1.
Fan (person)
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Collectively, the fans of a particular object or person constitute its fanbase or fandom. They may show their enthusiasm in a variety of ways, such as by promoting the object of their interest, being members of a fan club, holding or participating in fan conventions, or writing fan mail. They may also engage in activities such as creating fanzines, writing fan fiction. Merriam-Webster, the Oxford dictionary and other sources define fan as a version of the word fanatic. The word first become popular in reference to baseball enthusiasts, fanatic itself, introduced into English around 1550, means marked by excessive enthusiasm and often intense uncritical devotion. It comes from the Modern Latin fanaticus, meaning insanely but divinely inspired, the word originally pertained to a temple or sacred place. The modern sense of extremely zealous dates from around 1647, the use of fanatic as a noun dates from 1650. However, the fancy for an intense liking of something, while being of a different etymology, coincidentally carries a less intense. The word emerged as an Americanism around 1889, according to that theory, it was originally shortened to fance then just to the homonym fans. Supporter is a synonym to fan that predates the term and is still commonly used in British English. However, the fan has become popular throughout the English-speaking world. The term supporter is also used in a sense in the United States, to a fan of a politician, a political party. Fans usually have a strong enough interest that some changes in their lifestyles are made to accommodate devotion to the focal object, fans have a desire for external involvement – they are motivated to demonstrate their involvement with the area of interest through certain behaviors. Fans often have a wish to acquire material objects related to the area of interest, as well, some fans have a desire for social interaction with other fans. This again may take many forms, from casual conversation, e-mail, chat rooms, complexity allows further involvement of fans for a longer period of time because of the time needed to work the subject of interest out. It also contributes to a sense of belonging because of the mental effort invested in the subject. These fans will often hold a crush on a movie star, pop star. The groupie is an example, a fan of a band or musician
2.
Magazine
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A magazine is a publication, usually a periodical publication, which is printed or electronically published. Magazines are generally published on a schedule and contain a variety of content. They are generally financed by advertising, by a price, by prepaid subscriptions. At its root, the magazine refers to a collection or storage location. In the case of written publication, it is a collection of written articles and this explains why magazine publications share the word root with gunpowder magazines, artillery magazines, firearms magazines, and, in French, retail stores such as department stores. By definition, a magazine paginates with each issue starting at three, with the standard sizing being 8 3/8 ×10 7/8 inches. However, in the sense a journal has continuous pagination throughout a volume. Some professional or trade publications are also peer-reviewed, an example being the Journal of Accountancy, academic or professional publications that are not peer-reviewed are generally professional magazines. That a publication calls itself a journal does not make it a journal in the technical sense, magazines can be distributed through the mail, through sales by newsstands, bookstores, or other vendors, or through free distribution at selected pick-up locations. The subscription business models for distribution fall into three main categories. In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a basis or by subscription. Paid circulation allows for defined readership statistics and this means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, airline, or included with other products or publications. Because this model involves giving issues away to unspecific populations, the statistics only entail the number of issues distributed and this is the model used by many trade magazines distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. This allows a level of certainty that advertisements will be received by the advertisers target audience. This latter model was used before the rise of the World Wide Web and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines use this model, including Computer Weekly and Computing, for the global media industry, an example would be VideoAge International. The earliest example of magazines was Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen, a literary and philosophy magazine, the Gentlemans Magazine, first published in 1731, in London was the first general-interest magazine. Edward Cave, who edited The Gentlemans Magazine under the pen name Sylvanus Urban, was the first to use the term magazine, founded by Herbert Ingram in 1842, The Illustrated London News was the first illustrated magazine
3.
Zine
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A zine is most commonly a small-circulation self-published work of original or appropriated texts and images, usually reproduced via photocopier. Usually zines are the product of a person, or a very small group. Zines first emerged in the United States, where the photocopier was invented, popularly defined as having a circulation of 1,000 or fewer copies, in practice many zines are produced in editions of fewer than 100. The primary intent of publication is to advance the views of the rather than profit, since the time. Zines have served as a significant medium of communication in various subcultures, Zines are written in a variety of formats, from desktop-published text to comics to handwritten text. Print remains the most popular format, usually photocopied with a small circulation. Zines are typically experimental cultural fragments defined by being created and distributed outside of mainstream publication centers and they have the opportunity to reach selected, specific audiences, and often create pockets of intimate, subcultural communities. In recent years a number of photocopied zines have risen to prominence or professional status and have found wide bookstore, notable among these are Giant Robot, Dazed & Confused, Bust, Bitch, Cometbus, Doris, Brainscan, The Miscreant, and Maximum RocknRoll. The word zine is short for magazine or fanzine, and refers to self-publications, motivated by a desire for self-expression, not for profit, the Oxford English Dictionary defines zine exclusively as a shortened form of fanzine. Dissidents and members of marginalized groups have published their own opinions in leaflet and pamphlet form for as long as such technology has been available. In the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin also started a magazine for psychiatric patients at a Pennsylvania hospital. This could be considered the first zine, since it captures the essence of the philosophy, author H. P. Lovecraft had a major preoccupation with the amateur press movement. During and after the Great Depression, editors of pulp fiction magazines became increasingly frustrated with letters detailing the impossibilities of their science fiction stories. Over time they began to publish these letters, complete with their return addresses. This allowed these fans to begin writing to other, now complete with a mailing list for their own science fiction fanzines. Fanzines enabled fans to not only about science fiction but about fandom itself and, in self-proclaimed perzines. The Damien Broderick novel Transmitters illustrates how, unlike the typically isolated self-publisher, the relationships between fans were as important as the literature that inspired them. A number of leading science fiction and fantasy authors rose through the ranks of fandom, such as Frederik Pohl and Isaac Asimov
4.
Phenomenon
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A phenomenon is any thing which manifests itself. Phenomena are often, but not always, understood as things that appear or experiences for a sentient being, the term came into its modern philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon. In contrast to a phenomenon, a noumenon can not be directly observed, Kant was heavily influenced by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in this part of his philosophy, in which phenomenon and noumenon serve as interrelated technical terms. In modern philosophical use, the phenomena has come to mean what is experienced is the basis of reality. He wrote that humans could infer only as much as their senses allowed, thus, the term phenomenon refers to any incident deserving of inquiry and investigation, especially events that are particularly unusual or of distinctive importance. According to The Columbia Encyclopedia, Modern philosophers have used phenomenon to designate what is apprehended before judgment is applied and this may not be possible if observation is theory laden. In scientific usage, a phenomenon is any event that is observable, however common it might be, even if it requires the use of instrumentation to observe, record, another example of scientific phenomena can be found in the experience of phantom limb sensations. This occurrence, the sensation of feeling in amputated limbs, is reported by over 70% of amputees, although the limb is no longer present, they report still experiencing sensations. This is an event that defies typical logic and has been a source of much curiosity within the medical and physiological fields. A mechanical phenomenon is a phenomenon associated with the equilibrium or motion of objects. Some examples are Newtons cradle, engines, and double pendulums, in gemology, a phenomenon is an unusual optical effect that is displayed by a gem. Play-of-color, labradorescence, iridescence, adularescence, chatoyancy, asterism, aventurescence, lustre, group phenomena concern the behavior of a particular group of individual entities, usually organisms and most especially people. The behavior of individuals often changes in a setting in various ways. Social phenomena apply especially to organisms and people in that states are implicit in the term. Attitudes and events particular to a group may have effects beyond the group, in popular usage, a phenomenon often refers to an extraordinary event. The term is most commonly used to refer to occurrences that at first defy explanation or baffle the observer
5.
Science-fiction fandom
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Science fiction fandom or SF fandom is a community or fandom of people actively interested in science fiction in contact with one another based upon that interest. SF fandom has a life of its own, but not much in the way of formal organization, Science fiction fandom started through the letter column of Hugo Gernsbacks fiction magazines. Not only did fans write comments about the stories—they sent their addresses, soon, fans were writing letters directly to each other, and meeting in person when they lived close together, or when one of them could manage a trip. In New York City, David Lasser, Gernsbacks managing editor, nurtured the birth of a local club called the Scienceers. Almost all the members were adolescent boys, around this time a few other small local groups began to spring up in metropolitan areas around the United States, many of them connecting with fellow enthusiasts via the Science Correspondence Club. In May 1930 the first science fiction fan magazine, The Comet, was produced by the Chicago branch of the Science Correspondence Club under the editorship of Raymond A. Palmer and Walter Dennis. In 1934, Gernsback established a club for fans called the Science Fiction League. Local groups across the nation could join by filling out an application, a number of clubs came into being around this time. LASFS was founded at this time as a branch of the SFL, while several competing local branches sprang up in New York City. Soon after the fans started to communicate directly with each other came the creation of science fiction fanzines and these amateur publications might or might not discuss science fiction and were generally traded rather than sold. They ranged from the utilitarian or inept to professional-quality printing and editing, science-fiction fans have been among the first users of computers, email, personal computers and the Internet. Many professional science fiction authors started their interest in fiction as fans. A widely regarded history of fandom in the 1930s can be found in Sam Moskowitzs The Immortal Storm, Moskowitz was himself involved in some of the incidents chronicled and has his own point of view, which has often been criticized. Organized fandom in Sweden emerged during the early-1950s, the first Swedish science fiction fanzine was started in the early 1950s. The oldest still existing club, Club Cosmos in Gothenburg, was formed in 1954, today, there are a number of science fiction clubs in the country, including Skandinavisk Förening för Science Fiction, Linköpings Science Fiction-Förening and Sigma Terra Corps. Between one and four science fiction conventions are held each year in Sweden, among them Swecon, an annual prize is awarded to someone that has contributed to the national fandom by the Alvar Appeltofft Memorial Fund. Since the late 1930s, SF fans have organized conventions, non-profit gatherings where the meet to discuss SF. The 1st World Science Fiction Convention or Worldcon was held in conjunction with the 1939 New York Worlds Fair, and has been held annually since the end of World War II
6.
Publishing
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Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information—the activity of making information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver, also, the word publisher can refer to the individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint or to a person who owns/heads a magazine. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books, Publishing includes the following stages of development, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing, and marketing and distribution. There are two categories of book publisher, Non-paid publishers, A non-paid publisher is a house that does not charge authors at all to publish their books. Paid publishers, The author has to meet with the expense to get the book published. This is also known as vanity publishing, at a small press, it is possible to survive by relying entirely on commissioned material. But as activity increases, the need for works may outstrip the publishers established circle of writers, for works written independently of the publisher, writers often first submit a query letter or proposal directly to a literary agent or to a publisher. Submissions sent directly to a publisher are referred to as unsolicited submissions, the acquisitions editors send their choices to the editorial staff. Unsolicited submissions have a low rate of acceptance, with some sources estimating that publishers ultimately choose about three out of every ten thousand unsolicited manuscripts they receive. Many book publishers around the world maintain a strict no unsolicited submissions policy and this policy shifts the burden of assessing and developing writers out of the publisher and onto the literary agents. At these publishers, unsolicited manuscripts are thrown out, or sometimes returned, established authors may be represented by a literary agent to market their work to publishers and negotiate contracts. Literary agents take a percentage of earnings to pay for their services. Some writers follow a route to publication. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter, for a submission to reach publication, it must be championed by an editor or publisher who must work to convince other staff of the need to publish a particular title. An editor who discovers or champions a book that becomes a best-seller may find their reputation enhanced as a result of their success. Once a work is accepted, commissioning editors negotiate the purchase of property rights. The authors of traditional printed materials typically sell exclusive territorial intellectual property rights that match the list of countries in which distribution is proposed. In the case of books, the publisher and writer must also agree on the formats of publication —mass-market paperback
7.
Editing
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Editing is the process of selecting and preparing written, visual, audible, and film media used to convey information. The editing process can involve correction, condensation, organization, and many other modifications performed with an intention of producing a correct, consistent, accurate and complete work. The editing process begins with the authors idea for the work itself. As such, editing can involve creative skills, human relations, there are various editorial positions in publishing. Typically, one finds editorial assistants reporting to the editorial staff. Senior executive editors are responsible for developing a product for its final release, the smaller the publication, the more these roles overlap. The top editor at many publications may be known as the chief editor, a frequent and highly regarded contributor to a magazine may acquire the title of editor-at-large or contributing editor. Mid-level newspaper editors often manage or help to manage sections, such as business, sports, in U. S. newspapers, the level below the top editor is usually the managing editor. Obtaining manuscripts or recruiting authors is the role of an editor or a commissioning editor in a publishing house. Finding marketable ideas and presenting them to appropriate authors are the responsibilities of a sponsoring editor, copy editors correct spelling, grammar and align writings to house style. Changes to the industry since the 1980s have resulted in nearly all copy editing of book manuscripts being outsourced to freelance copy editors. At newspapers and wire services, copy editors write headlines and work on substantive issues, such as ensuring accuracy, fairness. In some positions, they design pages and select news stories for inclusion, at U. K. and Australian newspapers, the term is sub-editor. They may choose the layout of the publication and communicate with the printer and these editors may have the title of layout or design editor or makeup editor. However, another editor is sometimes involved in the creation of research articles. Called the authors editor, this works with authors to get a manuscript fit for purpose before it is submitted to a scholarly journal for publication. The primary difference between copy editing scholarly books and journals and other sorts of copy editing lies in applying the standards of the publisher to the copy. K, technical editing involves reviewing text written on a technical topic, identifying usage errors and ensuring adherence to a style guide. Large companies dedicate experienced writers to the editing function
8.
Illustration
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The origin of the word “illustration” is late Middle English, via Old French from Latin illustratio, from the verb illustrate. Contemporary illustration uses a range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia. Most illustrators work on a freelance basis, depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, in contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design, original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwells painting Breaking Home Ties sold in a 2006 Sothebys auction for USD15.4 million, many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the processes of printing and publishing. The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were hand drawn. With the invention of the press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life, hokusai’s The Great Wave of Kanazawa is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching, in 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake, who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality, in Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and “serious” publications, at this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators, in common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from the early 1800s newspapers, mass market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th Century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color, in America, this led to a golden age of illustration from before the 1880s until the early 20th Century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time
9.
H. P. Lovecraft
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Howard Phillips Lovecraft was an American author who achieved posthumous fame through his influential works of horror fiction. He was virtually unknown and published only in magazines before he died in poverty. Lovecraft was born in Providence, Rhode Island, where he spent most of his life, among his most celebrated tales are The Call of Cthulhu and The Shadow over Innsmouth, both canonical to the Cthulhu Mythos. Lovecraft was never able to support himself from earnings as author and editor and he saw commercial success increasingly elude him in this latter period, partly because he lacked the confidence and drive to promote himself. He subsisted in straitened circumstances in his last years, an inheritance was completely spent by the time that he died at age 46. Lovecraft was born on August 20,1890 in his home at 194 Angell Street in Providence. Both of his parents were of entirely English ancestry, and most of his ancestors had been in New England since the colonial period and his great-grandfather Joseph Lovecraft Jr. emigrated to Rochester, New York from Devon, England in 1831. Lovecraft maintained throughout his life that his father died in a condition of paralysis brought on by nervous exhaustion. It has been suggested that his fathers mental illness may have been caused by syphilis, all five resided together in the family home. Lovecraft was a prodigy, reciting poetry at the age of three and writing complete poems by six. His grandfather encouraged his reading, providing him with such as One Thousand and One Nights, Thomas Bulfinchs Age of Fable, and childrens versions of the Iliad. His grandfather also stirred the boys interest in the weird by telling him his own tales of gothic horror. Lovecraft was frequently ill as a child, and he attended school until he was eight years old because of his sickly condition. He read voraciously during this period and became enamored of chemistry. He produced several hectographed publications with a circulation, beginning in 1899 with The Scientific Gazette. Four years later, he returned to school at Hope High School. Beginning in his life, Lovecraft is believed to have suffered from sleep paralysis. Much of his work is thought to have been directly inspired by these terrors
10.
Spirit duplicator
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A spirit duplicator was a printing method invented in 1923 by Wilhelm Ritzerfeld and commonly used for much of the rest of the 20th century. The term spirit refers to the alcohols which were a major component of the solvents used as inks in these machines. The device coexisted alongside the mimeograph, the spirit duplicator was invented in 1923 by Wilhelm Ritzerfeld. In both cases the trademark became a name for both the copiers and the process in their respective markets. Spirit duplicator technology gradually fell into disuse starting in the 1970s after the availability of low-cost, by the turn of the 21st century, the use of the technology was rare. The technology remains useful where electrical power is unavailable, or where the only remaining originals of legacy documents requiring duplication are in spirit master form. Tattoo artists use the master copies these machines produce as the design makes a very durable print on the skin that resists smudging as excess ink is wiped off during the process. The faintly sweet aroma of pages fresh off the duplicator was a feature of school life in the spirit-duplicator era. A pop culture reference to the aroma can be found in the 1982 film Fast Times At Ridgemont High, at one point a teacher distributes a duplicated schedule of class quizzes, and almost every student immediately lifts it to his or her nose and inhales. The rest of the follow suit seconds later. The duplicator used two-ply spirit masters, the first sheet could be typed, drawn, or written upon. The second sheet was coated with a layer of wax that had been impregnated with one of a variety of colorants. The pressure of writing or typing on the first sheet transferred the colored wax from the sheet to the shiny/coated back side of the first sheet. This produced the result of a sheet of carbon paper put in backwards. The two sheets were separated, and the first sheet was fastened onto the drum of the machine, with the back side facing out. There is no separate ink used in spirit duplication, as the wax transferred to the side of the first sheet contained the ink. As the paper to be printed moved through the printer, the solvent was spread across each sheet by an absorbent wick, all except black reproduced in pastel shades, pink, mint, sky blue, and so on. Spirit duplicators had the ability to print multiple colors in a single pass
11.
Hectograph
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While the original use of the technology has diminished, it has recently been revived for use in the art world. The hectograph has been modernized and made practical for anyone to use, the special aniline dyes for making the master image came in the form of ink or in pens, pencils, carbon paper and even typewriter ribbon. Hectograph pencils and pens are still available. Various other inks have been found usable to varying degrees in the process, unlike a spirit duplicator master, a hectograph master is not a mirror image. The master is placed on the gelatin and spirits applied to transfer the ink from the master to the gelatin, after transfer of the image to the inked gelatin surface, copies are made by pressing paper against it. When a pad ceased to be useful, the gelatin could be soaked with spirits and the ink could be sponged away, a grey-colored, thick, absorbent paper pad was supplied to cover the gelatin surface for storage. This also removed ink from the surface, but took hours to do so. Care needed to be taken that the surface was kept clean. The gelatin process produced print runs of somewhere between 20 and 80 copies, depending upon the skill of the user and the quality of the original. At least eight different colors of ink were available at one time. Hectography, requiring limited technology and leaving few traces behind, has deemed useful both in low-technology environments and in clandestine circumstances where discretion was necessary. In the earlier 20th century, the process lent itself to small runs of school classroom test papers, church newsletters, prisoners-of-war at Stalag Luft III and at Colditz Castle during World War II used an improvised hectograph to reproduce documents for a planned escape attempt. It has also used, though not very extensively, as an artistic medium in printmaking. The Russian Futurists used it for book illustrations, and the German expressionist Emil Nolde made four hectographs, stephen King, in his book On Writing, talks about how he and his older brother Dave used the process to create their newspaper, Daves Rag. Before the popularization of spirit duplicators and the mimeograph, there were mechanized hectography machines that used a drum, in the final chapters of The Pothunters by P. G. Wodehouse the major characters use a jellygraph to produce a school magazine at very short notice. Wodehouse assumes his reader knows exactly what a jellygraph is and alludes to its being unattractive, I think well keep to print in future. The young, even those who had been too young to fight, were in a bad temper with their elders, as well they might be, meanwhile the old—those over sixty, say—were running in circles like hens, squawking about subversive ideas. Gordon and his friends had quite a time with their subversive ideas
12.
Mimeograph
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The stencil duplicator or mimeograph machine is a low-cost duplicating machine that works by forcing ink through a stencil onto paper. The mimeograph process should not be confused with the spirit duplicator process, mimeographs, along with spirit duplicators and hectographs, were a common technology in printing small quantities, as in office work, classroom materials, and church bulletins. Early fanzines were printed with this technology, because it was widespread, in the late 1960s, mimeographs, spirit duplicators, and hectographs began to be gradually displaced by photocopying. Its earliest form was invented in 1874 by Eugenio de Zuccato, a young Italian studying law in London, zuccato’s system involved writing on a sheet of varnished paper with caustic ink, which ate through the varnish and paper fibers, leaving holes where the writing had been. This sheet – which had now become a stencil – was placed on a sheet of paper. The process was commercialized and Zuccato applied for a patent in 1895 having stencils prepared by typewriting, thomas Edison received US patent 180,857 for Autographic Printing on August 8,1876. The patent covered the electric pen, used for making the stencil, the word mimeograph was first used by Albert Blake Dick when he licensed Edisons patents in 1887. Dick received Trademark Registration no.0356815 for the term Mimeograph in the US Patent Office and it is currently listed as a dead entry, but shows the A. B. Dick Company of Chicago as the owner of the name. Over time, the term became generic and is now an example of a genericized trademark, in 1891, David Gestetner patented his Automatic Cyclostyle. This was one of the first rotary machines that retained the flatbed and this invention provided for more automated, faster reproductions since the pages were produced and moved by rollers instead of pressing one single sheet at a time. By 1900, two types of mimeographs had come into use, a single-drum machine and a dual-drum machine. The single-drum machine used a drum for ink transfer to the stencil. The single drum machine could be used for multi-color work by changing the drum - each of which contained ink of a different color. This was spot color for mastheads, the mimeograph became popular because it was much cheaper than traditional print - there was neither typesetting nor skilled labor involved. One individual with a typewriter and the equipment became his own printing factory. The image transfer medium was originally a stencil made from waxed mulberry paper, later this became an immersion-coated long-fibre paper, with the coating being a plasticized nitrocellulose. This flexible waxed or coated sheet is backed by a sheet of card stock. Once prepared, the stencil is wrapped around the drum of the rotary machine
13.
Desktop publishing
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Desktop publishing is the creation of documents using page layout skills on a personal computer primarily for print. Desktop publishing software can generate layouts and produce typographic quality text and images comparable to traditional typography and this technology allows individuals, businesses, and other organizations to self-publish a wide range of printed matter. Desktop publishing is also the reference for digital typography. When used skillfully, desktop publishing allows the user to produce a variety of materials, from menus to magazines and books. Desktop publishing methods provide more control over design, layout, however, word processing software has evolved to include some, though by no means all, capabilities previously available only with professional printing or desktop publishing. Although what is classified as DTP software is usually limited to print and PDF publications, the content produced by desktop publishers may also be exported and used for electronic media. Desktop publishing began in 1983 with a developed by James Davise at a community newspaper in Philadelphia. The program Type Processor One ran on a PC using a card for a WYSIWYG display and was offered commercially by Best info in 1984. Later on, Adobe PageMaker overtook Microsoft Word in professional DTP in 1985, before the advent of desktop publishing, the only option available to most people for producing typed documents was a typewriter, which offered only a handful of typefaces and one or two font sizes. Indeed, one popular desktop publishing book was entitled The Mac is not a typewriter, newspapers and other print publications made the move to DTP-based programs from older layout systems such as Atex and other programs in the early 1980s. By the standards of the 2010s, early 1980s desktop publishing was a primitive affair, however, it was a revolutionary combination at the time, and was received with considerable acclaim. Behind-the-scenes technologies developed by Adobe Systems set the foundation for professional desktop publishing applications, the LaserWriter and LaserWriter Plus printers included high quality, scalable Adobe PostScript fonts built into their ROM memory. Macintosh-based systems continued to dominate the market into 1986, when the GEM-based Ventura Publisher was introduced for MS-DOS computers and this made it suitable for manuals and other long-format documents. Software was published even for 8-bit computers like the Apple II and Commodore 64, Home Publisher, The Newsroom, however, some desktop publishers who mastered the programs were able to realize truly professional results. DTP skill levels range from what may be learned in a few hours to what requires a college education, the discipline of DTP skills range from technical skills such as prepress production and programming to creative skills such as communication design and graphic image development. There are two types of pages in desktop publishing, electronic pages and virtual paper pages to be printed on physical paper pages, all computerized documents are technically electronic, which are limited in size only by computer memory or computer data storage space. Some desktop publishing programs allow custom sizes designated for large format printing used in posters, billboards, a virtual page for printing has a predesignated size of virtual printing material and can be viewed on a monitor in WYSIWYG format. Each page for printing has trim sizes and an area if bleed printing is not possible as is the case with most desktop printers
14.
Hugo Gernsback
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Hugo Gernsback, born Hugo Gernsbacher, was a Luxembourgish-American inventor, writer, editor, and magazine publisher, best known for publications including the first science fiction magazine. His contributions to the genre as publisher were so significant that, along with the novelists H. G. Wells and Jules Verne, in his honour, annual awards presented at the World Science Fiction Convention are named the Hugos. Gernsback was born in 1884 in Bonnevoie in Luxembourg, to Berta, a housewife, and Moritz Gernsbacher, Gernsback emigrated to the United States in 1904 and later became a naturalized citizen. He married three times, to Rose Harvey in 1906, Dorothy Kantrowitz in 1921, and Mary Hancher in 1951. In 1925, Hugo founded radio station WRNY which broadcast from the 18th floor of The Roosevelt Hotel in New York City and was involved in the first television broadcasts and he is also considered a pioneer in amateur radio. Before helping to create science fiction, Gernsback was an entrepreneur in the industry, importing radio parts from Europe to the United States. In April 1908 he founded Modern Electrics, the worlds first magazine about both electronics and radio, called wireless at the time. While the cover of the magazine itself states it was a catalog, most historians note that it contained articles, features, under its auspices, in January 1909, he founded the Wireless Association of America, which had 10,000 members within a year. In 1912, Gernsback said that he estimated 400,000 people in the U. S. were involved in amateur radio, in 1913, he founded a similar magazine, The Electrical Experimenter, which became Science and Invention in 1920. He died at Roosevelt Hospital in New York City on August 19,1967, Gernsback started the modern genre of science fiction in 1926 by founding the first magazine dedicated to it, Amazing Stories. The inaugural April issue comprised a one-page editorial and reissues of six stories and he said he became interested in the concept after reading a translation of the work of Percival Lowell as a child. His idea of a science fiction story was 75 percent literature interwoven with 25 percent science. He also played a key role in starting science fiction fandom, so, the science fiction fans began to organize, and became aware of themselves as a movement, a social force, this was probably decisive for the subsequent history of the genre. He also created the term “science fiction”, though he preferred the term scientifiction, in 1929, he lost ownership of his first magazines after a bankruptcy lawsuit. There is some debate whether this process was genuine, manipulated by publisher Bernarr Macfadden. After losing control of Amazing Stories, Gernsback founded two new science magazines, Science Wonder Stories and Air Wonder Stories. Gernsback returned in 1952–53 with Science-Fiction Plus, Gernsback was noted for sharp business practices, and for paying his writers extremely low fees or not paying them at all. H. P. Lovecraft and Clark Ashton Smith referred to him as Hugo the Rat, Gernsback wrote fiction, including the novel Ralph 124C 41+ in 1911, the title is a pun on the phrase one to foresee for many
15.
Science fiction magazine
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A science fiction magazine is a publication that offers primarily science fiction, either in a hard copy periodical format or on the Internet. Science fiction magazines traditionally featured speculative fiction in short story, novelette, novella or novel form, many also contain editorials, book reviews or articles, and some also include stories in the fantasy and horror genres. The most influential British science fiction magazine was New Worlds, newer British SF magazines include Interzone, many science fiction magazines have been published in languages other than English, but none has gained worldwide recognition or influence in the world of anglophone science fiction. There is a trend toward important work being published first on the Internet. A web-only publication can cost as little as one-tenth of the cost of publishing a print magazine, moreover, the magazine is internationally accessible, and distribution is not an issue – though obscurity may be. Web-based magazines tend to favor shorter stories and articles that are read on a screen. From 1926 until the early 1950s, American science fiction magazines were the sources of written science fiction. Today, there are relatively few paper-based science fiction magazines, the first science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories, was published in a format known as bedsheet, roughly the size of Life but with a square spine. Later, most magazines changed to the magazine format, roughly the size of comic books or National Geographic. Science fiction magazines in this format often feature non-fiction media coverage in addition to the fiction, knowledge of these formats is an asset when locating magazines in libraries and collections where magazines are usually shelved according to size. The premiere issue of Amazing Stories, edited and published by Hugo Gernsback, after many minor changes in title and major changes in format, policy and publisher, Amazing Stories ended January 2005 after 607 issues. Before that consolidation, it ran 128 issues, much fiction published in these bedsheet magazines, except for classic reprints by writers such as H. G. Wells, Jules Verne and Edgar Allan Poe, is only of antiquarian interest. Some of it was written by science fiction fans, who were paid little or nothing for their efforts. Jack Williamson for example, was 19 when he sold his first story to Amazing Stories and his writing improved greatly over time, and until his death in 2006, he was still a publishing writer at age 98. Some of the stories in the issues were by scientists or doctors who knew little or nothing about writing fiction. The Gostak and the Doshes is one of the few stories from that era still widely read today, other stories of interest from the bedsheet magazines include the first Buck Rogers story. Armageddon 2419 A. D, by Philip Francis Nowlan and The Skylark of Space by E. E. Smith and Mrs. Lee Hawkins Garby, both in Amazing Stories in 1928. There have been a few attempts to revive the bedsheet size using better quality paper
16.
Amazing Stories
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Amazing Stories is an American science fiction magazine launched in April 1926 by Hugo Gernsbacks Experimenter Publishing. It was the first magazine devoted solely to science fiction, Science fiction stories had made regular appearances in other magazines, including some published by Gernsback, but Amazing helped define and launch a new genre of pulp fiction. Amazing was published, with interruptions, for almost eighty years, going through a half-dozen owners. Gernsback was forced into bankruptcy and lost control of the magazine in 1929, and by 1938 it was purchased by Ziff-Davis, Palmer made the magazine successful though it was not regarded as a quality magazine within the science fiction community. Amazing switched to a digest size format in 1953, shortly before the end of the pulp-magazine era. Ted White took over as editor in 1969, eliminated the reprints and made the magazine respected again, several other owners attempted to create a modern incarnation of the magazine in the following decades, but publication was suspended after the March 2005 issue. A new incarnation appeared in July 2012 as an online magazine, Gernsbacks initial editorial approach was to blend instruction with entertainment, he believed science fiction could educate readers. His audience rapidly showed a preference for implausible adventures, however, despite this, Gernsback had an enormous impact on the field, the creation of a specialist magazine for science fiction spawned an entire genre publishing industry. The letter columns in Amazing, where fans could make contact with other, led to the formation of science fiction fandom. Writers whose first story was published in the magazine include John W. Campbell, Isaac Asimov, Howard Fast, Le Guin, Roger Zelazny, and Thomas M. Disch. Overall, though, Amazing itself was rarely an influential magazine within the genre after the 1920s, by the end of the 19th century, stories centered on scientific inventions, and stories set in the future, were appearing regularly in popular fiction magazines. The market for short stories lent itself to tales of invention in the tradition of Jules Verne, Magazines such as Munseys Magazine and The Argosy, launched in 1889 and 1896 respectively, carried a few science fiction stories each year. In 1908, Hugo Gernsback published the first issue of Modern Electrics and it was an immediate success, and Gernsback began to include articles on imaginative uses of science, such as Wireless on Saturn. In 1920 Gernsback retitled the magazine Science and Invention, and through the early 1920s he published much scientific fiction in its pages, Gernsback had started another magazine called Practical Electrics in 1921. However, in 1926 he decided to go ahead, and ceased publication of The Experimenter to make room in his schedule for a new magazine. The editor of The Experimenter, T. OConor Sloane, became the editor of Amazing Stories, the first issue appeared on 10 March 1926, with a cover date of April 1926. Initially the magazine focussed on reprints, the first original story was “The Man From the Atom ” by G. Peyton Wertenbaker in the May 1926 issue, in the August issue, new stories were noted with an asterisk in the table of contents. The editorial work was largely done by Sloane, but Gernsback retained final say over the fiction content, Two consultants, Conrad A. Brandt and Wilbur C
17.
Carbon copy
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In the past, a carbon copy was the under-copy of a document created when carbon paper was placed between the original and the under-copy during the production of a document. With the advent of email, the abbreviations cc or bcc have also come to refer to sending copies of a message to recipients other than the addressee. Nowadays carbon copy is used metaphorically to refer simply to an exact copy. It is not to be confused with the carbon print family of photographic reproduction processes, a sheet of carbon paper is placed between two or more sheets of paper. The pressure applied by the writing implement to the top sheet causes pigment from the paper to make a similar mark on the copy sheet. More than one copy can be made by stacking several sheets with carbon paper between each pair, four or five copies is a practical limit. The top sheet is the original and each of the sheets is called a carbon copy. The use of carbon copies declined with the advent of photocopying, an alternative etymology is that c, was used for copy and cc, indicates the plural, just as p. means page and pp. means pages. This alternative etymology explains the frequent usage of c, when only one recipient is listed and this etymology can also explain why, even originally, cc, was used to list recipients who received typed copies and not necessarily carbon copies. The term carbon copy can be used in reference to anything that was a duplicate of an original. Carbon copy can be used as a verb with the meaning described under e-mail below related to the CC field of an e-mail message. That is, to send the message to recipients beyond the primary recipient. It is common practice to abbreviate the verb form, and many forms are acceptable, past tense forms in use are CCed, ccd, cced, cc-ed and cc, d. Present participle or imperfect forms in use include ccing, merriam-Webster uses cc, ccd and ccing, respectively. In e-mail, the abbreviation CC indicates those who are to receive a copy of a message addressed primarily to another, the list of recipients in copy is visible to all other recipients of the message. An additional BCC field is available for hidden notification, recipients listed in the BCC field receive a copy of the message and it is considered good practice to indicate to the other recipients that a new participant has been added to the list of receivers
18.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
19.
Raymond A. Palmer
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Palmer was also a prolific author of science fiction and fantasy stories, many of which were published under pseudonyms. According to Bruce Lanier Wright, Palmer was hit by a truck at age seven, an unsuccessful operation on Palmers spine stunted his growth, and left him with a hunchback. Palmer found refuge in science fiction, which he read voraciously and he rose through the ranks of science fiction fandom and is credited, along with Walter Dennis, with editing the first fanzine, The Comet, in May,1930. When Ziff-Davis acquired Amazing Stories in 1938, editor T. OConor Sloane resigned, on the recommendation of popular author Ralph Milne Farley, the editorship was offered to Palmer. In 1939, Palmer began a magazine to Amazing Stories titled Fantastic Adventures. As an editor, Palmer tended to favor adventurous, fast-moving space opera-type stories and his tenure at Amazing Stories was notable for his purchase of Isaac Asimovs first professional story, Marooned Off Vesta. Palmer was also known for his support of the running and controversial Shaver Mystery stories. Palmers support of the truth of Shavers stories, was controversial in the science fiction community and it is unclear whether Palmer believed the Shaver stories to be true, or if he was just using the stories to sell magazines. None of these achieved the success of Amazing Stories during the Palmer years. Curtis Fuller and his wife Mary took full control of Fate in 1955, the magazine has continued in publication under a series of editors and publishers to the present day. Another paranormal magazine Palmer created along the line of Fate was Mystic magazine, in the 1970s, Palmer also published Ray Palmers News Letter which was combined into another of his publications called Forum in March 1975. In the first issue of Fate, Palmer published Kenneth Arnolds report of flying discs, Arnolds sighting marked the beginning of the modern UFO era, and his story propelled the fledgling Fate to national recognition. Through Fate, Palmer was instrumental in popularizing belief in flying saucers and this interest led him to establish the magazine Flying Saucers. Palmers avid interest in spirituality and alternative explanations of reality was reflected in his choice of publications and his interest in the Oahspe Bible, led him on a 15-year search for a copy of the original 1882 edition published by Oahspe Publishing Assoc. Although a later edited and revised edition was published in 1891 and reprinted over the years and it is often referred to as The Palmer Edition or The Green Oahspe among Oahspe readers. He continued to publish and reprint later editions to which he added an index, Oahspe was reported by the spiritualist medium John B. Newbrough to have come as automatic writing through his hands on the newly invented typewriter, the secret identity of DC Comics superhero the Atom - introduced by science fiction writer Gardner Fox in 1961 - is named after Palmer. A newer edition of Oahspe as an edition to Ray Palmer was published in 2009 titled
20.
Aniline
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Aniline is an organic compound with the formula C6H5NH2. Consisting of a group attached to an amino group, aniline is the prototypical aromatic amine. Its main use is in the manufacture of precursors to polyurethane, like most volatile amines, it possesses the odour of rotten fish. It ignites readily, burning with a smoky flame characteristic of aromatic compounds, the amine is nearly planar owing to conjugation of the lone pair with the aryl substituent. The C-N distance is correspondingly shorter, in aniline, the C-N and C-C distances are close to 1.39 Å, indicating the π-bonding between N and C. Industrial aniline production involves two steps, first, benzene is nitrated with a concentrated mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid at 50 to 60 °C to yield nitrobenzene. The nitrobenzene is then hydrogenated in the presence of metal catalysts, the reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline was first performed by Nikolay Zinin in 1842 using inorganic sulfide as a reductant. Aniline can alternatively be prepared from ammonia and phenol derived from the cumene process, many analogues of aniline are known where the phenyl group is further substituted. These include toluidines, xylidines, chloroanilines, aminobenzoic acids, nitroanilines and they often are prepared by nitration of the substituted aromatic compounds followed by reduction. For example, this approach is used to convert toluene into toluidines, the chemistry of aniline is rich because the compound has been cheaply available for many years. Below are some classes of its reactions, the oxidation of aniline has been heavily investigated, and can result in reactions localized at nitrogen or more commonly results in the formation of new C-N bonds. In alkaline solution, azobenzene results, whereas arsenic acid produces the violet-coloring matter violaniline, chromic acid converts it into quinone, whereas chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts, give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate give chloranil, potassium permanganate in neutral solution oxidizes it to nitrobenzene, in alkaline solution to azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic acid, in acid solution to aniline black. Hypochlorous acid gives 4-aminophenol and para-amino diphenylamine, oxidation with persulfate affords a variety of polyanilines compounds. These polymers exhibit rich redox and acid-base properties, like phenols, aniline derivatives are highly susceptible to electrophilic substitution reactions. Its high reactivity reflects that it is an enamine, which enhances the ability of the ring. For example, reaction of aniline with sulfuric acid at 180 °C produces sulfanilic acid, if bromine water is added to aniline, the bromine water is decolourised and a white precipitate of 2,4, 6-tribromophenylamine is formed. The largest scale industrial reaction of aniline involves its alkylation with formaldehyde, an idealized equation is shown,2 C6H5NH2 + CH2O → CH22 + H2O The resulting diamine is the precursor to 4, 4-MDI and related diisocyanates
21.
Indigo
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Indigo is a deep and rich color close to the color wheel blue, as well as to some variants of ultramarine. The color indigo is named after the indigo dye derived from the plant Indigofera tinctoria, the first known recorded use of indigo as a color name in English was in 1289. Species of Indigofera were cultivated in Peru, India, East Asia, the earliest direct evidence for the use of indigo dates to around 4000 BCE and comes from Huaca Prieta, in contemporary Peru. Pliny mentions India as the source of the dye, imported in small quantities via the Silk Road, the Greek term for the dye was Ἰνδικὸν φάρμακον, which, adopted to Latin as indicum and via Portuguese gave rise to the modern word indigo. El Salvador has lately been the biggest producer of indigo, Indigo was actually a plant that got its name because it came from the Indus Valley, discovered some 5,000 years ago, where it was called nila, meaning dark blue. And by the 7th Century BC, people starting using the plant as a dye — the Mesopotamians were even carving out recipes for making indigo dye onto clay tablets for record-keeping. By 1289, knowledge of the dye made its way to Europe, but it wasn’t until 1640 when demand started to pick up for indigo. Spanish explorers discovered an American species of Indigo and began to cultivate the product in Guatemala, the English and French subsequently began to encourage indigo cultivation in their colonies in the West Indies. Indigo dye could be made from two different types of plants — the indigo plant, which produced the best results, the British were producing indigo with woad, a plant that yielded a lesser quality dye, but a plant they could grow. They even tried to hold their monopoly on indigo dye by managing to ban the indigo plant for years, but eventually the British began to focus on tea and other crops — and meanwhile, the French started to get their fair share of the market. The French had gone to war with Britain, so the British could hardly rely on the French for this precious blue dye, consequently, the British had to turn to their colonies in America. It was Eliza Lucas from South Carolina who figured out how to grow the indigo plant, the same indigo dye is contained in the woad plant, Isatis tinctoria, for a long time the main source of blue dye in Europe. Woad was replaced by true indigo as trade routes opened up, the Early Modern English word indigo referred to the dye, and not to the color itself, and indigo is not traditionally part of the basic color-naming system. Modern sources place indigo in the spectrum between 420 and 450 nanometers, which lies on the side of color wheel blue. However, the correspondence of this definition with colors of actual indigo dyes is disputed, isaac Newton introduced indigo as one of the seven base colors of his work. In a pivotal experiment in the history of optics, the young Newton shone a narrow beam of sunlight through a prism to produce a band of colors on the wall. He linked the seven prismatic colors to the seven notes of a major scale, as shown in his color wheel, with orange. Indigo is therefore counted as one of the colors of the rainbow
22.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
23.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
24.
Leet
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Leet, also known as eleet or leetspeak, is an alternative alphabet for many languages that is used primarily on the Internet. It uses some characters to others in ways that play on the similarity of their glyphs via reflection or other resemblance. For example, leet spellings of the word leet include 1337 and l33t, the term leet is derived from the word elite. The leet alphabet is a form of symbolic writing. Leet may also be considered a substitution cipher, although many dialects or linguistic varieties exist in different online communities, the term leet is also used as an adjective to describe formidable prowess or accomplishment, especially in the fields of online gaming and in its original usage—computer hacking. Leet originated within bulletin board systems in the 1980s, where having elite status on a BBS allowed a user access to file folders, games, and special chat rooms. The Cult of the Dead Cow hacker collective has been credited with the coining of the term. Creative misspellings and ASCII-art-derived words were also a way to attempt to indicate one was knowledgeable about the culture of computer users, once the reserve of hackers, crackers, and script kiddies, leet has since entered the mainstream. It is now used to mock newbies, or newcomers, on web sites. Some consider emoticons and ASCII art, like smiley faces, to be leet, more obscure forms of leet, involving the use of symbol combinations and almost no letters or numbers, continue to be used for its original purpose of encrypted communication. It is also used as a script language. Leet symbols, especially the number 1337, are Internet memes that have spilled over into popular culture, signs that show the numbers 1337 are popular motifs for pictures and shared widely across the Internet. One of the hallmarks of leet is its approach to orthography, using substitutions of other characters, letters or otherwise. For more casual use of leet, the strategy is to use homoglyphs. The choice of symbol is not fixed—anything that the reader can make sense of is valid. e, anything that the average reader cannot make sense of is valid, a valid reader should himself try to make sense, if deserving of the underlying message. Another use for Leet orthographic substitutions is the creation of paraphrased passwords, limitations imposed by websites on password length and the characters permitted require less extensive forms of Leet when used in this application. Some examples of leet include B1ff and n00b, a term for the newbie, the l33t programming language, and the web-comic Megatokyo. Text rendered in leet is often characterized by distinctive, recurring forms, the -xor suffix The meaning of this suffix is parallel with the English -er and -r suffixes, in that it derives agent nouns from a verb stem
25.
Forrest J Ackerman
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He was based in Los Angeles, California. During his career as an agent, Ackerman represented such science fiction authors as Ray Bradbury, Isaac Asimov, A. E. Van Vogt, Curt Siodmak. He was, for seven decades, one of science fictions staunchest spokesmen. Ackerman was the editor and principal writer of the American magazine Famous Monsters of Filmland, as well as an actor, and Charles Beaumont, The Short Life of Twilight Zones Magic Man, about the late author Charles Beaumont, a former client of The Ackerman Agency. Famous for his play and neologisms, he coined the genre nickname sci-fi. In 1953, he was voted #1 Fan Personality by the members of the World Science Fiction Society and he was also among the first and most outspoken advocates of Esperanto in the science fiction community. Ackerman was born Forrest James Ackerman, on November 24,1916, in Los Angeles, to Carroll Cridland and his father was from New York and his mother was from Ohio, she was nine years older than William. His name was used for the character of the reporter in the original Superman story The Reign of the Superman in issue 3 of Science Fiction magazine and he was one of the early members of the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society, and remained active in it for many decades. He attended the 1st World Science Fiction Convention in 1939, where he wore the first futuristicostume and sparked fan costuming and he attended every Worldcon but two thereafter during his lifetime. Ackerman invited Ray Bradbury to attend the Los Angeles Chapter of the Science Fiction League, the club changed its name to the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society during the period it was meeting at the restaurant. Among the writers frequenting the club were Robert A. Heinlein, Emil Petaja, Fredric Brown, Henry Kuttner, Leigh Brackett, Bradbury often attended meetings with his friend Ray Harryhausen, the two Rays had been introduced to each other by Ackerman. With $90 from Ackerman, Bradbury launched a fanzine, Futuria Fantasia and this second house, in the Los Feliz district of Los Angeles, contained some 300,000 books and pieces of movie and science-fiction memorabilia. From 1951 to 2002, Ackerman entertained some 50,000 fans at open houses - including, on one such evening, Ackerman was a board member of the Seattle Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame, where many items of his collection are now displayed. He knew most of the writers of fiction in the first half of the twentieth-century. As a literary agent, he represented some 200 writers, and he served as agent of record for many long lost authors and he was Ed Woods illiterary agent. Ackerman was credited with nurturing and even inspiring the careers of several early contemporaries like Ray Bradbury, Ray Harryhausen, Charles Beaumont, Marion Zimmer Bradley and his stories have been translated into six languages. Ackerman named the sexy comic-book character Vampirella and wrote the story for the comic. He also authored several lesbian stories under the name Laurajean Ermayne for Vice Versa and he was dubbed an honorary lesbian at a DOB party
26.
LiveJournal
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LiveJournal / LJ or Zhivoy Zhurnal /ZheZhe in Russia, is a Russian social networking service where users can keep a blog, journal or diary. A wide variety of political pundits also use the service for political commentary, particularly in Russia, as with many other social networks, a wide variety of public figures use the network. LiveJournal was started on April 15,1999 by American programmer Brad Fitzpatrick as a way of keeping his school friends updated on his activities. In January 2005, blogging software company Six Apart purchased Danga Interactive, in December 2006, the service quietly re-located its servers to Russia, and in April 2017, LiveJournal became subject to Russian law. The unit of networking on LiveJournal is quaternary. Two users can have no relationship, they can list each other as friends mutually, on LiveJournal, friend is also used as a verb to describe listing someone as a friend. A users list of friends will often include several communities and RSS feeds in addition to individual users, generally, friending allows the friends of a user to read protected entries and causes the friends entries to appear on the users friends page. Friends can also be grouped together in groups, allowing for more complex behavior. Features common to all accounts Each journal entry has its own web page, in addition, each user has a journal page, which shows all of his or her most recent journal entries, along with links to the comment pages. The most distinctive feature of LiveJournal is the friends list, which gives the site a strong social aspect in addition to the blog services, the friends list provides various syndication and privacy services as described below. Each user has a page, which collects the most recent journal entries of the people on his or her friends list. LiveJournal allows users to customize their accounts, the S2 programming language allows journal templates to be modified by members. Users may upload graphical avatars, or userpics, which next to the username in prominent areas as it would on an Internet forum. Paid account holders are given access to S2 management and more userpics. Currently LiveJournal has five account levels, basic, plus, early adopters who were registered prior to 14 September 2000, paid, and permanent. Permanent accounts are not available to the average user, there have been occasional sale days or special offers. Prior to March 12,2008, basic accounts were ad-free, in August,2008, LiveJournal resumed new basic account creation, basic users also see advertising, but not on other basic journals. As well as allowing embedded videos from sites, LiveJournal can host videos
27.
Blog
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A blog is a discussion or informational website published on the World Wide Web consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries. Posts are typically displayed in chronological order, so that the most recent post appears first. Until 2009, blogs were usually the work of an individual, occasionally of a small group. In the 2010s, multi-author blogs have developed, with posts written by large numbers of authors, MABs from newspapers, other media outlets, universities, think tanks, advocacy groups, and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog traffic. The rise of Twitter and other microblogging systems helps integrate MABs, Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog. In the 2010s, the majority are interactive Web 2.0 websites, allowing visitors to leave online comments, in that sense, blogging can be seen as a form of social networking service. Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, however, there are high-readership blogs which do not allow comments. Many blogs provide commentary on a subject or topic, ranging from politics to sports. Others function as more personal online diaries, and others function more as online brand advertising of an individual or company. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to blogs, web pages. The ability of readers to leave publicly viewable comments, and interact with other commenters, is an important contribution to the popularity of many blogs, however, blog owners or authors often moderate and filter online comments to remove hate speech or other offensive content. Most blogs are primarily textual, although focus on art, photographs, videos, music. In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources and these blogs are referred to as edublogs. Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts, on 16 February 2011, there were over 156 million public blogs in existence. On 20 February 2014, there were around 172 million Tumblr and 75.8 million WordPress blogs in existence worldwide, according to critics and other bloggers, Blogger is the most popular blogging service used today. However, Blogger does not offer public statistics, Technorati lists 1.3 million blogs as of February 22,2014. The term weblog was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997, the short form, blog, was coined by Peter Merholz, who jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme. com in April or May 1999. Shortly thereafter, Evan Williams at Pyra Labs used blog as both a noun and verb and devised the term blogger in connection with Pyra Labs Blogger product, in the 1990s, Internet forum software, created running conversations with threads
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Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
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Hugo Award
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The Hugo Awards are a set of awards given annually for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year. The awards are named after Hugo Gernsback, the founder of the science fiction magazine Amazing Stories. Organized and overseen by the World Science Fiction Society, the awards are given each year at the annual World Science Fiction Convention as the focus of the event. They were first given in 1953, at the 11th World Science Fiction Convention, the Hugo Awards have been termed as among the highest honors bestowed in science fiction and fantasy writing. Works that have won have been published in collections. The 2016 awards were presented at the 74th Worldcon, MidAmeriCon II, in Kansas City, United States, the 2017 Hugos will be presented at the 75th Worldcon, Worldcon 75, in Helsinki, Finland, on August 12,2017. For lists of winners and nominees for each category, see the list of categories below. The World Science Fiction Society gives out the Hugo Awards each year for the best science fiction or fantasy works, the award is named after Hugo Gernsback, who founded the pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories and who is considered one of the fathers of the science fiction genre. Works are eligible for an award if they were published in English in the calendar year. There are no rules as to which works qualify as science fiction or fantasy. Hugo Award nominees and winners are chosen by supporting or attending members of the annual World Science Fiction Convention, or Worldcon, the selection process is defined in the WSFS constitution as instant-runoff voting with five nominees per category, except in the case of a tie. The awards are split over more than a dozen categories, for each category of Hugo, the voter may rank No Award as one of their choices. Voters are instructed that they should do so if they feel that none of the nominees are worthy of the award, or if they feel the category should be abolished entirely. A vote for No Award other than as ones first choice signifies that the voter believes the nominee ranked higher than No Award are worthy of a Hugo in that category, while those ranked lower are not. The five works on the ballot for each category are the most-nominated by members that year, from 1953 to 1958 the awards did not include any recognition of runner-up novels, but since 1959 all of the candidates have been recorded. Worldcons are generally held near the start of September, and take place in a different city around the world each year, the idea of giving out awards at Worldcons was proposed by Harold Lynch for the 1953 convention. The idea was based on the Academy Awards, with the name Hugo being given by Robert A. Madle, the award trophy was created by Jack McKnight and Ben Jason in 1953, based on the design of hood ornaments of 1950s cars. It consisted of a rocket ship on a wooden base
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Hugo Award for Best Fan Artist
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The Hugo Awards are presented every year by the World Science Fiction Society for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year. The award is named after Hugo Gernsback, the founder of the science fiction magazine Amazing Stories. The award has been described as a showcase for speculative fiction. The Hugo Award for Best Fan Artist is given each year for artists of works related to science fiction or fantasy which appeared in low- or non-paying publications such as semiprozines or fanzines, a Hugo Award for professional artists is also given. The fan award was first presented in 1967 and has awarded annually. Beginning in 1996, Retrospective Hugo Awards, or Retro Hugos, have been available to be awarded for years 50,75, or 100 years prior in which no awards were given. Hugo Award nominees and winners are chosen by supporting or attending members of the annual World Science Fiction Convention, or Worldcon, the selection process is defined in the World Science Fiction Society Constitution as instant-runoff voting with five nominees, except in the case of a tie. These five works on the ballot are those most-nominated by members that year, worldcons are generally held near Labor Day and in a different city around the world each year. During the 52 nomination years,65 artists have been nominated,27 of these have won, including co-winners, brad W. Foster has received the most number of awards, with 8 wins out of 27 nominations. William Rotsler and Tim Kirk have won five awards, from twenty-three and eight nominations respectively. The only other artists to win more than twice are Teddy Harvia, with four out of twenty nominations, Alexis A. Gilliland, with four out of eight, in the following tables, the years correspond to the date of the ceremony. Artists are eligible based on their work of the calendar year. Entries with a background and an asterisk next to the artists name have won the award. Retro Hugos may only be awarded for years in which a Worldcon was hosted, Retro Hugos have been awarded four times, for 1939,1941,1946,1951, and 1954. The 1939 and 1941 awards were given 75 years later, the three awards were given 50 years later. The 1939,1941, and 1954 Retro Hugos did not receive nominations for the Fan Artist Hugo to make the ballot. The next year that Retro Hugos can be awarded is 2022, for 1947
31.
Star Trek
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Star Trek is an American science fiction media franchise based on the television series created by Gene Roddenberry. The first television series, simply called Star Trek and now referred to as The Original Series, debuted in 1966 and it followed the interstellar adventures of Captain James T. Kirk and his crew aboard the starship USS Enterprise, an exploration vessel. The Star Trek canon of the franchise include The Original Series, a series, four spin-off television series, its film franchise. In creating Star Trek, Roddenberry was inspired by the Horatio Hornblower novels, the satirical book Gullivers Travels and these adventures continued in the short-lived Star Trek, The Animated Series and six feature films. The adventures of The Next Generation crew continued in four feature films. In 2009, the franchise underwent a reboot set in an alternate timeline, or Kelvin Timeline. This film featured a new cast portraying younger versions of the crew from the show, their adventures were continued in the sequel film. The thirteenth film feature and sequel, Star Trek Beyond, was released to coincide with the franchises 50th anniversary, a new Star Trek TV series, titled Star Trek, Discovery, will premiere in May 2017 on the digital platform CBS All Access. Star Trek has been a phenomenon for decades. Fans of the franchise are called Trekkies or Trekkers, the franchise spans a wide range of spin-offs including games, figurines, novels, toys, and comics. Star Trek had an attraction in Las Vegas that opened in 1998. At least two museum exhibits of props travel the world, the series has its own full-fledged constructed language, Klingon. Several parodies have been made of Star Trek, in addition, viewers have produced several fan productions. As of July 2016, the franchise had generated $10 billion in revenue, Star Trek is noted for its cultural influence beyond works of science fiction. The franchise is also noted for its civil rights stances. The Original Series included one of televisions first multiracial casts, Star Trek references can be found throughout popular culture from movies such as the submarine thriller Crimson Tide to the animated series South Park. As early as 1964, Gene Roddenberry drafted a proposal for the series that would become Star Trek
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