, with the Caliphate of Córdoba at its height, the Moors improved agriculture with irrigation and developed local industries. The Caliphate was dismembered in 1015, Majorca came under rule by the Taifa of Dénia, and from 1087 to 1114 was an independent Taifa. During that period the island was visited by Ibn Hazm, however, an expedition of Pisans and Catalans in 1114-15, led by Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, overran the island, laying siege to Palma for eight months
Majorca
–
Example of prehistoric talaiot in Majorca
Majorca
–
Flag of Majorca
Majorca
–
Ruins of the Roman city of
Pollentia
Majorca
–
Arab Baths in
Palma
35.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
36.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
37.
Romagna
–
Romagna is an Italian historical region that approximately corresponds to the south-eastern portion of present-day Emilia-Romagna. Traditionally, it is limited by the Apennines to the south-west, the Adriatic to the east, the regions major cities include Cesena, Faenza, Forlì, Imola, Ravenna, Rimini and City of San Marino. The region has been formally expanded with the transfer of seven comuni from the Marche region. The name Romagna comes from the Latin name Romania, which originally was the name for land inhabited by Romans. It later took on the detailed meaning of territory subjected to Eastern Roman rule. Romania later became Romandìola in Vulgar Latin, meaning little Romania, a number of archaeological sites in the region, such as Monte Poggiolo, show that Romagna has been inhabited since the Paleolithic age. The Umbri, speaking an extinct Italic language called Umbrian, are the first traceable inhabitants of the region, the Etruscans also dwelt in some portions of Romagna. In the 5th Century BC, various Gaulish tribes, most notably the Lingones, Senoni and Boii, moved south into Italy, the Senoni utterly subjugated the Umbri and settled in Romagna. The Senoni extended further south to Ancona, with their capital Sena Gallica, the lands formerly inhabited by the Senoni were known as ager Gallicus to the Romans. According to the Italian linguist Giacomo Devoto, there are still a number of Celtic substrata in the Romagnolo dialect, gallic predominance in the region was consistently challenged by the Romans. In the battle of Telamon, the Romans defeated the joint forces of the Celtic tribes, after the Second Punic War, the pro-Carthaginian Lingones and Senoni were expelled. To consolidate the Roman rule in the region, the Via Aemilia was built from Ariminium to Piacentia, the most significant ones are Forum Livii, Forum Cornelii and Forum Popili. After the Social War, the Lex Julia was introduced in 90 BC, in the first Roman civil war, between Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, most cities in the regions supported Marius. As a result, Forum Livii and Caesena were razed to ground, during the first triumvirate, the Roman Republic was divided along the infamous Rubicon. Most of modern Romagna was ruled by Julius Caesar, the exception of Ariminium. In 49 BC, Caesar, who was residing in Ravenna then, led the Legio XIII across the Rubicon, after the decisive battle of Actium, Augustus started a century-long era of Pax Romana. All of Cisalpine Gaul had been incorporated into the Roman province of Italia, around 7 BC, Augustus divided all of Italy into eleven regiones, and most of Romagna was in the eighth, Aemilia. By the beginning of the 3rd Century, Diocletian re-divided the Empire into four prefectures, each divided into dioceses, under the new system, Italy was demoted to a mere Imperial province
Romagna
–
Piazza Saffi, Forlì.
Romagna
–
Map of Romagna, showing its administrative divisions (new territories not shown)
38.
Ravenna
–
Ravenna is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the city of the Western Roman Empire from 402 until that empire collapsed in 476. It then served as the capital of the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths until it was re-conquered in 540 by the Eastern Roman Empire. Afterwards, the city formed the centre of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna until the invasion of the Lombards in 751, although an inland city, Ravenna is connected to the Adriatic Sea by the Candiano Canal. It is known for its well-preserved late Roman and Byzantine architecture, the origin of the name Ravenna is unclear, although it is believed the name is Etruscan. Some have speculated that ravenna is related to Rasenna, the term that the Etruscans used for themselves, the origins of Ravenna are uncertain. Ravenna consisted of houses built on piles on a series of islands in a marshy lagoon – a situation similar to Venice several centuries later. The Romans ignored it during their conquest of the Po River Delta, in 49 BC, it was the location where Julius Caesar gathered his forces before crossing the Rubicon. Later, after his battle against Mark Antony in 31 BC and this harbor, protected at first by its own walls, was an important station of the Roman Imperial Fleet. Nowadays the city is landlocked, but Ravenna remained an important seaport on the Adriatic until the early Middle Ages, during the German campaigns, Thusnelda, widow of Arminius, and Marbod, King of the Marcomanni, were confined at Ravenna. Ravenna greatly prospered under Roman rule, Emperor Trajan built a 70 km long aqueduct at the beginning of the 2nd century. During the Marcomannic Wars, Germanic settlers in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city, for this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there. In AD402, Emperor Honorius transferred the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Milan to Ravenna, at that time it was home to 50,000 people. However, in 409, King Alaric I of the Visigoths simply bypassed Ravenna, after many vicissitudes, Galla Placidia returned to Ravenna with her son, Emperor Valentinian III and the support of her nephew Theodosius II. The late 5th century saw the dissolution of Roman authority in the west, Odoacer ruled as King of Italy for 13 years, but in 489 the Eastern Emperor Zeno sent the Ostrogoth King Theoderic the Great to re-take the Italian peninsula. After losing the Battle of Verona, Odoacer retreated to Ravenna, Theoderic took Ravenna in 493, supposedly slew Odoacer with his own hands, and Ravenna became the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. Both Odoacer and Theoderic and their followers were Arian Christians, but co-existed peacefully with the Latins, Ravennas Orthodox bishops carried out notable building projects, of which the sole surviving one is the Capella Arcivescovile. Theoderic allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law, the Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs
Ravenna
–
Collage of Ravenna
Ravenna
–
Mosaic of the Emperor Justinian from the Basilica of San Vitale.
Ravenna
–
The Mausoleum of Theoderic.
Ravenna
–
Basilica of San Vitale - triumphal arch mosaics.
39.
Rococo
–
Rococo artists and architects used a more jocular, florid, and graceful approach to the Baroque. Their style was ornate and used light colours, asymmetrical designs, curves, unlike the political Baroque, the Rococo had playful and witty themes. By the end of the 18th century, Rococo was largely replaced by the Neoclassic style. In 1835 the Dictionary of the French Academy stated that the word Rococo usually covers the kind of ornament, style and design associated with Louis XVs reign and it includes therefore, all types of art from around the middle of the 18th century in France. The word is seen as a combination of the French rocaille and coquilles, the term may also be a combination of the Italian word barocco and the French rocaille and may describe the refined and fanciful style that became fashionable in parts of Europe in the 18th century. The Rococo love of shell-like curves and focus on decorative arts led some critics to say that the style was frivolous or merely modish, when the term was first used in English in about 1836, it was a colloquialism meaning old-fashioned. While there is some debate about the historical significance of the style to art in general. Italian architects of the late Baroque/early Rococo were wooed to Catholic Germany, Bohemia and Austria by local princes, an exotic but in some ways more formal type of Rococo appeared in France where Louis XIVs succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. By the end of the long reign, rich Baroque designs were giving way to lighter elements with more curves. These elements are obvious in the designs of Nicolas Pineau. During the Régence, court life moved away from Versailles and this change became well established, first in the royal palace. The delicacy and playfulness of Rococo designs is seen as perfectly in tune with the excesses of Louis XVs reign. The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France, the style had spread beyond architecture and furniture to painting and sculpture, exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and François Boucher. The Rococo style was spread by French artists and engraved publications, william Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty that the lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace. The development of Rococo in Great Britain is considered to have connected with the revival of interest in Gothic architecture early in the 18th century. The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality, Blondel decried the ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants in contemporary interiors. By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order, in Germany, late 18th century Rococo was ridiculed as Zopf und Perücke, and this phase is sometimes referred to as Zopfstil
Rococo
–
Pair of lovers group of
Nymphenburg porcelain, c. 1760, modelled by
Franz Anton Bustelli
Rococo
–
The Rococo
Basilica at Ottobeuren (Bavaria): architectural spaces flow together and swarm with life.
Rococo
–
Rococo-style
House of the Good Shepherd in
Bratislava (
Slovakia) - an example of the 18th century
bourgeoisie house.
Rococo
–
François Boucher, Le Déjeuner, (1739,
Louvre), shows a rocaille interior of a French bourgeois family in the 18th century. The porcelain statuette and vase add a touch of
chinoiserie.
40.
Tureen
–
A tureen is a serving dish for foods such as soups or stews, often shaped as a broad, deep, oval vessel with fixed handles and a low domed cover with a knob or handle. Over the centuries, tureens have appeared in different forms, some round, rectangular. Tureens may be ceramic—either the glazed earthenware called faience or porcelain—or silver, the tureen as a piece of tableware called a pot à oille—a Catalan-Provençal soup— came into use in the later seventeenth-century France. Whether named to honour the French military hero Marshal Turenne or related to the earlier word terrine, Soup remained the first course of most meals, from the kings table to the peasants, and the soup tureen on its serving platter provided the opening ceremony. Most seventeenth-century French silver tureens were melted down to finance the wars of Louis late years, during the mid-eighteenth century, tureens in appropriate naturalistic shapes, such as tureens in the form of a head of cabbage, were popular. The Chelsea porcelain manufactory produced tureens in the form of rabbits, Tureens are most practical for serving about six people. In eighteenth-century France, an individual covered standing bowl on a small platter. It could be lifted by its twin handles and drunk from directly, the shape was used for other purposes, it is often found in toilet services, where its purpose is uncertain. Its modern descendant in tableware is the two-handled cream soup bowl on matching plate. A small covered dish for sauce, called a saucière, could take the form of a small tureen, it might be integral with its platter, for ease in handling. Beautiful soup, so rich, and green/Waiting in a hot tureen was apostrophized by the Mock Turtle in Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland, casting Nature, François-Thomas Germains Machine dArgent,2006 Campbell Collection of Soup Tureens at Winterthur
Tureen
–
A
Sèvres, soup tureen and tray, Sèvres porcelain, National Gallery of Victoria, Australia.
Tureen
–
A
Emile Gallé (1846-1904) tureen.
Tureen
–
Still Life (The Silver Tureen,
Chardin, 1728 (
Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Tureen
–
Écuelle and stand,
Sèvres porcelain, 1776
41.
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands in 5500 BC
Netherlands
–
Flag
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands in 500 BC
Netherlands
–
An oak figurine found in
Willemstad, North Brabant (4500 BC).
42.
Delftware
–
Delftware or Delft pottery, also known as Delft Blue, is blue and white pottery made in and around Delft in the Netherlands and the tin-glazed pottery made in the Netherlands from the 16th century. Delftware in the sense is one of the types of tin-glazed earthenware or faience in which a white glaze is applied. It also forms part of the family of blue and white pottery, using variations of the plant-based decoration first developed in 14th century Chinese porcelain. Delftware includes pottery objects of all such as plates, ornaments. The most highly-regarded period of production is about 1640–1740, the earliest tin-glazed pottery in the Netherlands was made in Antwerp where the Italian potter Guido da Savino settled in 1500. The manufacture of painted pottery spread from Antwerp to the northern Netherlands, production developed in Middelburg and Haarlem in the 1570s and in Amsterdam in the 1580s. Much of the work was produced in Delft, but simple everyday tin-glazed pottery was made in places such as Gouda, Rotterdam, Amsterdam. The main period of pottery in the Netherlands was 1640–1740. From about 1640 Delft potters began using personal monograms and distinctive factory marks. The Guild of St Luke, to which painters in all media had to belong, the Double Tankard, The Young Moors Head, and The Three Bells. The use of marl, a type of rich in calcium compounds, allowed the Dutch potters to refine their technique. The usual clay body of Delftware was a blend of three clays, one local, one from Tournai and one from the Rhineland. From about 1615, the potters began to coat their pots completely in white tin glaze instead of covering only the painting surface and coating the rest with clear ceramic glaze. They then began to cover the tin-glaze with clear glaze, which gave depth to the surface and smoothness to cobalt blues. During the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch East India Company had a trade with the East. The Chinese workmanship and attention to detail impressed many, only the richest could afford the early imports. Dutch potters did not immediately imitate Chinese porcelain, they began to do so after the death of the Wanli Emperor in 1620, potters now saw an opportunity to produce a cheap alternative for Chinese porcelain. After much experimenting they managed to make a type of earthenware which was covered with a white tin glaze
Delftware
–
Window display of Delftware in the market place, Delft
Delftware
–
The Chinese-style pattern of the kylin animal in an intricate network is used frequently in Delft, both in blue and white and polychrome decorations.It holds an D mark on the base The D mark is unidentified. Considering the various items from various periods with this mark it possibly is just a general indication of the town of Delft as the production center.
Delftware
–
Delftware depicting
Chinese scenes, 18th century.
Musee Ernest Cognacq
Delftware
–
Dutch Delftware tile
43.
Blue and white porcelain
–
Blue and white pottery covers a wide range of white pottery and porcelain decorated under the glaze with a blue pigment, generally cobalt oxide. The decoration is applied by hand, originally by brush painting. Blue and white decoration first became used in Chinese porcelain in the 14th century. A style of decoration based on plant forms spreading across the object was perfected. Blue and white pottery in all of these continues to be produced. Cobalt blue was first used in decorating Islamic pottery, especially in Persia, the first Chinese blue and white wares were as early as the ninth century in Henan province, China, although only shards have been discovered. Tang period blue-and-white is even rarer than Song blue-and-white and was unknown before 1985, the Tang pieces are not porcelain however, but rather earthenwares with greenish white slip, using cobalt blue pigments. The only three pieces of complete Tang blue and white in the world were recovered from Indonesian Belitung shipwreck in 1998 and it appears that the technique was thereafter forgotten for some centuries. There are still arguing that early pieces are mis-dated, and in fact go back to the Southern Song. In the early 14th century, mass-production of fine, translucent, blue and white porcelain started at Jingdezhen and this development was due to the combination of Chinese techniques and Islamic trade. The new ware was made possible by the export of cobalt from Persia, cobalt blue was considered as a precious commodity, with a value about twice that of gold. Motifs also draw inspiration from Islamic decorations, a large portion of these blue-and-white wares was then shipped to Southwest-Asian markets through the Muslim traders based in Guangzhou. From the 16th century, local sources of cobalt blue started to be developed, production of blue and white wares has continued at Jingdezhen to this day. Blue and white porcelain made at Jingdezhen probably reached the height of its technical excellence during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty. The true development of blue and white ware in China started with the first half of the 14th century, the main production center was in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province. With the advent of the Ming dynasty in 1368, blue and white ware was shunned for a time by the Court, especially under the Hongwu and Yongle Emperors, as being too foreign in inspiration. Blue and white porcelain however came back to prominence with the Xuande Emperor, during the 17th century, numerous blue and white pieces were made as Chinese export porcelain for the European markets. European symbols and scenes coexisted with Chinese scenes for these objects, in the 1640s, rebellions in China and wars between the Ming dynasty and the Manchus damaged many kilns, and in 1656–1684 the new Qing Dynasty government stopped trade by closing its ports
Blue and white porcelain
–
Ming dynasty blue and white vase,
Xuande era (1725-1735)
Blue and white porcelain
–
Blue and white porcelain-ware with a depiction of a
Chinese dragon from the late
Ming dynasty
Blue and white porcelain
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Islamic tin-glazed earthenware, with blue and white decoration,
Iraq, 9th century. The Arabic
calligraphy is ghibta, i.e. "happiness".
Blue and white porcelain
–
Early Chinese blue and white porcelain, manufactured circa 1335, that is about the Yuan dynasty period
Jingdezhen.
44.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
China
–
Yinxu, ruins of an ancient
palace dating from the
Shang Dynasty (14th century BCE)
China
–
Flag
China
–
Some of the thousands of life-size
Terracotta Warriors of the
Qin Dynasty, c. 210 BCE
China
–
The
Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural regions of the
Chinese interior from incursions by
nomadic pastoralists of the northern
steppes.
45.
Lambeth
–
Lambeth is a district in Central London, England, located in the London Borough of Lambeth. It is situated 1 mile south of Charing Cross, the population of Lambeth was 23,937 in 2011. The area experienced some growth in the medieval period as part of the manor of Lambeth Palace. By the Victorian era the area had seen significant development as London expanded, the changes brought by World War II altered much of the fabric of Lambeth. Subsequent development in the late 20th century and early 21st century has seen an increase in the number of high-rise buildings, the area is home to the International Maritime Organization. The origins of the name of Lambeth come from its first record in 1062 as Lambehitha, meaning landing place for lambs, in the Domesday Book, Lambeth is called Lanchei, likely in error. The name refers to a harbour where lambs were either shipped from or to and it is formed from the Old English lamb and hythe. South Lambeth is recorded as Sutlamehethe in 1241 and North Lambeth is recorded in 1319 as North Lamhuth, the manor of Lambeth is recorded as being under ownership of the Archbishop of Canterbury from at least 1190. The Archbishops led the development of much of the manor, with Archbishop Hubert Walter creating the residence of Lambeth Palace in 1197, Lambeth and the palace were the site of two important 13th century international treaties, the Treaty of Lambeth 1217 and the Treaty of Lambeth 1212. Edward, the Black Prince lived in Lambeth in the 14th century in an estate that incorporated the land not belonging to the Archbishops, which also included Kennington. As such, much of the land of Lambeth to this day remains under Royal ownership as part of the estate of the Duchy of Cornwall. The road names, Norfolk Place and Norfolk Row reflect the history, Lambeth Palace lies opposite the southern section of the Palace of Westminster on the Thames. The two were linked by a horse ferry across the river. Until the mid-18th century the north of Lambeth was marshland, crossed by a number of roads raised against floods, the marshland in the area, known as Lambeth Marshe, was drained in the 18th century but is remembered in the Lower Marsh street name. The subsequent growth in road and marine transport, along with the development of industry in the wake of the revolution brought great change to the area. The area grew with a population at this time, many of whom were considerably poor. As a result, Lambeth opened a workhouse in 1726. In 1777 a parliamentary report recorded a parish workhouse in operation accommodating up to 270 inmates and its operation was overseen by an elected Board of twenty Guardians
Lambeth
–
Lambeth beyond
Lambeth Bridge
46.
Creamware
–
Creamware is a cream-coloured, refined earthenware with a lead glaze over a pale body. It was created around 1740 by the potters of Staffordshire, England, creamware is the name given to a type of earthenware pottery which is made from white clays from Dorset and Devonshire combined with an amount of calcined flint. This body is the same as used for salt-glazed stoneware. The white clays ensured a fine body and the addition of flint improved its resistance to thermal shock during firing, creamware was first produced some time before 1740. Originally lead powder or galena, mixed with an amount of ground calcined flint, was dusted on the ware. This early method was unsatisfactory because lead powder produced poisoning among the potters, the method involved first firing the ware to a biscuit state, and then glazing and re-firing it. Foremost of the pioneers of creamware in the Staffordshire Potteries was Thomas Whieldon, although he has become popularly associated almost exclusively with tortoiseshell creamware, in fact he produced a wide variety of creamware. He first mentions ‘Cream Colour’ in 1749, Wedgwood rebelled against the use of coloured glazes, declaring as early as 1766 that he was clearing his warehouse of coloured ware as he was ‘heartily sick of the commodity’. His superior creamware, known as ‘Queens ware’, was supplied to Queen Charlotte and Catherine the Great, there were few changes to creamware after about 1770 and the Wedgwood formula was gradually adopted by most manufacturers. One important ware of note however is pearlware, of which there was an increase around 1779, pearlware is distinct from creamware in having a blue-tinged glaze produced by the use of cobalt and a body somewhat modified to produce a ware that was slightly greyish in appearance. Pearlware was developed in order to demand for substitutes for Chinese porcelain amongst the growing middle classes of the time. By around 1808 a fully whitened version of creamware was introduced to meet changing market demand, there was considerable inventiveness of form and the use of moulds allowed both greater complexity and ease of mass-production. Combined with increasingly sophisticated decorative techniques, creamware quickly became established as the ware for the dinner table amongst both middle and upper classes. Creamware during the 18th century was decorated in a variety of ways, small stamped motifs similar to those used at the time on salt-glaze wares and redware were sometimes applied to the ware for decoration. Dry crystals of metallic oxides such as copper, iron and manganese were then dusted onto the ware to form patches of coloured decoration during firing. The early lead-powder process led directly to the development of the tortoiseshell method, here, patches of colour were sponged or painted onto the biscuit surface before a clear glaze was applied to the whole and then fired. Coloured decoration could help disguise imperfections that might arise during the firing process, transfer-printing of pottery was developed in the 1750s. There were two methods, underglaze printing and overglaze
Creamware
–
Creamware plate, ca 1780-1790 (V&A Museum no. 2302-1901)
Creamware
–
Tortoiseshell creamware plate, by
Thomas Whieldon and
Josiah Wedgwood, c 1770 (
Chazen Museum)
47.
Luneville Faience
–
Luneville Faience is one of the most famous French pottery manufacturers. It has been located in Lunéville, Lorraine, France since 1730, jacques Chambrette Senior initially started the first fine pottery works in Lorraine in 1711. His son began in 1722 by trading faience in Lunéville and he built his own factory there in 1730, just before he obtained the royal permission. He formulated a new type of earthenware called terre de Lorraine in 1748 based on the study of English potteries, as soon as 1749, he was granted the label of official Royal manufactory by Stanislaus I, former king of Poland. However, at the death of the founder, the two factories were split between the family and Richard Mique bought in 1763 the Saint-Clément part, in 1900, there were around 1,100 employees. The factorys products had a reputation and participated successfully in various fields of art. The former pottery factory in Lunéville is now a company store, in 1746, the statue of Nicolas Ferry le nain bébé was offered to the royal court. 1770s first vases designed by Richard Mique of Louis XV style of which he is one of the main proponents in his field and he also adorned the queens hamlet at the Petit Trianon in Versailles with some vases that are still visible there today. Charles-Adzir Trouillot Auguste Majorelle Jean-Baptiste Pillement Mougin brothers Géo Condé Ernest Bussière Émile Gallé Paul-Louis Cyfflé Porcelain manufacturing companies in Europe Eileen Aldridge, les faïenceries de Lunéville et de Saint-Clément. En pays Lunévillois, lhistoire de la faïence au XXème siècle, Lunéville, Amis de la faïence ancienne de Lunéville, Saint-Clément et du pays du Lunévillois. Geneviève Aubry, Catherine Calame & alii, Lunéville, Association des amis de la faïence ancienne de Lunéville-Saint-Clément. Les Frères Mougin, sorciers du grand feu 1898-1950, Lunéville faience and associated Lorraine royal manufactories history of the Lunéville manufactory history of the Saint-Clément manufactory history of the manufactory in Encyclopædia Britannica
Luneville Faience
–
"Lady Crowning a Musician" c. 1770,
Sèvres – Cité de la céramique France
Luneville Faience
–
Auguste Majorelle, charger mid-19th century, Lunéville
Luneville Faience
–
Charger, Luneville, Pervenche K & G model, early 20th century
Luneville Faience
–
dish detail, Luneville, Andilly model for
La Samaritaine
48.
Hanau
–
Hanau is a town in the Main-Kinzig-Kreis, in Hesse, Germany. It is located 25 km east of Frankfurt am Main and its station is a major railway junction and it has a port on the river Main, making it an important transport centre. Hanau is known for being the birthplace of Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, since the 16th century it was a centre of precious metal working with many goldsmiths. It is home to Heraeus, one of the largest family-owned companies in Germany, in 1963, the town hosted the third Hessentag state festival. Until 2005, Hanau was the centre of the Main-Kinzig-Kreis. The historic core of Hanau is situated within a semicircle of the river Kinzig which flows into the river Main just west of the town, after this change, Hanau for the first time also extended to the south bank of the Main river. The name is derived of Hagenowe which is an out of Haag. As a place of settlement Hanau was first mentioned in 1143, then it was the site of a castle which used the waters of the river Kinzig as a defense. The castle belonged to a family, calling themselves of Hanau since the 13th century. Starting from this castle a village developed and became a town in 1303, as a result of this history, the main church of Hanau stood outside its walls in the village of Kinzdorf. The villagers moved into the town, Kinzdorf became a village leaving only the church. Only in the 15th century was the status of the Hanau parish church transferred to the church of Mary Magdalene within the town walls, shortly after the first town walls were built at the beginning of the 14th century, the town outgrew this limit. These new fortifications enclosed three elements, The medieval castle, the town of Hanau and the Vorstadt. At the end of the 16th century, Count Philipp Ludwig II attracted Protestant refugees from the Netherlands and this was of high economic interest for him because these Walloons brought high-class trade, their knowledge of jewellery and other production of luxury items and therefore taxes to his county. Out of this tradition, goldsmiths are still trained in Hanau, Hanau also was the site of the first workshop to produce Faience within Germany. These new citizens were granted privileges and they formed their own community, church and it took more than 200 years to amalgamate both. The new town – larger than the old one – was protected by a very modern fortification in Baroque-style which proved a big asset only a few years later in the Thirty Years War. The town survived a siege in 1637 with only minor damage, in 1736 Johann Reinhard III of Hanau-Lichtenberg, the last of the Counts of Hanau, died
Hanau
–
Goldsmiths' House (Hanau old town hall)
Hanau
–
Relic of the first (medieval) town-fortification
Hanau
–
The
battle of Hanau (1813)
Hanau
–
Historic spa of Wilhelmsbad - today a part of Hanau
49.
Frankfurt-am-Main
–
The city is at the centre of the larger Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region, which has a population of 5.8 million and is Germanys second-largest metropolitan region after Rhine-Ruhr. Since the enlargement of the European Union in 2013, the centre of the EU is about 40 km to the east of Frankfurts CBD. Frankfurt is culturally and ethnically diverse, with half of the population. A quarter of the population are foreign nationals, including many expatriates, Frankfurt is an alpha world city and a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and traffic. Its the site of many global and European headquarters, Frankfurt Airport is among the worlds busiest. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media, Frankfurts DE-CIX is the worlds largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the worlds largest trade fairs, major fairs include the Frankfurt Motor Show, the worlds largest motor show, the Music Fair, and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the worlds largest book fair. Frankfurt is home to educational institutions, including the Goethe University, the UAS, the FUMPA. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, Europes largest English Theatre and many museums, Frankfurts skyline is shaped by some of Europes tallest skyscrapers. In sports, the city is known as the home of the top football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, the Frankfurt Marathon. Its the seat of German sport unions for Olympics, football, Frankfurt is the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market. Frankfurt is considered a city as listed by the GaWC groups 2012 inventory. Among global cities it was ranked 10th by the Global Power City Index 2011, among financial centres it was ranked 8th by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and 9th by the Global Financial Centres Index 2013. Its central location within Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, Frankfurt Airport is one of the worlds busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germanys flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurter Kreuz, the Autobahn interchange close to the airport, is the most heavily used interchange in the EU, in 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual Quality of Living survey of cities around the world. According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germanys most expensive city, Frankfurt has many high-rise buildings in the city centre, forming the Frankfurt skyline. It is one of the few cities in the European Union to have such a skyline and because of it Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, the other well known and obvious nickname is Bankfurt
Frankfurt-am-Main
–
Collage of Frankfurt, clockwise from top of left to right: Facade of the
Römer and
Frankfurt Cathedral, statue of
Charlemagne in
Frankfurt Historical Museum, view of Frankfurt skyline and
Main River
Frankfurt-am-Main
–
The legend of the Frankenfurt (ford of the Franks)
Frankfurt-am-Main
–
Frankfurt in 1612
Frankfurt-am-Main
–
Frankfurt in 1872
50.
Rouen
–
Rouen is a city on the River Seine in the north of France. It is the capital of the region of Normandy, formerly one of the largest and most prosperous cities of medieval Europe, Rouen was the seat of the Exchequer of Normandy during the Middle Ages. It was one of the capitals of the Anglo-Norman dynasties, which ruled both England and large parts of modern France from the 11th to the 15th centuries. The population of the area at the 2007 census was 532,559. People from Rouen are known as Rouennais, Rouen and its metropolitan area of 70 suburban communes form the Agglomeration community of Rouen-Elbeuf-Austreberthe, with 494,382 inhabitants at the 2010 census. Rouen was founded by the Gaulish tribe of Veliocasses, who controlled an area in the lower Seine valley. The Gauls named the settlement Ratumacos and the Romans called it Rotomagus, Roman Rotomagus was the second city of Gallia Lugdunensis, after Lugdunum. In the 5th century, it became the seat of a bishopric, in the 10th century Rouen became the capital of the Duchy of Normandy and the residence of the dukes, until William the Conqueror established his castle at Caen. During the early 12th century the population reached 30,000. In 1150, Rouen received its charter, which permitted self-government. During the 12th century, Rouen was probably the site of a Jewish yeshiva, at that time, about 6,000 Jews lived in the town, comprising about 20% of the total population. The well-preserved remains of a medieval Jewish building, that could be a yeshiva, were discovered in the 1970s under the Rouen Law Courts. In 1200, a destroyed part of Rouens Romanesque cathedral, leaving just St Romains tower, the side porches of its front. New work on the present Gothic cathedral of Rouen began, in the nave, transept, choir, on 24 June 1204, Philip Augustus entered Rouen and annexed Normandy to the French Kingdom. The fall of Rouen meant the end of Normandys sovereign status and he demolished the Norman castle and replaced it with his own, the Château Bouvreuil, built on the site of the Gallo-Roman amphitheatre. A textile industry developed based on wool imported from England, competing with the northern County of Flanders, the city found its market niche in the Champagne fairs. Rouen also depended on the traffic of the Seine for its prosperity. Wine and wheat were exported to England, with tin and wool received in return, in the late 13th century urban strife threatened the city, in 1291, the mayor was assassinated and noble residences in the city were pillaged
Rouen
–
Top: View of Downtown Rouen and Seine River from Bois Bagneres Hill. Middle left: Twilightview of Archives department of Seine Maritime building. Center: Night view of
Gros-Horloge. Middle right:
Pont Gustave-Flaubert (Gustave-Flaubert Bridge). Bottom: Night view of Rouen Notre-Dame Cathedral and Seine River.
Rouen
–
City Hall and
Church of St. Ouen, Rouen
Rouen
–
Primitive 14th century
timber framing, rue du Petit Mouton
Rouen
–
For the
royal entry of
Henry II in Rouen, 1 October 1550.
"Faience". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 126.
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