1.
System of measurement
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A system of measurement is a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them to each other. Systems of measurement have historically been important, regulated and defined for the purposes of science and commerce, systems of measurement in modern use include the metric system, the imperial system, and United States customary units. The French Revolution gave rise to the system, and this has spread around the world. In most systems, length, mass, and time are base quantities, later science developments showed that either electric charge or electric current could be added to extend the set of base quantities by which many other metrological units could be easily defined. Other quantities, such as power and speed, are derived from the set, for example. Such arrangements were satisfactory in their own contexts, the preference for a more universal and consistent system only gradually spread with the growth of science. Changing a measurement system has substantial financial and cultural costs which must be offset against the advantages to be obtained using a more rational system. However pressure built up, including scientists and engineers for conversion to a more rational. The unifying characteristic is that there was some definition based on some standard, eventually cubits and strides gave way to customary units to met the needs of merchants and scientists. In the metric system and other recent systems, a basic unit is used for each base quantity. Often secondary units are derived from the units by multiplying by powers of ten. Thus the basic unit of length is the metre, a distance of 1.234 m is 1,234 millimetres. Metrication is complete or nearly complete in almost all countries, US customary units are heavily used in the United States and to some degree in Liberia. Traditional Burmese units of measurement are used in Burma, U. S. units are used in limited contexts in Canada due to the large volume of trade, there is also considerable use of Imperial weights and measures, despite de jure Canadian conversion to metric. In the United States, metric units are used almost universally in science, widely in the military, and partially in industry, but customary units predominate in household use. At retail stores, the liter is a used unit for volume, especially on bottles of beverages. Some other standard non-SI units are still in use, such as nautical miles and knots in aviation. Metric systems of units have evolved since the adoption of the first well-defined system in France in 1795, during this evolution the use of these systems has spread throughout the world, first to non-English-speaking countries, and then to English speaking countries
2.
SI derived unit
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The International System of Units specifies a set of seven base units from which all other SI units of measurement are derived. Each of these units is either dimensionless or can be expressed as a product of powers of one or more of the base units. For example, the SI derived unit of area is the metre. The degree Celsius has an unclear status, and is arguably an exception to this rule. The names of SI units are written in lowercase, the symbols for units named after persons, however, are always written with an uppercase initial letter. In addition to the two dimensionless derived units radian and steradian,20 other derived units have special names, some other units such as the hour, litre, tonne, bar and electronvolt are not SI units, but are widely used in conjunction with SI units. Until 1995, the SI classified the radian and the steradian as supplementary units, but this designation was abandoned, International System of Quantities International System of Units International Vocabulary of Metrology Metric prefix Metric system Non-SI units mentioned in the SI Planck units SI base unit I. Mills, Tomislav Cvitas, Klaus Homann, Nikola Kallay, IUPAC, Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list
3.
Capacitance
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Capacitance is the ability of a body to store an electric charge. There are two related notions of capacitance--self capacitance and mutual capacitance--that are usually both designated by the same term, capacitance. Any object that can be electrically charged exhibits self capacitance, a material with a large self capacitance holds more electric charge at a given voltage, than one with low capacitance. The notion of mutual capacitance is important for understanding the operations of the capacitor. The capacitance is a function only of the geometry of the design, for many dielectric materials, the permittivity and thus the capacitance, is independent of the potential difference between the conductors and the total charge on them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, named after the English physicist Michael Faraday, a 1 farad capacitor, when charged with 1 coulomb of electrical charge, has a potential difference of 1 volt between its plates. In electrical circuits, the capacitance is usually a shorthand for the mutual capacitance between two adjacent conductors, such as the two plates of a capacitor. It is actually mutual capacitance between the turns of the coil and is a form of stray, or parasitic capacitance. This self-capacitance is an important consideration at high frequencies and it changes the impedance of the coil and gives rise to parallel resonance. In many applications this is an effect and sets an upper frequency limit for the correct operation of the circuit. The inverse of capacitance is called elastance, the unit of elastance is the daraf, but is not recognised by SI. A common form is a capacitor, which consists of two conductive plates insulated from each other, usually sandwiching a dielectric material. In a parallel capacitor, capacitance is very nearly proportional to the surface area of the conductor plates. If the charges on the plates are +q and −q, and V gives the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance C is given by C = q V. which gives the voltage/current relationship I = C d V d t. Historically, a farad was regarded as a large unit. Its subdivisions were invariably used, namely the microfarad, nanofarad and picofarad, more recently, technology has advanced such that capacitors of 1 farad and greater can be constructed in a structure little larger than a coin battery. Such capacitors are used for energy storage replacing more traditional batteries. The energy stored in a capacitor is found by integrating the work W, W charging =12 C V2 The discussion above is limited to the case of two conducting plates, although of arbitrary size and shape
4.
Michael Faraday
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Michael Faraday FRS was an English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, although Faraday received little formal education, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. It was by his research on the field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was a relationship between the two phenomena. He similarly discovered the principles of induction and diamagnetism. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, Faraday ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a lifetime position. James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others and summarized it in a set of equations which is accepted as the basis of all theories of electromagnetic phenomena. The SI unit of capacitance is named in his honour, the farad, albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell. Faraday was born in Newington Butts, which is now part of the London Borough of Southwark but was then a part of Surrey. His family was not well off and his father, James, was a member of the Glassite sect of Christianity. James Faraday moved his wife and two children to London during the winter of 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an apprentice to the village blacksmith, Michael was born in the autumn of that year. The young Michael Faraday, who was the third of four children, at the age of 14 he became an apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street. During his seven-year apprenticeship Faraday read many books, including Isaac Wattss The Improvement of the Mind, at this time he also developed an interest in science, especially in electricity. Faraday was particularly inspired by the book Conversations on Chemistry by Jane Marcet, many of the tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance, who was one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Faraday subsequently sent Davy a 300-page book based on notes that he had taken during these lectures, davys reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. In 1813, when Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, very soon Davy entrusted Faraday with the preparation of nitrogen trichloride samples, and they both were injured in an explosion of this very sensitive substance. In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman, Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davys wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal, the trip did, however, give him access to the scientific elite of Europe and exposed him to a host of stimulating ideas
5.
SI base unit
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The International System of Units defines seven units of measure as a basic set from which all other SI units can be derived. The SI base units form a set of mutually independent dimensions as required by dimensional analysis commonly employed in science, thus, the kelvin, named after Lord Kelvin, has the symbol K and the ampere, named after André-Marie Ampère, has the symbol A. Many other units, such as the litre, are not part of the SI. The definitions of the units have been modified several times since the Metre Convention in 1875. Since the redefinition of the metre in 1960, the kilogram is the unit that is directly defined in terms of a physical artifact. However, the mole, the ampere, and the candela are linked through their definitions to the mass of the platinum–iridium cylinder stored in a vault near Paris. It has long been an objective in metrology to define the kilogram in terms of a fundamental constant, two possibilities have attracted particular attention, the Planck constant and the Avogadro constant. The 23rd CGPM decided to postpone any formal change until the next General Conference in 2011
6.
Second
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The second is the base unit of time in the International System of Units. It is qualitatively defined as the division of the hour by sixty. SI definition of second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom. Seconds may be measured using a mechanical, electrical or an atomic clock, SI prefixes are combined with the word second to denote subdivisions of the second, e. g. the millisecond, the microsecond, and the nanosecond. Though SI prefixes may also be used to form multiples of the such as kilosecond. The second is also the unit of time in other systems of measurement, the centimetre–gram–second, metre–kilogram–second, metre–tonne–second. Absolute zero implies no movement, and therefore zero external radiation effects, the second thus defined is consistent with the ephemeris second, which was based on astronomical measurements. The realization of the second is described briefly in a special publication from the National Institute of Standards and Technology. 1 international second is equal to, 1⁄60 minute 1⁄3,600 hour 1⁄86,400 day 1⁄31,557,600 Julian year 1⁄, more generally, = 1⁄, the Hellenistic astronomers Hipparchus and Ptolemy subdivided the day into sixty parts. They also used an hour, simple fractions of an hour. No sexagesimal unit of the day was used as an independent unit of time. The modern second is subdivided using decimals - although the third remains in some languages. The earliest clocks to display seconds appeared during the last half of the 16th century, the second became accurately measurable with the development of mechanical clocks keeping mean time, as opposed to the apparent time displayed by sundials. The earliest spring-driven timepiece with a hand which marked seconds is an unsigned clock depicting Orpheus in the Fremersdorf collection. During the 3rd quarter of the 16th century, Taqi al-Din built a clock with marks every 1/5 minute, in 1579, Jost Bürgi built a clock for William of Hesse that marked seconds. In 1581, Tycho Brahe redesigned clocks that displayed minutes at his observatory so they also displayed seconds, however, they were not yet accurate enough for seconds. In 1587, Tycho complained that his four clocks disagreed by plus or minus four seconds, in 1670, London clockmaker William Clement added this seconds pendulum to the original pendulum clock of Christiaan Huygens. From 1670 to 1680, Clement made many improvements to his clock and this clock used an anchor escapement mechanism with a seconds pendulum to display seconds in a small subdial
7.
Ampere
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The ampere, often shortened to amp, is a unit of electric current. In the International System of Units the ampere is one of the seven SI base units and it is named after André-Marie Ampère, French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics. SI defines the ampere in terms of base units by measuring the electromagnetic force between electrical conductors carrying electric current. The ampere was then defined as one coulomb of charge per second, in SI, the unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second. In the future, the SI definition may shift back to charge as the base unit, ampères force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the definition of the ampere. The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere, conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second,1 A =1 C s. In general, charge Q is determined by steady current I flowing for a time t as Q = It, constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes and the charge accumulated, or passed through a circuit over a period of time is expressed in coulombs. The relation of the ampere to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt to the joule, the ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre–gram–second system of units. That unit, now known as the abampere, was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized. The international ampere was a realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit 0.001118 grams of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is 0.99985 A, at present, techniques to establish the realization of an ampere have a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 107, and involve realizations of the watt, the ohm and the volt. Rather than a definition in terms of the force between two current-carrying wires, it has proposed that the ampere should be defined in terms of the rate of flow of elementary charges. Since a coulomb is equal to 6. 2415093×1018 elementary charges. The proposed change would define 1 A as being the current in the direction of flow of a number of elementary charges per second. In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures agreed to study the proposed change, the new definition was discussed at the 25th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 2014 but for the time being was not adopted. The current drawn by typical constant-voltage energy distribution systems is usually dictated by the power consumed by the system, for this reason the examples given below are grouped by voltage level
8.
Metre
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The metre or meter, is the base unit of length in the International System of Units. The metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299792458 seconds, the metre was originally defined in 1793 as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. In 1799, it was redefined in terms of a metre bar. In 1960, the metre was redefined in terms of a number of wavelengths of a certain emission line of krypton-86. In 1983, the current definition was adopted, the imperial inch is defined as 0.0254 metres. One metre is about 3 3⁄8 inches longer than a yard, Metre is the standard spelling of the metric unit for length in nearly all English-speaking nations except the United States and the Philippines, which use meter. Measuring devices are spelled -meter in all variants of English, the suffix -meter has the same Greek origin as the unit of length. This range of uses is found in Latin, French, English. Thus calls for measurement and moderation. In 1668 the English cleric and philosopher John Wilkins proposed in an essay a decimal-based unit of length, as a result of the French Revolution, the French Academy of Sciences charged a commission with determining a single scale for all measures. In 1668, Wilkins proposed using Christopher Wrens suggestion of defining the metre using a pendulum with a length which produced a half-period of one second, christiaan Huygens had observed that length to be 38 Rijnland inches or 39.26 English inches. This is the equivalent of what is now known to be 997 mm, no official action was taken regarding this suggestion. In the 18th century, there were two approaches to the definition of the unit of length. One favoured Wilkins approach, to define the metre in terms of the length of a pendulum which produced a half-period of one second. The other approach was to define the metre as one ten-millionth of the length of a quadrant along the Earths meridian, that is, the distance from the Equator to the North Pole. This means that the quadrant would have defined as exactly 10000000 metres at that time. To establish a universally accepted foundation for the definition of the metre, more measurements of this meridian were needed. This portion of the meridian, assumed to be the length as the Paris meridian, was to serve as the basis for the length of the half meridian connecting the North Pole with the Equator
9.
Kilogram
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The kilogram or kilogramme is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. The avoirdupois pound, used in both the imperial and US customary systems, is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg, making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram, the gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimeter of water at the melting point of ice. The final kilogram, manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875, had an equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density. The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name and it is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Three other base units and 17 derived units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram, only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition, temperature, time and frequency, length, and angle. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant, the decision was originally deferred until 2014, in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting. There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition, these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below, the International Prototype Kilogram is rarely used or handled. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, the French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with kilogram having become by far the more common, UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling. In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has used to mean both kilogram and kilometer. In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now known as MKS system. In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM to make recommendations for a practical system of units of measurement. This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the SI Brochure, the kilogram is a unit of mass, a property which corresponds to the common perception of how heavy an object is. Mass is a property, that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor, they are weightless. However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, the ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses. On April 7,1795, the gram was decreed in France to be the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre
10.
Electric charge
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Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of charges, positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike attract, an absence of net charge is referred to as neutral. An object is charged if it has an excess of electrons. The SI derived unit of charge is the coulomb. In electrical engineering, it is common to use the ampere-hour. The symbol Q often denotes charge, early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that dont require consideration of quantum effects. The electric charge is a conserved property of some subatomic particles. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields, the interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces. 602×10−19 coulombs. The proton has a charge of +e, and the electron has a charge of −e, the study of charged particles, and how their interactions are mediated by photons, is called quantum electrodynamics. Charge is the property of forms of matter that exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Electric charge is a property of many subatomic particles. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the charge e. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge, robert Millikans oil drop experiment demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. By convention, the charge of an electron is −1, while that of a proton is +1, charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, quarks have fractional charges of either −1/3 or +2/3, but free-standing quarks have never been observed. The electric charge of an object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that make it up. An ion is an atom that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net charge, or that has gained one or more electrons
11.
Coulomb
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The coulomb is the International System of Units unit of electric charge. 242×1018 protons, and −1 C is equivalent to the charge of approximately 6. 242×1018 electrons. This SI unit is named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, the SI system defines the coulomb in terms of the ampere and second,1 C =1 A ×1 s. The second is defined in terms of a frequency emitted by caesium atoms. The ampere is defined using Ampères force law, the definition relies in part on the mass of the prototype kilogram. In practice, the balance is used to measure amperes with the highest possible accuracy. One coulomb is the magnitude of charge in 6. 24150934×10^18 protons or electrons. The inverse of this gives the elementary charge of 1. 6021766208×10−19 C. The magnitude of the charge of one mole of elementary charges is known as a faraday unit of charge. In terms of Avogadros number, one coulomb is equal to approximately 1.036 × NA×10−5 elementary charges, one ampere-hour =3600 C,1 mA⋅h =3.6 C. One statcoulomb, the obsolete CGS electrostatic unit of charge, is approximately 3. 3356×10−10 C or about one-third of a nanocoulomb, the elementary charge, the charge of a proton, is approximately 1. 6021766208×10−19 C. In SI, the charge in coulombs is an approximate value. However, in other systems, the elementary charge has an exact value by definition. Specifically, e90 = / C exactly, SI itself may someday change its definitions in a similar way. For example, one possible proposed redefinition is the ampere. is such that the value of the charge e is exactly 1. 602176487×10−19 coulombs. This proposal is not yet accepted as part of the SI, the charges in static electricity from rubbing materials together are typically a few microcoulombs. The amount of charge that travels through a lightning bolt is typically around 15 C, the amount of charge that travels through a typical alkaline AA battery from being fully charged to discharged is about 5 kC =5000 C ≈1400 mA⋅h. The hydraulic analogy uses everyday terms to illustrate movement of charge, the analogy equates charge to a volume of water, and voltage to pressure
12.
Volt
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The volt is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force. One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those points. It is also equal to the difference between two parallel, infinite planes spaced 1 meter apart that create an electric field of 1 newton per coulomb. Additionally, it is the difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can also be expressed as amperes times ohms, watts per ampere, or joules per coulomb, for the Josephson constant, KJ = 2e/h, the conventional value KJ-90 is used, K J-90 =0.4835979 GHz μ V. This standard is typically realized using an array of several thousand or tens of thousands of junctions. Empirically, several experiments have shown that the method is independent of device design, material, measurement setup, etc. in the water-flow analogy sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage is likened to difference in water pressure. Current is proportional to the diameter of the pipe or the amount of water flowing at that pressure. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping, the relationship between voltage and current is defined by Ohms Law. Ohms Law is analogous to the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, as both are linear models relating flux and potential in their respective systems, the voltage produced by each electrochemical cell in a battery is determined by the chemistry of that cell. Cells can be combined in series for multiples of that voltage, mechanical generators can usually be constructed to any voltage in a range of feasibility. High-voltage electric power lines,110 kV and up Lightning, Varies greatly. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of metals to produce electricity was zinc. In 1861, Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright coined the name volt for the unit of resistance, by 1873, the British Association for the Advancement of Science had defined the volt, ohm, and farad. In 1881, the International Electrical Congress, now the International Electrotechnical Commission and they made the volt equal to 108 cgs units of voltage, the cgs system at the time being the customary system of units in science. At that time, the volt was defined as the difference across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power. The international volt was defined in 1893 as 1/1.434 of the emf of a Clark cell and this definition was abandoned in 1908 in favor of a definition based on the international ohm and international ampere until the entire set of reproducible units was abandoned in 1948. Prior to the development of the Josephson junction voltage standard, the volt was maintained in laboratories using specially constructed batteries called standard cells
13.
Capacitor
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A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance, a capacitor was therefore historically first known as an electric condenser. The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, the nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitors charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy. No current actually flows through the dielectric, instead, the effect is a displacement of charges through the source circuit, if the condition is maintained sufficiently long, this displacement current through the battery ceases. However, if a voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of Units is the farad, capacitance values of typical capacitors for use in general electronics range from about 1 pF to about 1 mF. The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the area of the plates. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and it has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance, Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies, in resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in digital computers. Von Kleists hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric, von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine
14.
Metric prefix
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A metric prefix is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a multiple or fraction of the unit. While all metric prefixes in use today are decadic, historically there have been a number of binary metric prefixes as well. Each prefix has a symbol that is prepended to the unit symbol. The prefix kilo-, for example, may be added to gram to indicate multiplication by one thousand, the prefix milli-, likewise, may be added to metre to indicate division by one thousand, one millimetre is equal to one thousandth of a metre. Decimal multiplicative prefixes have been a feature of all forms of the system with six dating back to the systems introduction in the 1790s. Metric prefixes have even been prepended to non-metric units, the SI prefixes are standardized for use in the International System of Units by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in resolutions dating from 1960 to 1991. Since 2009, they have formed part of the International System of Quantities, the BIPM specifies twenty prefixes for the International System of Units. Each prefix name has a symbol which is used in combination with the symbols for units of measure. For example, the symbol for kilo- is k, and is used to produce km, kg, and kW, which are the SI symbols for kilometre, kilogram, prefixes corresponding to an integer power of one thousand are generally preferred. Hence 100 m is preferred over 1 hm or 10 dam, the prefixes hecto, deca, deci, and centi are commonly used for everyday purposes, and the centimetre is especially common. However, some building codes require that the millimetre be used in preference to the centimetre, because use of centimetres leads to extensive usage of decimal points. Prefixes may not be used in combination and this also applies to mass, for which the SI base unit already contains a prefix. For example, milligram is used instead of microkilogram, in the arithmetic of measurements having units, the units are treated as multiplicative factors to values. If they have prefixes, all but one of the prefixes must be expanded to their numeric multiplier,1 km2 means one square kilometre, or the area of a square of 1000 m by 1000 m and not 1000 square metres. 2 Mm3 means two cubic megametres, or the volume of two cubes of 1000000 m by 1000000 m by 1000000 m or 2×1018 m3, and not 2000000 cubic metres, examples 5 cm = 5×10−2 m =5 ×0.01 m =0. The prefixes, including those introduced after 1960, are used with any metric unit, metric prefixes may also be used with non-metric units. The choice of prefixes with a unit is usually dictated by convenience of use. Unit prefixes for amounts that are larger or smaller than those actually encountered are seldom used
15.
Joule
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The joule, symbol J, is a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal to the transferred to an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when a current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule, one joule can also be defined as, The work required to move an electric charge of one coulomb through an electrical potential difference of one volt, or one coulomb volt. This relationship can be used to define the volt, the work required to produce one watt of power for one second, or one watt second. This relationship can be used to define the watt and this SI unit is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every International System of Units unit named for a person, note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. The CGPM has given the unit of energy the name Joule, the use of newton metres for torque and joules for energy is helpful to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications. The distinction may be also in the fact that energy is a scalar – the dot product of a vector force. By contrast, torque is a vector – the cross product of a distance vector, torque and energy are related to one another by the equation E = τ θ, where E is energy, τ is torque, and θ is the angle swept. Since radians are dimensionless, it follows that torque and energy have the same dimensions, one joule in everyday life represents approximately, The energy required to lift a medium-size tomato 1 m vertically from the surface of the Earth. The energy released when that same tomato falls back down to the ground, the energy required to accelerate a 1 kg mass at 1 m·s−2 through a 1 m distance in space. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 0.24 °C, the typical energy released as heat by a person at rest every 1/60 s. The kinetic energy of a 50 kg human moving very slowly, the kinetic energy of a 56 g tennis ball moving at 6 m/s. The kinetic energy of an object with mass 1 kg moving at √2 ≈1.4 m/s, the amount of electricity required to light a 1 W LED for 1 s. Since the joule is also a watt-second and the unit for electricity sales to homes is the kW·h. For additional examples, see, Orders of magnitude The zeptojoule is equal to one sextillionth of one joule,160 zeptojoules is equivalent to one electronvolt. The nanojoule is equal to one billionth of one joule, one nanojoule is about 1/160 of the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito
16.
Newton (unit)
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The newton is the International System of Units derived unit of force. It is named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on classical mechanics, see below for the conversion factors. One newton is the force needed to one kilogram of mass at the rate of one metre per second squared in direction of the applied force. In 1948, the 9th CGPM resolution 7 adopted the name newton for this force, the MKS system then became the blueprint for todays SI system of units. The newton thus became the unit of force in le Système International dUnités. This SI unit is named after Isaac Newton, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. Newtons second law of motion states that F = ma, where F is the applied, m is the mass of the object receiving the force. The newton is therefore, where the symbols are used for the units, N for newton, kg for kilogram, m for metre. In dimensional analysis, F = M L T2 where F is force, M is mass, L is length, at average gravity on earth, a kilogram mass exerts a force of about 9.8 newtons. An average-sized apple exerts about one newton of force, which we measure as the apples weight, for example, the tractive effort of a Class Y steam train and the thrust of an F100 fighter jet engine are both around 130 kN. One kilonewton,1 kN, is 102.0 kgf,1 kN =102 kg ×9.81 m/s2 So for example, a platform rated at 321 kilonewtons will safely support a 32,100 kilograms load. Specifications in kilonewtons are common in safety specifications for, the values of fasteners, Earth anchors. Working loads in tension and in shear, thrust of rocket engines and launch vehicles clamping forces of the various moulds in injection moulding machines used to manufacture plastic parts
17.
Ohm
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The ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, named after German physicist Georg Simon Ohm. The definition of the ohm was revised several times, today the definition of the ohm is expressed from the quantum Hall effect. In many cases the resistance of a conductor in ohms is approximately constant within a range of voltages, temperatures. In alternating current circuits, electrical impedance is also measured in ohms, the siemens is the SI derived unit of electric conductance and admittance, also known as the mho, it is the reciprocal of resistance in ohms. The power dissipated by a resistor may be calculated from its resistance, non-linear resistors have a value that may vary depending on the applied voltage. The rapid rise of electrotechnology in the last half of the 19th century created a demand for a rational, coherent, consistent, telegraphers and other early users of electricity in the 19th century needed a practical standard unit of measurement for resistance. Two different methods of establishing a system of units can be chosen. Various artifacts, such as a length of wire or a standard cell, could be specified as producing defined quantities for resistance, voltage. This latter method ensures coherence with the units of energy, defining a unit for resistance that is coherent with units of energy and time in effect also requires defining units for potential and current. Some early definitions of a unit of resistance, for example, the absolute-units system related magnetic and electrostatic quantities to metric base units of mass, time, and length. These units had the advantage of simplifying the equations used in the solution of electromagnetic problems. However, the CGS units turned out to have impractical sizes for practical measurements, various artifact standards were proposed as the definition of the unit of resistance. In 1860 Werner Siemens published a suggestion for a reproducible resistance standard in Poggendorffs Annalen der Physik und Chemie and he proposed a column of pure mercury, of one square millimetre cross section, one metre long, Siemens mercury unit. However, this unit was not coherent with other units, one proposal was to devise a unit based on a mercury column that would be coherent – in effect, adjusting the length to make the resistance one ohm. Not all users of units had the resources to carry out experiments to the required precision. The BAAS in 1861 appointed a committee including Maxwell and Thomson to report upon Standards of Electrical Resistance, in the third report of the committee,1864, the resistance unit is referred to as B. A. unit, or Ohmad. By 1867 the unit is referred to as simply Ohm, the B. A. ohm was intended to be 109 CGS units but owing to an error in calculations the definition was 1. 3% too small. The error was significant for preparation of working standards, on September 21,1881 the Congrès internationale délectriciens defined a practical unit of Ohm for the resistance, based on CGS units, using a mercury column at zero deg
18.
Hertz
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The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion. Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i. e. 1/second or s −1. In English, hertz is also used as the plural form, as an SI unit, Hz can be prefixed, commonly used multiples are kHz, MHz, GHz and THz. One hertz simply means one cycle per second,100 Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels. Whereas 1 Hz is 1 cycle per second,1 Bq is 1 aperiodic radionuclide event per second, the conversion between a frequency f measured in hertz and an angular velocity ω measured in radians per second is ω =2 π f and f = ω2 π. This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, the hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the 1970s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc. Mc. etc. units, sound is a traveling longitudinal wave which is an oscillation of pressure. Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond. Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz
19.
Henry (unit)
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The henry is the SI derived unit of electrical inductance. The unit is named after Joseph Henry, the American scientist who discovered electromagnetic induction independently of, the magnetic permeability of vacuum is 4π × 10−7 H⋅m−1. The henry is a unit based on four of the seven base units of the International System of Units, kilogram, meter, second. The United States National Institute of Standards and Technology recommends English-speaking users of SI to write the plural as henries
20.
Josiah Latimer Clark
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Josiah Latimer Clark FRAS, was an English electrical engineer, born in Great Marlow, Buckinghamshire. Josiah Latimer Clark was born in Great Marlow, Buckinghamshire, and was brother to Edwin Clark. Latimer Clark studied chemistry at school and his first job was a large Dublin chemical manufacturing establishment. In 1848 he started to work in his brother Edwins civil engineering practice, two years later, when his brother was appointed Engineer to the Electric Telegraph Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently succeeded him as Chief Engineer. He was President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers in 1875 when Ronalds’ renowned electrical library was gifted to the new Society, with Bright also he devised improvements in the insulation of submarine cables. In the later part of his life he was a member of several firms engaged in laying submarine cables, in manufacturing electrical appliances, Clark was one of the first authors to attach the metric prefixes mega- and micro- to units other than the metre. Clark died in London on the 30 October 1898, in 1854 Clark married Margaret Helen Preece, sister of Sir William Preece. Besides professional papers, Clark published an Elementary Treatise on Electrical Measurement and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Clark, Josiah Latimer
21.
Charles Tilston Bright
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Sir Charles Tilston Bright was a British electrical engineer who oversaw the laying of the first transatlantic telegraph cable in 1858, for which work he was knighted. Born on 8 June 1832 in Wanstead, Essex, Bright was educated at Merchant Taylors School, at fifteen he became a clerk for the Electric Telegraph Company and as his talent for electrical engineering became evident, he was appointed engineer to the Magnetic Telegraph Company in 1852. In that role he supervised the laying of lines in the British Isles and this work, and the successful laying of other submarine cables, suggested to others that it might be possible to lay a cable across the Atlantic from Ireland to North America. Samuel Canning supported the effort on board HMS Agamemnon, Bright was knighted in Dublin just a few days later. Sir Charles Bright emerged from the debacle with his reputation intact and went on to supervise the laying of successful cables in the Mediterranean, the Persian Gulf. Bright formed a partnership with Josiah Latimer Clark in 1861 and together they introduced numerous improvements in the manufacture, testing, in 1865 he was awarded a Telford Medal for a paper on the possibilities of submarine cable telegraphy from England to China and Australia. From 1865 to 1868 Bright was Liberal MP for Greenwich and in 1887 he was elected president of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, Bright died on 3 May 1888, at Abbey Wood, near London. His son Charles Bright was also a noted engineer and historian of the subject. Charles Tilston Brights son, also Charles Bright, followed in his fathers footsteps, in addition to cable engineering he was a pioneer in the use of radio as a communication device on both ships and planes. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1895, Charles Bright Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs Notes Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Charles Tilston Bright Hounslow Guardian article
22.
Dielectric
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A dielectric material is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and this creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, the study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and magnetic energy in materials. Dielectrics are important for explaining various phenomena in electronics, optics, solid-state physics, while the term insulator implies low electrical conduction, dielectric typically means materials with a high polarizability. The latter is expressed by a called the relative permittivity. The term insulator is generally used to indicate electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is used to indicate the energy storing capacity of the material, a common example of a dielectric is the electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a capacitor. The polarization of the dielectric by the electric field increases the capacitors surface charge for the given electric field strength. The term dielectric was coined by William Whewell in response to a request from Michael Faraday, a perfect dielectric is a material with zero electrical conductivity, thus exhibiting only a displacement current, therefore it stores and returns electrical energy as if it were an ideal capacitor. The electric susceptibility χe of a material is a measure of how easily it polarizes in response to an electric field. This, in turn, determines the electric permittivity of the material and thus many other phenomena in that medium. The susceptibility of a medium is related to its relative permittivity εr by χ e = ε r −1, so in the case of a vacuum, χ e =0. The electric displacement D is related to the polarization density P by D = ε0 E + P = ε0 E = ε r ε0 E, in general, a material cannot polarize instantaneously in response to an applied field. The more general formulation as a function of time is P = ε0 ∫ − ∞ t χ e E d t ′ and that is, the polarization is a convolution of the electric field at previous times with time-dependent susceptibility given by χe. The upper limit of this integral can be extended to infinity as well if one defines χe =0 for Δt <0, an instantaneous response corresponds to Dirac delta function susceptibility χe = χeδ. It is more convenient in a system to take the Fourier transform. Due to the theorem, the integral becomes a simple product. Note the simple frequency dependence of the susceptibility, or equivalently the permittivity, the shape of the susceptibility with respect to frequency characterizes the dispersion properties of the material. In the classical approach to the model, a material is made up of atoms
23.
Leyden jar
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A Leyden jar, or Leiden jar, is a device that stores static electricity between two electrodes on the inside and outside of a glass jar. It was the form of a capacitor. It was invented independently by German cleric Ewald Georg von Kleist on 11 October 1745, the invention was named after the city. The Leyden jar was used to conduct many experiments in electricity. The Leyden jar was the first means of storing an electric charge which then could be discharged at the experimenters will, Leyden jars are still used in education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics. The Ancient Greeks already knew that pieces of amber could attract lightweight particles after being rubbed, the amber becomes electrified by triboelectric effect, mechanical separation of charge in a dielectric. The Greek word for amber is ηλεκτρον and is the origin of the word electricity, around 1650, Otto von Guericke built a crude electrostatic generator, a sulphur ball that rotated on a shaft. When Guericke held his hand against the ball and turned the shaft quickly and this experiment inspired the development of several forms of friction machines, that greatly helped in the study of electricity. Despite its mundane and safe appearance, the Leyden jar is a high voltage device, the ball on the tip of the rod is a corona ball to prevent leakage of the energy into the air by point discharge. He was the deacon at the cathedral of Camin in Pomerania, in 1744 von Kleist tried to accumulate electricity in a small medicine bottle filled with alcohol with a nail inserted in the cork. He was following up on an experiment developed by Georg Matthias Bose where electricity had been sent though water to set alcoholic spirits alight and he attempted to charge the bottle from a large prime conductor suspended above his friction machine. Kleist was convinced that an electric charge could be collected. He received a significant shock from the device when he touched the nail through the cork while still cradling the bottle in his other hand. It took some time before Kleists student associates at Leyden worked out that the hand provided an essential element, Andreas Cuneaus, appears to have been the first to receive communications from von Kleist about the storage capacity of the jar. He attempted to duplicate the experiment using a glass of beer, Cunaeus and Musschenbroek also received severe shocks, and Musschenbroek communicated the experiment to Abbé Nollet, René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, and the wider French scientific community. Musschenbroeks outlet in France for the sale of his companys cabinet devices was the Abbé Nollet, Nollet then gave the electrical storage device the name Leyden Jar and promoted it as a special type of flask to his market of wealthy men with scientific curiosity. The Kleistian jar was therefore promoted as the Leyden Jar as having been discovered by Pieter van Musschenbroek, daniel Gralath was the first to connect several jars in parallel to increase the total possible stored charge. The term battery was coined by Benjamin Franklin for these combinations, the term was later used for combinations of multiple electrochemical cells, the modern meaning of the term battery
24.
Electronics
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Electronics is the science of controlling electrical energy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements, the science of electronics is also considered to be a branch of physics and electrical engineering. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible, until 1950 this field was called radio technology because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control and this article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a circuit board. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits, some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active or passive, vacuum tubes were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and they played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid state devices have all but completely taken over, vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors, thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic, circuits and components can be divided into two groups, analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types, most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, one rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance and this type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation, an example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit
25.
Supercapacitor
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A supercapacitor is a high-capacity capacitor with capacitance values much higher than other capacitors that bridge the gap between electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable batteries. Smaller units are used as backup for static random-access memory. Supercapacitors do not use the solid dielectric of ordinary capacitors. The separation of charge is of the order of a few ångströms, Electrochemical pseudocapacitors use metal oxide or conducting polymer electrodes with a high amount of electrochemical pseudocapacitance additional to the double-layer capacitance. Pseudocapacitance is achieved by Faradaic electron charge-transfer with redox reactions, intercalation or electrosorption, Hybrid capacitors, such as the lithium-ion capacitor, use electrodes with differing characteristics, one exhibiting mostly electrostatic capacitance and the other mostly electrochemical capacitance. Supercapacitors are polarized by design with asymmetric electrodes, or, for symmetric electrodes, development of the double layer and pseudocapacitance models. In the early 1950s, General Electric engineers began experimenting with porous carbon electrodes, in the design of capacitors, from the design of fuel cells, activated charcoal is an electrical conductor that is an extremely porous spongy form of carbon with a high specific surface area. In 1957 H. Becker developed a Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes and he believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores as in the pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. General Electric did not immediately pursue this work, in 1966 researchers at Standard Oil of Ohio developed another version of the component as electrical energy storage apparatus, while working on experimental fuel cell designs. The nature of energy storage was not described in this patent. Even in 1970, the electrochemical capacitor patented by Donald L. Boos was registered as a capacitor with activated carbon electrodes. Early electrochemical capacitors used two aluminum foils covered with activated carbon—the electrodes—which were soaked in an electrolyte and separated by a thin porous insulator and this design gave a capacitor with a capacitance on the order of one farad, significantly higher than electrolytic capacitors of the same dimensions. This basic mechanical design remains the basis of most electrochemical capacitors, SOHIO did not commercialize their invention, licensing the technology to NEC, who finally marketed the results as supercapacitors in 1971, to provide backup power for computer memory. Between 1975 and 1980 Brian Evans Conway conducted extensive fundamental and development work on ruthenium oxide electrochemical capacitors, in 1991 he described the difference between Supercapacitor and Battery behavior in electrochemical energy storage. In 1999 he coined the term supercapacitor to explain the increased capacitance by surface redox reactions with faradaic charge transfer between electrodes and ions, the working mechanisms of pseudocapacitors are redox reactions, intercalation and electrosorption. With his research, Conway greatly expanded the knowledge of electrochemical capacitors and that changed around 1978 as Panasonic marketed its Goldcaps brand. This product became an energy source for memory backup applications. In 1987 ELNA Dynacaps entered the market, first generation EDLCs had relatively high internal resistance that limited the discharge current
26.
Parasitic capacitance
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All actual circuit elements such as inductors, diodes, and transistors have internal capacitance, which can cause their behavior to depart from that of ideal circuit elements. The parasitic capacitance between the turns of an inductor or other component is often described as self-capacitance. However, self-capacitance of an object is a different phenomenon. When two conductors at different potentials are close to one another, they are affected by each others electric field, changing the potential v between the conductors requires a current i into or out of the conductors to charge or discharge them. I = C d v d t where C is the capacitance between the conductors, for example, an inductor often acts as though it includes a parallel capacitor, because of its closely spaced windings. When a potential difference exists across the coil, wires lying adjacent to each other are at different potentials and they act like the plates of a capacitor, and store charge. Any change in the voltage across the coil requires extra current to charge and discharge these small capacitors, coils for high frequencies are often basket-wound to minimise parasitic capacitance. At low frequencies parasitic capacitance can usually be ignored, but in high frequency circuits it can be a major problem. In amplifier circuits with extended frequency response, parasitic capacitance between the output and the input can act as a path, causing the circuit to oscillate at high frequency. These unwanted oscillations are called parasitic oscillations, in high frequency amplifiers, parasitic capacitance can combine with stray inductance such as component leads to form resonant circuits, also leading to parasitic oscillations. In all inductors, the parasitic capacitance will resonate with the inductance at some frequency to make the inductor self-resonant. Above this frequency, the inductor actually has capacitive reactance, the capacitance of the load circuit attached to the output of op amps can reduce their bandwidth. This Miller capacitance is the factor limiting the high frequency performance of active devices like transistors. The diagram, right, illustrates how Miller capacitance comes about, suppose the amplifier shown is an ideal inverting amplifier with voltage gain of A, and Z = C is a capacitance between its input and output. The voltage gain of modern transistors can be 10 -100 or even higher, so this is a significant limitation
27.
Integrated circuit
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An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece of semiconductor material, normally silicon. The ICs mass production capability, reliability and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of using discrete transistors. ICs are now used in all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the small size. These advances, roughly following Moores law, allow a computer chip of 2016 to have millions of times the capacity, ICs have two main advantages over discrete circuits, cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time, furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the ICs components switch quickly and consume little power because of their small size, the main disadvantage of ICs is the high cost to design them and fabricate the required photomasks. This high initial cost means ICs are only practical when high production volumes are anticipated, Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies, including thin-film transistor, thick film technology, or hybrid integrated circuit. However, in general usage integrated circuit has come to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally known as a integrated circuit. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent, an immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported. The idea of the circuit was conceived by Geoffrey Dummer. Dummer presented the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington and he gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas, and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares, Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, however, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design, the IC. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as a body of semiconductor material … wherein all the components of the circuit are completely integrated. The first customer for the new invention was the US Air Force, Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit. His work was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009, half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor developed his own idea of an integrated circuit that solved many practical problems Kilbys had not. Noyces design was made of silicon, whereas Kilbys chip was made of germanium, Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p–n junction isolation, a key concept behind the IC
28.
Printed circuit board
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Components are generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate, PCBs can be single sided, double sided or multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are connected with vias, multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density. FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate, a basic building block of the PCB is an FR-4 panel with a thin layer of copper foil laminated to one or both sides. In multi-layer boards multiple layers of material are laminated together, printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, PCBs require the additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with one single part. A minimal PCB with a component used for easier prototyping is called a breakout board. When the board has no embedded components it is correctly called a printed wiring board or etched wiring board. However, the printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly, the IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card assembly, and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used both for bare and assembled boards. The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $60.2 billion in 2014, initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photomask on a clear mylar sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar. Rub-on dry transfers of common component footprints increased efficiency, traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout, to fabricate the board, the finished photomask was photolithographically reproduced onto a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards. Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated software, generally in the following steps. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB, the positions of the components and heat sinks are determined
29.
Ionosphere
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The ionosphere is a region of Earths upper atmosphere, from about 60 km to 1,000 km altitude, and includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. It is ionized by radiation, plays an important part in atmospheric electricity. It has practical importance because, among other functions, it influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth. The ionosphere is a shell of electrons and electrically charged atoms and molecules that surrounds the Earth and it owes its existence primarily to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The lowest part of the Earths atmosphere, the troposphere extends from the surface to about 10 km, above 10 km is the stratosphere, followed by the mesosphere. In the stratosphere incoming solar radiation creates the ozone layer, at heights of above 80 km, in the thermosphere, the atmosphere is so thin that free electrons can exist for short periods of time before they are captured by a nearby positive ion. The number of free electrons is sufficient to affect radio propagation. This portion of the atmosphere is ionized and contains a plasma which is referred to as the ionosphere, in this process the light electron obtains a high velocity so that the temperature of the created electronic gas is much higher than the one of ions and neutrals. The reverse process to ionization is recombination, in which an electron is captured by a positive ion. Recombination occurs spontaneously, and causes the emission of a photon carrying away the energy produced upon recombination, as gas density increases at lower altitudes, the recombination process prevails, since the gas molecules and ions are closer together. The balance between two processes determines the quantity of ionization present. Ionization depends primarily on the Sun and its activity, the amount of ionization in the ionosphere varies greatly with the amount of radiation received from the Sun. Thus there is an effect and a seasonal effect. The local winter hemisphere is tipped away from the Sun, thus there is less received solar radiation, the activity of the Sun is associated with the sunspot cycle, with more radiation occurring with more sunspots. Radiation received also varies with geographical location, there are also mechanisms that disturb the ionosphere and decrease the ionization. There are disturbances such as flares and the associated release of charged particles into the solar wind which reaches the Earth. At night the F layer is the layer of significant ionization present. During the day, the D and E layers become more heavily ionized, as does the F layer
30.
Mu (letter)
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Mu is the 12th letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 40, Mu was derived from the Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol for water, which had been simplified by the Phoenicians and named after their word for water, to become
31.
Elastance
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Electrical elastance is the inverse of capacitance. The SI unit of elastance is the inverse farad, the concept is not widely used by electrical and electronic engineers. The value of capacitors is specified in units of capacitance rather than inverse capacitance. However, it is used in work in network analysis and has some niche applications at microwave frequencies. The term elastance was coined by Oliver Heaviside through the analogy of a capacitor as a spring, the term is also used for analogous quantities in some other energy domains. It maps to stiffness in the domain, and is the inverse of compliance in the fluid flow domain. It is also the name of the quantity in bond-graph analysis. The definition of capacitance is the charge stored per unit voltage, C = Q V, Elastance is the reciprocal of capacitance, thus, S = V Q. Expressing the values of capacitors as elastance is not done much by practical electrical engineers, the total elastance is simply the sum of the individual elastances in that case. However, it is used by theorists in their analysis. One advantage is that an increase in elastance increases impedance and this is in the same direction as the other two basic passive elements, resistance and inductance. An example of the use of elastance can be found in the 1926 doctoral thesis of Wilhelm Cauer and this expression would be significantly more complicated if Cauer had tried to use a matrix of capacitances instead of elastances. The use of here is merely for mathematical convenience, in much the same way as mathematicians use radians rather than the more common units for angles. Elastance is also used in microwave engineering, in this field varactor diodes are used as a voltage variable capacitor in frequency multipliers, parametric amplifiers and variable filters. These diodes store a charge in their junction when reverse biased which is the source of the capacitor effect, the slope of the voltage-stored charge curve is called differential elastance in this field. The SI unit of elastance is the reciprocal farad, the term daraf is sometimes used for this unit, but it is not approved by SI and its use is discouraged. The term is formed by writing farad backwards, in much the way as the unit mho is formed by writing ohm backwards. The term daraf was coined by Arthur E. Kennelly and he used it from at least 1920
32.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
33.
Bob Pease
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Robert Allen Pease was an analog integrated circuit design expert and technical author. He designed several very successful best-seller integrated circuits, many of them in production for multiple decades. These include the LM331 voltage to frequency converter, and the LM337 adjustable negative voltage regulator, Pease was born on August 22,1940 in Rockville, Connecticut. He attended Northfield Mount Hermon School in Massachusetts, and subsequently obtained a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering degree from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1961 and he started work in the early 1960s at George A. Philbrick Researches. GAP-R pioneered the first reasonable-cost, mass-produced operational amplifier, the K2-W, at GAP-R, Pease developed many high-performance op-amps, built with discrete solid-state components. He had advanced to staff scientist by the time of his departure in 2009, during his tenure at NSC, he began writing a popular continuing monthly column called Pease Porridge in Electronic Design about his experiences in the world of electronic design and application. Pease was the author of eight books, including Troubleshooting Analog Circuits and his other interests included hiking and biking in remote places, and working on his old Volkswagen Beetle, which he often mentioned in his columns. Peases writing was strongly opinionated, but he could communicate with a wry sense of humor endeared him to readers whether they agreed with him or not. Pease was killed in the crash of his 1969 Volkswagen Beetle and he was leaving a gathering in memory of Jim Williams, who was another well-known analog circuit designer, a technical author, and a renowned staff engineer working at Linear Technology. Pease was 70 years old, and was survived by his wife, the sudden death of Pease triggered a small flood of remembrances and tributes from fellow technical writers, practicing engineers, and electronics hardware hacking enthusiasts. — An industry standard reference book for troubleshooting analog circuits Pease. How to Drive Into Accidents. and How Not To, — An idiosyncratic, entertaining, and insightful book on safe driving techniques, written for novices and experienced drivers alike Pease, Robert A. ed. Ashby, Darren, Baker, Bonnie, Ball, Stuart, Crowe, J. Hayes-Gill, Barrie, Hickman, Ian, Kester, Walt, Mancini, Ron, Grout, Ian, Pease, Robert, Tooley, Mike, Williams, Tim, Wilson, Peter, Zeidman, Bob. The Newnes Know It All Series, what’s All This Widlar Stuff, Anyhow. and How Not To at the Wayback Machine chapters at Peases transtronix. com. Bob Pease A Tribute to his last challenge
34.
RadioShack
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General Wireless Operations Inc. was an American chain of wireless and electronics stores, founded in 1921 and since 2015 owned by the Standard General affiliate General Wireless. It is partnered with Sprint, and most stores are co-branded as Sprint at RadioShack though also selling RadioShack brand items, at its peak in 1999 it operated stores in the United States, Mexico, United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada. On February 5,2015, the company filed for Chapter 11 protection under United States bankruptcy law after 11 consecutive quarterly losses, by then it was operating only in the United States and Mexico. The company was started as Radio Shack in 1921 by two brothers, Theodore and Milton Deutschmann, who wanted to provide equipment for the then-nascent field of amateur, the brothers opened a one-store retail and mail-order operation in the heart of downtown Boston at 46 Brattle Street. They chose the name Radio Shack, which was the term for a small, the Deutschmanns thought the name was appropriate for a store that would supply the needs of radio officers aboard ships, as well as hams. The term was already in use — and is to this day — by hams when referring to the location of their stations, the company issued its first catalog in 1939 as it entered the high fidelity music market. In 1954, Radio Shack began selling its own products under the brand name Realist. After expanding to nine stores plus an extensive business, the company fell on hard times in the 1960s. Radio Shack was essentially bankrupt, but Charles D, Tandy saw the potential of Radio Shack and retail consumer electronics and bought the company for $300,000. The Tandy Corporation, a leather goods corporation, was looking for other hobbyist-related businesses into which it could expand, Tandy closed Radio Shacks unprofitable mail-order business, ended credit purchases and eliminated many top management positions, keeping the salespeople, merchandisers and advertisers. Private-label brands from lower-cost manufacturers displaced name brands to raise Radio Shack profit margins, customer data from the former Radio Shack mail-order business determined where Tandy would locate new stores. As an incentive for them to long hours and remain profitable. In markets too small to support a company-owned Radio Shack store, Charles D. Tandy, who had guided the firm through a period of growth in the 1960s and 1970s, died of a heart attack at age 60 in November 1978. In 1992, Tandy attempted to launch big-box electronics retailer Incredible Universe and its six profitable stores were sold to Frys Electronics in 1996, the others were closed. Tandy closed the McDuff stores and abandoned Incredible Universe in 1996, Len Roberts, president of the Radio Shack division since 1993, estimated that the new repair business could generate $500 million per year by 1999. Americas technology store was abandoned for the youve got questions, weve got answers slogan in 1994, in early summer 1995, the company launched a new logo, Radio Shack was spelled in CamelCase as RadioShack. In 1996, RadioShack successfully petitioned the US Federal Communications Commission to allocate frequencies for the Family Radio Service, from the 1960s until the early 1990s, Radio Shack promoted a battery of the month club, a free wallet-sized cardboard card offered one free Enercell a month in-store. Like the free tube testing offered in-store in the early 1970s, the cards also served as generic business cards for the salespeople
35.
International System of Units
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The International System of Units is the modern form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base units, the system also establishes a set of twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying multiples and fractions of the units. The system was published in 1960 as the result of an initiative began in 1948. It is based on the system of units rather than any variant of the centimetre-gram-second system. The motivation for the development of the SI was the diversity of units that had sprung up within the CGS systems, the International System of Units has been adopted by most developed countries, however, the adoption has not been universal in all English-speaking countries. The metric system was first implemented during the French Revolution with just the metre and kilogram as standards of length, in the 1830s Carl Friedrich Gauss laid the foundations for a coherent system based on length, mass, and time. In the 1860s a group working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science formulated the requirement for a coherent system of units with base units and derived units. Meanwhile, in 1875, the Treaty of the Metre passed responsibility for verification of the kilogram, in 1921, the Treaty was extended to include all physical quantities including electrical units originally defined in 1893. The units associated with these quantities were the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, in 1971, a seventh base quantity, amount of substance represented by the mole, was added to the definition of SI. On 11 July 1792, the proposed the names metre, are, litre and grave for the units of length, area, capacity. The committee also proposed that multiples and submultiples of these units were to be denoted by decimal-based prefixes such as centi for a hundredth, on 10 December 1799, the law by which the metric system was to be definitively adopted in France was passed. Prior to this, the strength of the magnetic field had only been described in relative terms. The technique used by Gauss was to equate the torque induced on a magnet of known mass by the earth’s magnetic field with the torque induced on an equivalent system under gravity. The resultant calculations enabled him to assign dimensions based on mass, length, a French-inspired initiative for international cooperation in metrology led to the signing in 1875 of the Metre Convention. Initially the convention only covered standards for the metre and the kilogram, one of each was selected at random to become the International prototype metre and International prototype kilogram that replaced the mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives respectively. Each member state was entitled to one of each of the prototypes to serve as the national prototype for that country. Initially its prime purpose was a periodic recalibration of national prototype metres. The official language of the Metre Convention is French and the version of all official documents published by or on behalf of the CGPM is the French-language version
36.
Candela
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The candela is the SI base unit of luminous intensity, that is, luminous power per unit solid angle emitted by a point light source in a particular direction. A common candle emits light with an intensity of roughly one candela. If emission in some directions is blocked by an opaque barrier, the word candela means candle in Latin. Like most other SI base units, the candela has an operational definition—it is defined by a description of a process that will produce one candela of luminous intensity. The definition describes how to produce a source that emits one candela. Such a source could then be used to calibrate instruments designed to measure luminous intensity, the candela is sometimes still called by the old name candle, such as in foot-candle and the modern definition of candlepower. The frequency chosen is in the spectrum near green, corresponding to a wavelength of about 555 nanometres. The human eye is most sensitive to frequency, when adapted for bright conditions. At other frequencies, more radiant intensity is required to achieve the same luminous intensity, if more than one wavelength is present, one must sum or integrate over the spectrum of wavelengths present to get the total luminous intensity. A common candle emits light with roughly 1 cd luminous intensity. A25 W compact fluorescent light bulb puts out around 1700 lumens, if light is radiated equally in all directions. Focused into a 20° beam, the light bulb would have an intensity of around 18,000 cd. The luminous intensity of light-emitting diodes is measured in millicandelas, or thousandths of a candela, indicator LEDs are typically in the 50 mcd range, ultra-bright LEDs can reach 15,000 mcd, or higher. Prior to 1948, various standards for luminous intensity were in use in a number of countries and these were typically based on the brightness of the flame from a standard candle of defined composition, or the brightness of an incandescent filament of specific design. One of the best-known of these was the English standard of candlepower, one candlepower was the light produced by a pure spermaceti candle weighing one sixth of a pound and burning at a rate of 120 grains per hour. Germany, Austria and Scandinavia used the Hefnerkerze, a based on the output of a Hefner lamp. It became clear that a unit was needed. Jules Violle had proposed a standard based on the emitted by 1 cm2 of platinum at its melting point
37.
Kelvin
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The kelvin is a unit of measure for temperature based upon an absolute scale. It is one of the seven units in the International System of Units and is assigned the unit symbol K. The kelvin is defined as the fraction 1⁄273.16 of the temperature of the triple point of water. In other words, it is defined such that the point of water is exactly 273.16 K. The Kelvin scale is named after the Belfast-born, Glasgow University engineer and physicist William Lord Kelvin, unlike the degree Fahrenheit and degree Celsius, the kelvin is not referred to or typeset as a degree. The kelvin is the unit of temperature measurement in the physical sciences, but is often used in conjunction with the Celsius degree. The definition implies that absolute zero is equivalent to −273.15 °C, Kelvin calculated that absolute zero was equivalent to −273 °C on the air thermometers of the time. This absolute scale is known today as the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale, when spelled out or spoken, the unit is pluralised using the same grammatical rules as for other SI units such as the volt or ohm. When reference is made to the Kelvin scale, the word kelvin—which is normally a noun—functions adjectivally to modify the noun scale and is capitalized, as with most other SI unit symbols there is a space between the numeric value and the kelvin symbol. Before the 13th CGPM in 1967–1968, the unit kelvin was called a degree and it was distinguished from the other scales with either the adjective suffix Kelvin or with absolute and its symbol was °K. The latter term, which was the official name from 1948 until 1954, was ambiguous since it could also be interpreted as referring to the Rankine scale. Before the 13th CGPM, the form was degrees absolute. The 13th CGPM changed the name to simply kelvin. Its measured value was 7002273160280000000♠0.01028 °C with an uncertainty of 60 µK, the use of SI prefixed forms of the degree Celsius to express a temperature interval has not been widely adopted. In 2005 the CIPM embarked on a program to redefine the kelvin using a more experimentally rigorous methodology, the current definition as of 2016 is unsatisfactory for temperatures below 20 K and above 7003130000000000000♠1300 K. In particular, the committee proposed redefining the kelvin such that Boltzmanns constant takes the exact value 6977138065049999999♠1. 3806505×10−23 J/K, from a scientific point of view, this will link temperature to the rest of SI and result in a stable definition that is independent of any particular substance. From a practical point of view, the redefinition will pass unnoticed, the kelvin is often used in the measure of the colour temperature of light sources. Colour temperature is based upon the principle that a black body radiator emits light whose colour depends on the temperature of the radiator, black bodies with temperatures below about 7003400000000000000♠4000 K appear reddish, whereas those above about 7003750000000000000♠7500 K appear bluish
38.
Mole (unit)
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The mole is the unit of measurement in the International System of Units for amount of substance. This number is expressed by the Avogadro constant, which has a value of 6. 022140857×1023 mol−1, the mole is one of the base units of the SI, and has the unit symbol mol. The mole is used in chemistry as a convenient way to express amounts of reactants and products of chemical reactions. For example, the chemical equation 2 H2 + O2 →2 H2O implies that 2 moles of dihydrogen and 1 mole of dioxygen react to form 2 moles of water. The mole may also be used to express the number of atoms, ions, the concentration of a solution is commonly expressed by its molarity, defined as the number of moles of the dissolved substance per litre of solution. For example, the relative molecular mass of natural water is about 18.015, therefore. The term gram-molecule was formerly used for essentially the same concept, the term gram-atom has been used for a related but distinct concept, namely a quantity of a substance that contains Avogadros number of atoms, whether isolated or combined in molecules. Thus, for example,1 mole of MgBr2 is 1 gram-molecule of MgBr2 but 3 gram-atoms of MgBr2, in honor of the unit, some chemists celebrate October 23, which is a reference to the 1023 scale of the Avogadro constant, as Mole Day. Some also do the same for February 6 and June 2, thus, by definition, one mole of pure 12C has a mass of exactly 12 g. It also follows from the definition that X moles of any substance will contain the number of molecules as X moles of any other substance. The mass per mole of a substance is called its molar mass, the number of elementary entities in a sample of a substance is technically called its amount. Therefore, the mole is a convenient unit for that physical quantity, one can determine the chemical amount of a known substance, in moles, by dividing the samples mass by the substances molar mass. Other methods include the use of the volume or the measurement of electric charge. The mass of one mole of a substance depends not only on its molecular formula, since the definition of the gram is not mathematically tied to that of the atomic mass unit, the number NA of molecules in a mole must be determined experimentally. The value adopted by CODATA in 2010 is NA =6. 02214129×1023 ±0. 00000027×1023, in 2011 the measurement was refined to 6. 02214078×1023 ±0. 00000018×1023. The number of moles of a sample is the sample mass divided by the mass of the material. The history of the mole is intertwined with that of mass, atomic mass unit, Avogadros number. The first table of atomic mass was published by John Dalton in 1805
39.
Becquerel
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The becquerel is the SI derived unit of radioactivity. One becquerel is defined as the activity of a quantity of material in which one nucleus decays per second. The becquerel is therefore equivalent to a second, s−1. The becquerel is named after Henri Becquerel, who shared a Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is uppercase. 1 Bq =1 s−1 A special name was introduced for the second to represent radioactivity to avoid potentially dangerous mistakes with prefixes. For example,1 µs−1 could be taken to mean 106 disintegrations per second, other names considered were hertz, a special name already in use for the reciprocal second, and fourier. The hertz is now used for periodic phenomena. Whereas 1 Hz is 1 cycle per second,1 Bq is 1 aperiodic radioactivity event per second, the gray and the becquerel were introduced in 1975. Between 1953 and 1975, absorbed dose was often measured in rads, decay activity was measured in curies before 1946 and often in rutherfords between 1946 and 1975. Like any SI unit, Bq can be prefixed, commonly used multiples are kBq, MBq, GBq, TBq, for practical applications,1 Bq is a small unit, therefore, the prefixes are common. For example, the roughly 0.0169 g of potassium-40 present in a human body produces approximately 4,400 disintegrations per second or 4.4 kBq of activity. The global inventory of carbon-14 is estimated to be 8. 5×1018 Bq, the nuclear explosion in Hiroshima is estimated to have produced 8×1024 Bq. The becquerel succeeded the curie, an older, non-SI unit of radioactivity based on the activity of 1 gram of radium-226, the curie is defined as 3. 7·1010 s−1, or 37 GBq. The following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units
40.
Celsius
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Celsius, also known as centigrade, is a metric scale and unit of measurement for temperature. As an SI derived unit, it is used by most countries in the world and it is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, who developed a similar temperature scale. The degree Celsius can refer to a temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval. Before being renamed to honour Anders Celsius in 1948, the unit was called centigrade, from the Latin centum, which means 100, and gradus, which means steps. The scale is based on 0° for the point of water. This scale is widely taught in schools today, by international agreement the unit degree Celsius and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures, absolute zero, and the triple point of VSMOW. This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible, is defined as being precisely 0 K and −273.15 °C. The temperature of the point of water is defined as precisely 273.16 K at 611.657 pascals pressure. This definition fixes the magnitude of both the degree Celsius and the kelvin as precisely 1 part in 273.16 of the difference between absolute zero and the point of water. Thus, it sets the magnitude of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin as exactly the same, additionally, it establishes the difference between the two scales null points as being precisely 273.15 degrees. In his paper Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer, he recounted his experiments showing that the point of ice is essentially unaffected by pressure. He also determined with precision how the boiling point of water varied as a function of atmospheric pressure. He proposed that the point of his temperature scale, being the boiling point. This pressure is known as one standard atmosphere, the BIPMs 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures later defined one standard atmosphere to equal precisely 1013250dynes per square centimetre. On 19 May 1743 he published the design of a mercury thermometer, in 1744, coincident with the death of Anders Celsius, the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus reversed Celsiuss scale. In it, Linnaeus recounted the temperatures inside the orangery at the University of Uppsala Botanical Garden, since the 19th century, the scientific and thermometry communities worldwide referred to this scale as the centigrade scale. Temperatures on the scale were often reported simply as degrees or. More properly, what was defined as centigrade then would now be hectograde.2 gradians, for scientific use, Celsius is the term usually used, with centigrade otherwise continuing to be in common but decreasing use, especially in informal contexts in English-speaking countries
41.
Gray (unit)
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The gray is a derived unit of ionizing radiation dose in the International System of Units. It is defined as the absorption of one joule of energy per kilogram of matter. It is used as a measure of absorbed dose, specific energy and it is a physical quantity, and does not take into account any biological context. Unlike the pre-1971 non-SI roentgen unit of exposure, the gray when used for absorbed dose is defined independently of any target material. However, when measuring kerma the reference target material must be defined explicitly, usually as dry air at standard temperature and pressure. The corresponding cgs unit, the rad, remains common in the United States, though strongly discouraged in the guide for U. S. National Institute of Standards. The gray was named after British physicist Louis Harold Gray, a pioneer in the measurement of X-ray and radium radiation and it was adopted as part of the International System of Units in 1975. One gray is the absorption of one joule of energy, in the form of ionizing radiation, measuring and controlling the value of absorbed dose is vital to ensuring correct operation of these processes. Kerma is a measure of the energy of ionisation due to irradiation. Importantly, kerma dose is different from absorbed dose, depending on the energies involved. The measurement of absorbed dose is a problem, and so many different dosimeters are available for these measurements. These dosimeters cover measurements that can be done in 1-D, 2-D and 3-D, in radiation therapy, the amount of radiation applied varies depending on the type and stage of cancer being treated. For curative cases, the dose for a solid epithelial tumor ranges from 60 to 80 Gy. Preventive doses are typically around 45–60 Gy in 1. 8–2 Gy fractions, the absorbed dose also plays an important role in radiation protection, as it is the starting point for calculating the effect of low levels of radiation. In radiation protection dose assessment, the health risk is defined as the probability of cancer induction. This probability is related to the equivalent dose in sieverts, which has the dimensions as the gray. It is related to the gray by weighting factors described in the articles on equivalent dose, to avoid any risk of confusion between the absorbed dose and the equivalent dose, the absorbed dose is stated in grays and the equivalent dose is stated in sieverts. The accompanying diagrams show how absorbed dose is first obtained by computational techniques, radiation poisoning - The gray is conventionally used to express the severity of what are known as tissue effects from doses received in acute exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation
42.
Katal
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The katal is the SI unit of catalytic activity. It is a derived SI unit for quantifying the catalytic activity of enzymes and its use is recommended by the General Conference on Weights and Measures and other international organizations. It replaces the non-SI enzyme unit, enzyme units are, however, still more commonly used than the katal in practice at present, especially in biochemistry. The katal is not used to express the rate of a reaction, rather, it is used to express catalytic activity which is a property of the catalyst. The katal is invariant of the measurement procedure, but the quantity value is not. Therefore, in order to define the quantity of a catalyst, one katal of trypsin, for example, is that amount of trypsin which breaks a mole of peptide bonds per second under specified conditions. Kat = mol s The name katal has been used for decades, the name comes from the Ancient Greek κατάλυσις, meaning dissolution, which is the same origin as the word catalysis itself comes from. Unit katal for catalytic activity Pure Appl, the Tortuous Road to the Adoption of katal for the Expression of Catalytic Activity by the General Conference on Weights and Measures
