1.
Ulithi
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Ulithi is an atoll in the Caroline Islands of the western Pacific Ocean, about 191 km east of Yap. It consists of 40 islets totalling 4.5 km2, surrounding a lagoon about 36 km long and it is administered by the state of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ulithis population was 773 in 2000, there are four inhabited islands on Ulithi Atoll. They are Falalop, Asor, Mogmog, and Fedarai, Falalop is the most accessible with an air strip, a small resort hotel, gas dealership, store and one of three public high schools in Yap state. Mogmog is the seat of the chief of Ulithi Atoll though each island has its own chief. Other important islands are Losiap, Sorlen, and Potangeras, the atoll is in the westernmost of the Caroline Islands,360 miles southwest of Guam,850 miles east of the Philippines and 1,300 miles south of Tokyo. It is a volcanic atoll, with a coral reef, white sand beaches. Ulithis forty small islands barely rise above the sea, with the largest being only one-half square mile in area, however the reef runs roughly twenty miles north and south, by ten miles across, enclosing a vast anchorage with an average depth of 80 to 100 feet. Ulithi was a staging area for the U. S. Navy in the final year of the Second World War. Several sunken warships rest at the bottom of the Ulithi lagoon, including the USS Mississinewa, the sunken tanker was found to be seeping oil into the lagoon. The United States Navy responded, locating the tanker, tapping her storage tanks, the cleanup operation was completed in February 2003. The atoll offers good fishing and diving, though recent typhoons have eroded some of the reefs, census records can be misleading because population can fluctuate during the year because it is common for Ulithians to leave for work or school abroad and to return. This is particularly true during festive times like the Outer Island High School graduation ceremony, additionally, during events like weddings and funerals, Yasors population may double. Electricity is now available on islands, and the advent of video players. Occasional diving and adventure tours visit Ulithi from Yap, the first European to find Ulithi was the Portuguese navigator Diego da Rocha, for four months in 1525. Its visit was recorded by Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on board of ship Florida on 1 January 1528 and he named them Islas de los Reyes because of the sighting happening on the eve of Epiphany. It was later charted by the Spaniards as Islas de los Garbanzos and it was also visited by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos on 26 January 1543. Germany purchased the islands from Spain in 1899 and they were occupied in 1914 by Japan at the outset of the First World War
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
4.
Battle of Iwo Jima
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The Battle of Iwo Jima was a major battle in which the United States Marine Corps landed on and eventually captured the island of Iwo Jima from the Japanese Imperial Army during World War II. This five-week battle comprised some of the fiercest and bloodiest fighting of the War in the Pacific of World War II, after the heavy losses incurred in the battle, the strategic value of the island became controversial. It was useless to the U. S. Army as a staging base, however, Navy Seabees rebuilt the landing strips, which were used as emergency landing strips for USAAF B-29s. The Imperial Japanese Army positions on the island were heavily fortified, with a network of bunkers, hidden artillery positions. The American ground forces were supported by naval artillery, and had complete air supremacy provided by U. S. Navy. Japanese combat deaths numbered three times the number of American deaths, although uniquely among Pacific War Marine battles, American total casualties exceeded those of the Japanese. Of the 21,000 Japanese soldiers on Iwo Jima at the beginning of the battle, only 216 were taken prisoner, despite the bloody fighting and severe casualties on both sides, the Japanese defeat was assured from the start. Joe Rosenthals Associated Press photograph of the raising of the U. S. flag on top of the 169 m Mount Suribachi by six U. S, Marines became an iconic image of the battle and the American war effort in the Pacific. All indications pointed to an American drive toward the Mariana Islands, in March 1944, the Japanese 31st Army, commanded by General Hideyoshi Obata, was activated to garrison this inner line. The commander of the Japanese garrison on Chichi Jima was placed nominally in command of Army, after the American conquest of the Marianas, daily bomber raids from the Marianas hit the mainland as part of Operation Scavenger. Iwo Jima served as an early warning station that radioed reports of incoming bombers back to mainland Japan and this allowed Japanese air defenses to prepare for the arrival of American bombers. At the same time, with reinforcements arriving from Chichi Jima and the home islands, in addition, it was used by the Japanese to stage air attacks on the Mariana Islands from November 1944 through January 1945. The capture of Iwo Jima would eliminate these problems and provide an area for Operation Downfall – the eventual invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. The distance of B-29 raids could be cut in half, American intelligence sources were confident that Iwo Jima would fall in one week. In light of the intelligence reports, the decision was made to invade Iwo Jima. American forces were unaware that the Japanese were preparing a complex and deep defense, by June 1944, Lieutenant General Tadamichi Kuribayashi was assigned to command the defense of Iwo Jima. While drawing inspiration from the defense in the Battle of Peleliu, takeichi Nishis armored tanks were to be used as camouflaged artillery positions. This network of bunkers and pillboxes favored the defense, for instance, The Nanpo Bunker, which was located east of Airfield Number 2, had enough food, water and ammo for the Japanese to hold out for three months
5.
United States Pacific Fleet
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The United States Pacific Fleet is a Pacific Ocean theater-level component command of the United States Navy that provides naval forces to the United States Pacific Command. Fleet headquarters is at Pearl Harbor Naval Station, Hawaii, with large facilities at North Island. A Pacific Fleet was created in 1907 when the Asiatic Squadron, in 1910, the ships of the First Squadron were organized back into a separate Asiatic Fleet. The General Order 94 of 6 December 1922 organized the United States Fleet, until May 1940, the Battle Fleet was stationed on the west coast of the United States. During the summer of year, as part of the U. S. response to Japanese expansionism, it was instructed to take an advanced position at Pearl Harbor. Long term basing at Pearl Harbor was so strongly opposed by the commander, Admiral James O. Richardson, political considerations were thought sufficiently important that he was relieved by Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, who was in command at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor. The Pacific Fleet was formally recreated on 1 February 1941, on that day General Order 143 split the United States Fleet into separate Atlantic, Pacific, and Asiatic Fleets. On 7 December, the Fleet consisted of the Battle Force, Scouting Force, Base Force, Amphibious Force, Cruiser Force, Destroyer Force, also in Hawaii was the Fourteenth Naval District, commanded by Rear Admiral Claude C. At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Pennsylvania was in dry dock and Colorado was being refitted at Bremerton Navy Yard, arizona was mated with Nevada and Oklahoma at that time. Other components of the Battle Force included Aircraft, Battle Force, with Carrier Division One and Carrier Division Two, plus Cruiser Divisions 4,5, the Scouting Force included Cruiser Division Three, Cruiser Division Nine and Submarines, Scouting Force. The Amphibious Force was formally known as Commander, Amphibious Forces, One of PhibPacs subordinate commands during World War II was Transports, Amphibious Force, Pacific Fleet, or TransPhibPac. The commander of TransPhibPac was known as ComTransPhibPac, in December 1941, the fleet consisted of nine battleships, three aircraft carriers,12 heavy cruisers, eight light cruisers,50 destroyers,33 submarines, and 100 patrol bombers. This was approximately the strength at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. That day, the Japanese Combined Fleet carried out the attack on Pearl Harbor, Navy to rely primarily on aircraft carriers and submarines for many months afterward. More minor battles included the Battle of Dutch Harbor, the West Loch disaster occurred at Pearl Harbor on 21 May 1944. The Pacific Fleet took part in Operation Magic Carpet, the return of U. S. servicemen, after the end of the Second World War. The organization of the Pacific Fleet in January 1947 is shown in Hal M. Friedmans Arguing over the American Lake, Bureaucracy and Rivalry in the U. S. Pacific, the RIMPAC exercise series began in 1971. On 7 March 1984, the Secretaries of Transportation and Navy signed a Memorandum of Agreement which created the Maritime Defense Zones, the Pacific MDZ is an echelon three Navy command under the Commander U. S
6.
Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base and it is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U. S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet, the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7,1941, was the immediate cause of the United States entry into World War II. Pearl Harbor was originally a shallow embayment called Wai Momi or Puʻuloa by the Hawaiians. Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the goddess, Kaʻahupahau. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is, during the early 19th century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of United States in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an Agent of the United States for Commerce and these commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became a part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu, in most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U. S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U. S. establish a base in Hawaii for protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that and my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast, lackawanna in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, a locality of great and increasing interest and importance. This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan, as a result, the United States claimed Midway Island. The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his report of 1868. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters and it also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulus. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1,1869, after 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law
7.
Pacific War
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The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and East Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia, and in China. The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. In Allied countries during the war, The Pacific War was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a decision on 10 December 1941. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War, in Japan, the Fifteen Years War is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The official policy of the U. S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa. To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian, the Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japans attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies. Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia, U. S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War, the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater. However these were not operational commands, in the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a period just before the Japanese surrender. By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, the Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan, the Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident
8.
Marc Mitscher
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Mitscher was born in Hillsboro, Wisconsin on January 26,1887, the son of Oscar and Myrta Mitscher. Mitschers grandfather, Andreas Mitscher, was a German immigrant from Traben-Trarbach and his other grandfather, Thomas J. Shear, was a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly. During the western land boom of 1889, when Marc was two old, his family resettled in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, where his father. His uncle, Byron D. Shear, would become mayor. Mitscher attended elementary and secondary schools in Washington, D. C and he received an appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland in 1904 through Bird Segle McGuire, then U. S. An indifferent student with a sense of military deportment, Mitschers career at the naval academy did not portend the accomplishments he would achieve later in life. Nicknamed after Annapoliss first midshipman from Oklahoma, Peter Cassius Marcellus Cade, soon he was referred to as Oklahoma Pete, with the nickname shortened to just Pete by the winter of his youngster year. Having amassed 159 demerits and showing poorly in his class work, at the insistence of his father, Mitscher re-applied and was granted reappointment, though he had to re-enter the academy as a first year plebe. This time the stoic Mitscher worked straight through, and on June 3,1910, following graduation he served two years at sea aboard USS Colorado, and was commissioned ensign on March 7,1912. In August 1913, he served aboard USS California on the West Coast, during that time Mexico was experiencing a political disturbance, and California was sent to protect U. S. interests and citizens. Mitscher took an early interest in aviation, requesting a transfer to aeronautics while aboard Colorado in his last year as a midshipman, after graduating he continued to make requests for transfer to aviation while serving on the destroyers USS Whipple and USS Stewart. Mitscher was in charge of the room on USS Stewart when orders to transfer to the Naval Aeronautic Station in Pensacola. Mitscher was assigned to the armored cruiser USS North Carolina, which was being used to experiment as a platform for aircraft. The ship had been fitted with a catapult over her fantail, Mitscher trained as a pilot, earning his wings and the designation Naval Aviator. Mitscher was one of the first naval aviators, receiving No.33 on June 2,1916, almost a year later, on April 6,1917, he reported to the renamed armored cruiser USS West Virginia for duty in connection with aircraft catapult experiments. At this early date the Navy was interested in using aircraft for scouting purposes, lieutenant Mitscher was placed in command of NAS Dinner Key in Coconut Grove, Florida. Dinner Key was the second largest naval air facility in the U. S. and was used to train seaplane pilots, on July 18,1918, he was promoted to lieutenant commander. In February 1919, he transferred from NAS Dinner Key to the Aviation Section in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, on May 10,1919, Mitscher was among a group of naval aviators attempting the first transatlantic crossing by air
9.
John S. McCain Sr.
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John Sidney McCain, Sr. nicknamed Slew, was a U. S. Navy admiral. He held several assignments during the Pacific campaign of World War II. McCain was a pioneer of aircraft carrier operations and he died four days after the formal Japanese surrender ceremony. He was the father of Admiral John S. McCain Jr. they became the first father-son pair ever to four star admiral rank in the U. S. Navy. He was the grandfather of U. S, Senator from Arizona and 2008 Republican presidential nominee Navy Captain John S. McCain III and the great-grandfather of John S. McCain IV. All four generations graduated from the United States Naval Academy, McCain was born in Carroll County, Mississippi, the son of planter John Sidney McCain and wife Elizabeth-Ann Young, who married in 1877. His grandparents were William Alexander McCain and Mary Louisa McAllister, who were married in 1840. To practice for its entrance exams, he decided to take the ones for the United States Naval Academy, in doing so, he would leave behind his Mississippi plantation and adopt the Navys itinerant life. At the Naval Academy, his performance was lackluster and he failed his annual physical on account of defective hearing, but the condition was waived due to the great need for officers. When he graduated in 1906, he ranked 79 out of 116 in his class, and he married Catherine Davey Vaulx, who was eight years his senior, on August 9,1909, at Colorado Springs, Colorado. Soon after earning his commission, McCain sailed aboard the Great White Fleets world cruise from 1907 to 1909 and his next assignment was to the Asiatic Squadron, after which the Navy ordered him to the naval base at San Diego, California. During 1914 and 1915 he was officer and engineering officer aboard the armored cruiser USS Colorado. In September 1915, he joined the armored cruiser USS San Diego, with U. S. entry into World War I, McCain and San Diego served on convoy duty in the Atlantic, escorting shipping through the first dangerous leg of their passages to Europe. Based out of Tompkinsville, New York, and Halifax, the San Diego operated in the weather-torn, McCain left the San Diego in May 1918, two months before she was sunk, when he was assigned to the Bureau of Navigation. In the 1920s and early 1930s, McCain served aboard the USS Maryland, the USS New Mexico, and his first command was the USS Sirius. In 1935, McCain enrolled in flight training, graduating at 52 in 1936, he became one of the oldest men to become a naval aviator and from 1937 to 1939 he commanded the aircraft carrier the USS Ranger. In January 1941, after promotion to admiral, he commanded the Aircraft Scouting Force of the Atlantic Fleet. Physically short in stature and of rather thin frame, McCain was known for being gruff and very profane, he liked to drink and he also showed courage and was regarded as a natural, inspirational leader of men
10.
Aircraft carrier
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An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
11.
Destroyer
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Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels with little endurance for unattended ocean operations, typically a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender operated together. After the war, the advent of the missile allowed destroyers to take on the surface combatant roles previously filled by battleships. This resulted in larger and more powerful guided missile destroyers more capable of independent operation, the emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy an enemy battle fleet using steam launches to launch torpedoes. Fast boats armed with torpedoes were built and called torpedo boats, the first seagoing vessel designed to fire the self-propelled Whitehead torpedo was the 33-ton HMS Lightning in 1876. She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons, these were replaced in 1879 by a torpedo tube in the bow. By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, in response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called catchers were built which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. The anti-torpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Czech, Greek, Dutch and, up until the Second World War, Polish. At that time, and even into World War I, the function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future, an important development came with the construction of HMS Swift in 1884, later redesignated TB81. This was a torpedo boat with four 47 mm quick-firing guns. At 23.75 knots, while still not fast enough to engage torpedo boats reliably. Another forerunner of the torpedo boat destroyer was the Japanese torpedo boat Kotaka, designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the London Yarrow shipyards in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. The 165-foot long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots, in her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying larger warships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the Kotaka, the first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was the torpedo gunboat. Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes, by the end of the 1890s torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the torpedo boat destroyers, which were much faster. The first example of this was HMS Rattlesnake, designed by Nathaniel Barnaby in 1885, the gunboat was armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats. Exactly 200 feet long and 23 feet in beam, she displaced 550 tons, built of steel, Rattlesnake was un-armoured with the exception of a 3⁄4-inch protective deck
12.
Cruiser
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A cruiser is a type of warship. The term has been in use for several hundred years, and has had different meanings throughout this period. In the middle of the 19th century, cruiser came to be a classification for the intended for cruising distant waters, commerce raiding. Cruisers came in a variety of sizes, from the medium-sized protected cruiser to large armored cruisers that were nearly as big as a pre-dreadnought battleship. With the advent of the battleship before World War I. The very large battlecruisers of the World War I era that succeeded armored cruisers were now classified, along with dreadnought battleships, in the later 20th century, the obsolescence of the battleship left the cruiser as the largest and most powerful surface combatant after the aircraft carrier. The role of the cruiser varied according to ship and navy, often including air defense, during the Cold War, the Soviet Navys cruisers had heavy anti-ship missile armament designed to sink NATO carrier task forces via saturation attack. The U. S. Adams guided-missile destroyers tasked with the air defense role. Indeed, the newest U. S. Navy destroyers are more heavily-armed than some of the cruisers that they succeeded, currently only three nations operate cruisers, the United States, Russia, and Peru. The term cruiser or cruizer was first commonly used in the 17th century to refer to an independent warship, Cruiser meant the purpose or mission of a ship, rather than a category of vessel. However, the term was used to mean a smaller, faster warship suitable for such a role. The Dutch navy was noted for its cruisers in the 17th century, while the Royal Navy—and later French and Spanish navies—subsequently caught up in terms of their numbers, during the 18th century the frigate became the preeminent type of cruiser. A frigate was a small, fast, long range, lightly armed ship used for scouting, carrying dispatches, the other principal type of cruiser was the sloop, but many other miscellaneous types of ship were used as well. During the 19th century, navies began to use steam power for their fleets, the 1840s saw the construction of experimental steam-powered frigates and sloops. By the middle of the 1850s, the British and U. S. Navies were both building steam frigates with very long hulls and a gun armament, for instance USS Merrimack or Mersey. The 1860s saw the introduction of the ironclad, the first ironclads were frigates, in the sense of having one gun deck, however, they were also clearly the most powerful ships in the navy, and were principally to serve in the line of battle. In spite of their speed, they would have been wasted in a cruising role. The French constructed a number of smaller ironclads for overseas cruising duties, starting with the Belliqueuse and these station ironclads were the beginning of the development of the armored cruisers, a type of ironclad specifically for the traditional cruiser missions of fast, independent raiding and patrol
13.
Fast battleship
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A fast battleship was a battleship which emphasised speed without – in concept – undue compromise of either armor or armament. Most of the early World War I-era dreadnought battleships were built with low design speeds. The extra speed of a fast battleship was normally required to allow the vessel to carry out additional roles besides taking part in the line of battle, such as escorting aircraft carriers. A fast battleship was distinguished from a battlecruiser in that it would have expected to be able to engage hostile battleships in sustained combat on at least equal terms. The requirement to deliver increased speed without compromising fighting ability or protection was the challenge of fast battleship design. Technological advancements such as improvements and light, high-strength armor plating were required in order to make fast battleships feasible. Unlike battlecruiser, which became official Royal Navy usage in 1911, the warships of the Queen Elizabeth class were collectively termed the Fast Division when operating with the Grand Fleet. Otherwise, fast battleships were not distinguished from conventional battleships in official documentation, there is no separate code for fast battleships in the US Navys hull classification system, all battleships, fast or slow, being rated as BB. The Warrior herself, at over 14 knots under steam, was the fastest warship of her day as well as the most powerful, due to the increasing weight of guns and armour, this speed was not exceeded until Monarch achieved 15 knots under steam. In these late pre-dreadnought designs, the speed may have been intended to compensate for their lesser staying power. From about 1900, interest in the possibility of an increase in the speed of Royal Navy battleships was provoked by Sir John Fisher. War games conducted by the General Board of the US Navy in 1903 and 1904 came to similar conclusions. Fisher appears to have been unimpressed by these demonstrations, and continued to press for radical increases in the speed of battleships. His ideas ultimately came to at least partial fruition in the Dreadnought of 1906, like Warrior before her, Dreadnought was the first major warship powered by turbines. She also included a number of features indicating an increased emphasis on speed, An improved hull form was developed. The thickness of the belt was reduced to 11 inches. The belt terminated at the deck, the usual upper belt being deleted The forecastle was raised. In the decade following the construction of the Dreadnought, the Royal Navys lead in capital ship speed was eroded, as a result, a number of potentially significant fast battleship designs failed to achieve fruition
14.
Raymond Spruance
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Raymond Ames Spruance was a United States Navy admiral in World War II. Spruance commanded U. S. naval forces during two of the most significant naval battles took place in the Pacific theater, the Battle of Midway. The Battle of Midway was the first major victory for the United States over Japan and is seen by many as the point of the Pacific war. The Battle of the Philippine Sea was also a significant victory for the US, the Navys official historian said of the Battle of Midway. Spruances performance was superb. Emerged from this one of the greatest admirals in American naval history. After the war, Spruance was appointed President of the Naval War College, Spruance was nicknamed electric brain for his calmness even in moments of supreme crisis, a reputation enhanced by his successful tactics at Midway. Spruance was born in Baltimore, Maryland, to Alexander and Annie Hiss Spruance and he was raised in Indianapolis, Indiana. Spruance attended Indianapolis public schools and graduated from Shortridge High School, from there, he went on to graduate from the U. S. Naval Academy in 1906, and received further, hands-on education in electrical engineering a few years later. Spruances first duty assignment was aboard the battleship USS Iowa, a 11,400 ton veteran of the Spanish–American War, in July 1907 he transferred to the battleship Minnesota and was aboard her during the historic around the world cruise of the Great White Fleet from 1907 to 1909. Spruances seagoing career included command of the destroyers Bainbridge from March 1913 to May 1914, Osborne, in 1916 he aided in the fitting out of the battleship Pennsylvania and he served on board her from her commissioning in June 1916 until November 1917. During the last year of World War I he was assigned as Assistant Engineer Officer of the New York Naval Shipyard, Spruance ran a quiet bridge, without chit-chat, he demanded that orders be given concisely and clearly. In one incident a distraught officer rushed to report, Captain, well, pick it up and put it back, was Spruances measured response. Spruance began attendance at the Naval War College in 1926, and he served as executive officer of USS Mississippi from October 1929 to June 1931. He also held several engineering, intelligence, staff and Naval War College positions up to the 1940s and he served as an instructor at the Naval War College from 1935 to 1938. He commanded the battleship USS Mississippi from April 1938 to December 1939, on February 26,1940, Spruance reported as commandant of the 10th Naval District with headquarters at San Juan, Puerto Rico. On August 1,1941, he finished his tour in Puerto Rico, in the first months of World War II in the Pacific, Spruance commanded the four heavy cruisers and support ships of Cruiser Division Five from his flagship, the heavy cruiser USS Northampton. His division was an element of the force built around the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise and commanded by Vice Admiral William F. Halsey. These raids were critical to morale—setting a new tone of aggressiveness by U. S. commanders while providing invaluable battle experience for the commanders and sailors of the U. S. Navy
15.
William Halsey Jr.
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William Frederick Halsey Jr. GBE, known as Bill Halsey or Bull Halsey, was an American fleet admiral in the United States Navy. At the start of the War in the Pacific Halsey commanded the task force centered on the carrier Enterprise in a series of raids against Japanese-held targets. He was made commander, South Pacific Area and led the Allied forces over the course of the Battle for Guadalcanal, in 1943 he was made commander of the Third Fleet, the post he held through the rest of the war. Halsey was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, on October 30,1882 and his father was a descendant of Senator Rufus King, who was an American lawyer, politician, diplomat, and Federalist. After waiting two years to receive an appointment to the United States Naval Academy, Halsey decided to study medicine at the University of Virginia and he chose Virginia because his best friend, Karl Osterhause, was there. While there, Halsey joined the Delta Psi fraternity and was also a member of the secretive Seven Society, after his first year, Halsey received his appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, and entered the Academy in the fall of 1900. Halsey graduated from the Naval Academy on February 2,1904, after lettering in football as a fullback and earning several athletic honors. He spent his service years in battleships and sailed with the main battle fleet aboard the battleship USS Kansas as Roosevelts Great White Fleet circumnavigated the globe from 1907 to 1909. Halsey was on the bridge of the battleship USS Missouri on Wednesday, April 13,1904, No explosion occurred, but the rapid burning of the powder burnt and suffocated to death 31 officers and men. This resulted in Halsey dreading the 13th of every month, especially when it fell on a Friday, after his service on the Missouri, Halsey served aboard torpedo boats, beginning with USS Du Pont in 1909. Halsey was one of the few officers who was promoted directly from Ensign to full lieutenant, at that time, the destroyer and the torpedo boat, though extremely hazardous, were the most effective way to bring the torpedo into combat against capital ships. Lieutenant Commander Halseys World War I service, including command of USS Shaw in 1918, in October 1922, he was the naval attaché at the American Embassy in Berlin, Germany. One year later, he was given additional duty as naval attaché at the American Embassies in Christiana, Norway, Copenhagen, Denmark and he then returned to sea duty, again in destroyers in European waters, in command of USS Dale and USS Osborne. In 1934 the chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Admiral Ernest King, offered Halsey command of the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga, Captain Halsey elected to enroll as a cadet for the full 12-week Naval Aviator course rather than the simpler Naval Aviation Observer program. I thought it better to be able to fly the aircraft itself than to just sit back and be at the mercy of the pilot. Halsey earned his Naval Aviators Wings on May 15,1935, at the age of 52 and he went on to command the Saratoga, and later the Naval Air Station Pensacola at Pensacola, Florida. Halsey considered airpower an important part of the navy, commenting, The naval officer in the next war had better know his aviation. Captain Halsey was promoted to admiral in 1938
16.
Chester W. Nimitz
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Chester William Nimitz was a fleet admiral of the United States Navy. Nimitz was the leading U. S. Navy authority on submarines. S, the chief of the Navys Bureau of Navigation in 1939, Nimitz served as Chief of Naval Operations from 1945 until 1947. He was the United States last surviving officer who served in the rank of fleet admiral and his frail, rheumatic father had died six months earlier, on August 14,1884. The best way to get along with either is to all you can, then do your best. His grandfather became a Texas Ranger in the Texas Mounted Volunteers in 1851 and he then served as captain of the Gillespie Rifles Company in the Confederate States Army during the Civil War. Originally, Nimitz applied to West Point in hopes of becoming an Army officer and his congressman, James L. Slayden, told him that he had one appointment available for the United States Naval Academy and that he would award it to the best qualified candidate. Nimitz felt that this was his opportunity for further education. He was appointed to the United States Naval Academy from Texass 12th congressional district in 1901, Nimitz joined the battleship Ohio at San Francisco, and cruised on her to the Far East. In September 1906, he was transferred to the cruiser Baltimore, on January 31,1907, remaining on Asiatic Station in 1907, he successively served on the gunboat Panay, destroyer Decatur, and cruiser Denver. The destroyer Decatur ran aground on a bar in the Philippines on July 7,1908 while under the command of Ensign Nimitz. The ship was pulled free the next day, and Nimitz was court-martialed, found guilty of neglect of duty, and issued a letter of reprimand. Nimitz returned to the United States on board USS Ranger when that vessel was converted to a school ship, in May of that year, he was given command of the flotilla, with additional duty in command of USS Plunger, later renamed A-1. He commanded USS Snapper when that submarine was commissioned on February 2,1910, in the latter command, he had additional duty from October 10,1911 as Commander 3rd Submarine Division Atlantic Torpedo Fleet. On the monitor Tonopah on March 20,1912, he rescued Fireman Second Class W. J. Walsh from drowning, receiving a Silver Lifesaving Medal for his action. In the summer of 1913, Nimitz studied engines at the diesel engine plants in Nuremberg, Germany, returning to the New York Navy Yard, he became executive and engineer officer of Maumee at her commissioning on October 23,1916. Under his supervision, Maumee conducted the first-ever underway refuelings, on August 10,1917, Nimitz became aide to Rear Admiral Samuel S. Robison, Commander, Submarine Force, U. S. On February 6,1918, Nimitz was appointed chief of staff and was awarded a Letter of Commendation for meritorious service as COMSUBLANTs chief of staff. On September 16, he reported to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, from May 1919 to June 1920, he served as executive officer of the battleship South Carolina
17.
United States Fifth Fleet
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The Fifth Fleet of the United States Navy has been responsible for naval forces in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Arabian Sea, and parts of the Indian Ocean since 1995 after a 48-year hiatus. It shares a commander and headquarters with U. S. Naval Forces Central Command in Bahrain, as of 2015, the commander of the 5th Fleet is Vice Admiral Kevin M. Donegan. Fifth Fleet/NAVCENT is a component command of, and reports to, established in 1944, the Fifth Fleet conducted extensive operations against Japanese forces in the Central Pacific during World War II. World War II ended in 1945, and the Fifth Fleet was deactivated in 1947 and it remained inactive until 1995, when it was reactivated and assumed its current responsibilities. The Fifth Fleet was initially established during World War II on 26 April 1944 from the Central Pacific Force under the command of Admiral Raymond Spruance, Central Pacific Force was itself part of Pacific Ocean Areas. A secondary benefit was confusing the Japanese into thinking that they were two separate fleets as the fleet designation flipped back and forth. Under Admiral Spruance, the Fifth Fleet was by June 1944 the largest fleet in the world, the British Pacific Fleet operated as Task Force 57 of the Fifth Fleet from March 1945 until May 1945. The Fifth Fleet was deactivated in January 1947, prior to the first Gulf War in 1990-1991, U. S. naval operations in the Persian Gulf region were directed by the Commander, Middle Eastern Force. However, no numbered fleet existed permanently within the USCENTCOM area of responsibility, by July 1995, a new numbered fleet was deemed necessary. After a 48-year hiatus, the U. S, Fifth Fleet was reactivated, replacing COMMIDEASTFOR, and it now directs operations in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and Arabian Sea. Its headquarters are at NSA Bahrain located in Manama, Bahrain, however, with the War on Terrorism, the naval strategy of the U. S. has changed. The regular deployments of the Cold War are now a thing of the past, consequently, the policy of always maintaining a certain number of ships in various parts of the world is also over. Carrier Group Three formed the core of the power during the initial phase of Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001. Commander, Carrier Group Three arrived in the Arabian Sea on 12 September 2001 and was subsequently designated Commander Task Force 50, commanding multiple carrier strike groups, the Task Force conducted strikes against Al-Qaeda and Taliban forces in Afghanistan. Task Force 50 comprised over 59 ships from six nations including six aircraft carriers, in the Persian Gulf, United States Coast Guard surface ships attached to the Fifth Fleet were under Commander Destroyer Squadron 50 commanded by Captain Peterson of the Navy. Boutwell, Walnut, and the four boats were part of this group. The shore detachments, MCSD and PATFOR SWA also operated under the command of CDS-50, for actual operations, the Coast Guard forces were part of two different task forces. The surface units were part of Task Force 55, Command of CTF-55 actually shifted during OIF
18.
United States Third Fleet
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The Third Fleet is one of the numbered fleets in the United States Navy. Major oil and trade sea lines of communication within this area are important to the economic health of the United States. The Third Fleet plans and executes operations in the Pacific Ocean. The fleet provides maritime homeland defense, regional security, and humanitarian support through integrated naval. The Third Fleet ensures realistic, relevant training to our people so they have the skills to promote peace. The Third Fleet is a power in control of ships, submarines, and aircraft stationed in California, Washington. The Third Fleets sea-going force includes five aircraft carrier groups, each consisting of a combination of cruisers, destroyers. They also have more than 30 submarines and a dozen ships to support the strike groups. Third Fleets air forces comprises more than 400 Navy aircraft, including F/A-18 Super Hornets, E-2C Hawkeyes, AV-8B Harriers, AH-1Z SuperCobras, first established in 1943, the Third Fleet conducted extensive operations against Japanese forces in the Central Pacific during World War II. Deactivated in 1945, the fleet remained inactive until 1973, when it was reactivated and assumed its current responsibilities, the Third Fleet was originally formed during World War II on 15 March 1943 under the command of Admiral William F. Halsey. Its on-shore headquarters in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii was established on 15 June 1944. The ships of the Third Fleet also formed the basis of the Fifth Fleet, formed on 26 April 1944, Spruance and Halsey alternated command of the fleet for major operations, allowing the other admiral and his staff time to plan for subsequent operations. A secondary benefit was confusing the Japanese into thinking there were actually two separate fleets as the fleet designation flipped back and forth. The British Pacific Fleet was operating as Task Force 57 of the Fifth Fleet when Halsey relieved Spruance of command in May 1945, like the rest of the Fifth Fleets ships, the British ships were resubordinated from Spruances Fifth Fleet to Halseys Third Fleet. The British Pacific Fleet then constituted Task Force 37 under the Third Fleets operational command through the end of World War II on 15 August 1945, the end of the war made this operation unnecessary. Embarked aboard Missouri, Admiral Halsey led the Third Fleet into Tokyo Bay on 29 August 1945, on 2 September 1945, the documents of surrender of the Japanese Empire ending the war were signed on Missouris deck. The Third Fleet remained in Japanese waters until late September 1945, on 7 October 1945, the Third Fleet was designated a reserve fleet and decommissioned from active status. Third Fleets new duties were to train naval forces for overseas deployment, additionally, Third Fleet could deploy in the event of a major conflict
19.
Service Squadron
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A Service Squadron was a U. S. Navy squadron that supported fleet combat units. Service Squadrons were used by the United States Navy from their inception in 1943 to as late as the early 1980s. At the time of their inception during the Second World War they allowed the US Navy to operate across the vast reaches of the Pacific ocean for extended periods of time. Service Squadrons created temporary forward bases to allow the naval squadrons to spend time in transit. Ulithi, a volcanic atoll in the central Pacific, is one such example. Service Squadrons essentially created a naval base near the area of operation. With the naval base at Ulithi to refit, repair and resupply, many ships were able to deploy, among the vessels operating in service squadrons were tankers, oilers, refrigerator ships, ammunition ships, supply ships, floating docks and repair ships. They provided diesel, ordnance, aviation fuel, food stuffs, Ulithi was as far forward from the US naval base at San Francisco as the San Francisco base was from London, England. To have a fully functional major port in the middle of the Pacific was a significant aid to U. S. Navy operations, the commander of the service squadron was responsible for the operation of all the ships, docks and repair yards in the squadron. The Commander was referred to as ComServRon, with the title followed by the designation of his Squadron. Service Squadrons were slowly disbanded as fleet combat support functions were shifted to Military Sealift Command, Service squadrons played a vital role in the war in the Pacific during the second world war. The Pacific ocean with its vast reaches was a significant obstacle to overcome, in considering their war in the Pacific against the United States, the Japanese had counted on the fact that the size of the Pacific Ocean would in itself be a defense. For the US Navy to conduct operations against the Japanese, all actions would necessarily be far from their home ports. Travel to the area of combat would consume the fleets supplies of fuel and food, Japanese naval strategy was built around the idea that this would present them with an opportunity to knock the US Navy out of the conflict with a single decisive action. They sought such an opportunity throughout the war and he referred to this future force as the Big Blue Fleet. To make it effective at projecting its power, he would need to devise a way to keep it supplied, the ongoing resupply of a large naval force across the vast expanse of the Pacific would require the US Navy to perform something no navy had ever accomplished before. In the autumn of 1943 Admiral Nimitz ordered the creation of two service squadrons and these two squadrons would provide mobile service to the fleet as it moved across the Pacific — with one service as fleet base while the second remained to the rear. As the fleet captured new sites the rear squadron would move to the front and he did this essentially by bringing the port to the Navy
20.
Battlecruiser
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The battlecruiser, or battle cruiser, was a type of capital ship of the first half of the 20th century. They were similar in size, cost, and armament to battleships, however, as more and more battlecruisers were built, they were increasingly used alongside the better-protected battleships. British battlecruisers in particular suffered heavy losses at Jutland, where their armour made them very vulnerable to large-caliber shells. Battlecruisers were put into action again during World War II, in the post–Cold War era, the Soviet Kirov class of large guided missile cruisers have also been termed battlecruisers. The battlecruiser was developed by the Royal Navy in the first years of the 20th century as an evolution of the armoured cruiser. The first armoured cruisers had been built in the 1870s, as an attempt to give protection to ships fulfilling the typical cruiser roles of patrol, trade protection. However, the results were satisfactory, as the weight of armour required for any meaningful protection usually meant that the ship became almost as slow as a battleship. As a result, navies preferred to build protected cruisers with an armoured deck protecting their engines, in the 1890s, technology began to change this balance. New Krupp steel armour meant that it was now possible to give a side armour which would protect it against the quick-firing guns of enemy battleships. In 1896–97 France and Russia, who were regarded as allies in the event of war, started to build large. In the event of a war between Britain and France or Russia, or both, these cruisers threatened to cause difficulties for the British Empires worldwide trade. Between 1899 and 1905, it completed or laid down seven classes of this type and this building program, in turn, prompted the French and Russians to increase their own construction. The Imperial German Navy began to build large armoured cruisers for use on their overseas stations, the cost of this cruiser arms race was significant. In the period 1889–96, the Royal Navy spent £7.3 million on new large cruisers, from 1897–1904, it spent £26.9 million. Many armoured cruisers of the new kind were just as large, the increasing size and power of the armoured cruiser led to suggestions in British naval circles that cruisers should displace battleships entirely. The battleships main advantage was its 12-inch heavy guns, and heavier armour designed to protect from shells of similar size, however, for a few years after 1900 it seemed that those advantages were of little practical value. The torpedo now had a range of 2,000 yards, however, at ranges of more than 2,000 yards it became increasingly unlikely that the heavy guns of a battleship would score any hits, as the heavy guns relied on primitive aiming techniques. The secondary batteries of 6-inch quick-firing guns, firing more plentiful shells, were likely to hit the enemy
21.
USS Saratoga (CV-3)
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USS Saratoga was a Lexington-class aircraft carrier built for the United States Navy during the 1920s. Originally designed as a battlecruiser, she was converted into one of the Navys first aircraft carriers during construction to comply with the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, the ship entered service in 1928 and was assigned to the Pacific Fleet for her entire career. Saratoga and her ship, Lexington, were used to develop. On more than one occasion these included successful surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor and she was one of three prewar US fleet aircraft carriers, along with Enterprise and Ranger, to serve throughout World War II. Shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Saratoga was the centerpiece of the unsuccessful American effort to relieve Wake Island and was torpedoed by a Japanese submarine a few weeks later. After lengthy repairs, the ship supported forces participating in the Guadalcanal Campaign and she was again torpedoed the following month and returned to the Solomon Islands area after repairs were completed. After a brief refit in mid-1944, the became a training ship for the rest of the year. In early 1945, Saratoga participated in the Battle of Iwo Jima as a night fighter carrier. Several days into the battle, she was damaged by kamikaze hits and was forced to return to the United States for repairs. While under repair, the ship, now obsolete, was permanently modified as a training carrier with some of her hangar deck converted into classrooms. Saratoga remained in this role for the rest of the war and was used to ferry troops back to the United States after the Japanese surrender in August. In mid-1946, the ship was a target for nuclear tests during Operation Crossroads. She survived the first test with little damage, but was sunk by the second test, Saratoga was the fifth US Navy ship named after the 1777 Battle of Saratoga, an important victory during the Revolutionary War. After the war the ship was redesigned to incorporate improved boiler technology, anti-torpedo bulges. Given the hull number of CC-3, Saratoga was laid down on 25 September 1920 by New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden, in February 1922, before the Washington Naval Conference concluded, the ships construction was suspended when she was 28 percent complete. She was ordered to be converted to a carrier with the hull number CV-3 on 1 July 1922. Her displacement was reduced by a total of 4,000 long tons, the main armor belt was retained, although it was reduced in height to save weight. The hull generally remained unaltered, as did the torpedo system, because they had already been built
22.
Rear admiral
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Rear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the admiral ranks, in many navies it is referred to as a two-star rank. It originated from the days of naval sailing squadrons and can trace its origins to the Royal Navy, each naval squadron would be assigned an admiral as its head, who would command from the centre vessel and direct the activities of the squadron. The admiral would in turn be assisted by a vice admiral and this has survived into the modern age, with the rank of rear admiral the most-junior of the admiralty ranks of many navies. In some European navies, and in the Canadian Forces French rank translations, in the German Navy the rank is known as Konteradmiral, superior to the flotilla admiral. In the Royal Netherlands Navy, this rank is known as schout-bij-nacht, denoting the role junior to the squadron admiral, the Royal Australian Navy maintains a rank of rear admiral, refer to Australian Defence Force ranks and insignia. Since the mid-1990s, the insignia of a Royal Australian Navy rear admiral is the Crown of St. Edward above a crossed sword and baton, like the Royal Navy version, the sword is a traditional naval cutlass. The stars have eight points, unlike the four pointed Order of the Bath stars used by the army, prior to 1995, the RAN shoulder board was identical to the Royal Navy shoulder board. The Royal Navy shoulder board changed again in 2001 and the Australian, rear Admiral Robyn Walker AM, RAN became the first female admiral in the Royal Australian Navy when she was appointed Surgeon-General of the Australian Defence Force on 16 December 2011. In the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank of rear-admiral is the Navy rank equivalent to major-general of the Army, a rear-admiral is a flag officer, the naval equivalent of a general officer. A rear-admiral is senior to a commodore and brigadier-general, and junior to a vice-admiral and lieutenant-general, the service dress features a wide strip of gold braid around the cuff and, since June 2010, above it a narrower strip of gold braid embellished with the executive curl. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Konteradmiral is an OF-7 two-star rank equivalent to the Generalmajor in the German Army, see also The Guyana Defence Force Coast Guard is the naval component of the Military of Guyana. As such, the ranks of the Coast Guard are naval ranks similar to the practice in the respective Coast Guards of Jamaica and Trinidad, the rank of rear admiral was first awarded to chief of staff commodore Gary Best on August 19,2013. The rank insignia consists of two silver pips with green highlights, beneath a crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by the gold-colored Caciques crown with red, the Indian Navy also maintains a rear admiral rank senior to commodore and captain ranks and junior to vice admiral ranks. The rank insignia for a rear-admiral is two stars beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by Emblem of India, worn on shoulder boards, before Islamic Revolution The Iranian Imperial Navy. After Islamic Revolution The Islamic Republic of Iran Navy, also known as the Iranian Navy, a rear admiral in the Pakistani Navy is a senior and two-star rank naval officer, appointed in higher naval commands. Like most Commonwealth navies, the rear admiral rank is superior to commodore, however, the rank is junior to the three-star rank vice-admiral and four-star rank admiral, who is generally a Chief of Naval Staff of the Navy
23.
Frederick C. Sherman
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Frederick Carl Sherman was a highly decorated admiral of the United States Navy during World War II. Sherman was born in Port Huron, Michigan in 1888 and his grandfather, Loren Sherman, was the longtime editor and publisher of The Daily Times in Port Huron. His father, Frederick Ward Sherman, sold the newspaper in 1907 and moved to California, Sherman graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1910. He served as commanding officer of submarines H-2 and O-2 during World War I, after becoming a naval aviator, Sherman served as executive officer of USS Saratoga in 1937, and of Naval Air Station San Diego to 1938. He commanded USS Lexington from 1940 until her loss in the Battle of the Coral Sea, promoted to rear admiral, he served as assistant chief of staff to COMINCH Admiral Ernest King until the end of 1942. He served in the Fast Carrier Task Force, as Commander, Carrier Division 2 in 1943, Sherman was a three-time winner of the Navy Cross. On 11 January 1961, Frederick C. Sherman Field at San Clemente Island, promoted to vice admiral in 1945, he became Commander, United States Fifth Fleet in 1946. Sherman retired in 1947, and died on 27 July 1957 at San Diego, Sherman wrote Combat Command, a history of the Pacific Theater of World War II, drawing on his personal experiences. Combat Command was published in 1950 by E. P, dutton Inc, and again by Bantam Books in 1982. Here is the bar of Vice Admiral Frederick C. Sherman, This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Naval History & Heritage Command, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, Vol. XIII. History of St. Clair County, Michigan, by William Lee Jenks,1911 http, //www. microworks. net/PACIFIC/biographies/frederick_sherman. htm
24.
Fleet carrier
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A fleet carrier is an aircraft carrier designed to operate with the main fleet of a nations navy. The term was developed during World War II, to distinguish it from the carrier and other lesser types. In addition to many medium-sized carriers, supercarriers, as well as light carriers, are also classed as fleet carriers. Aircraft carriers evolved in the years between World War I and World War II, the most successful of these early aircraft carriers were built from battlecruisers. Battlecruisers typically had a speed of about 30 knots, which was several knots faster than the speed of contemporary battleships, the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 limited the displacement of purpose-designed aircraft carriers to 23,000 tons. The idea of a fleet carrier was developed in 1931 by Admirals J. J. Clark. Fleet carriers instead of operating as scouts for the fleet, would operate in unison with the fleet, to ward off air attacks, cruisers and destroyers would protect fleet carriers. The place of fleet carriers would then displace battleships as the preeminent assets of the surface fleet, a fleet carrier would carry more than 50 aircraft, and be fast enough to keep up with other major elements of the fleet, such as cruisers and battleships. Ships of similar speed carrying fewer aircraft were identified as light aircraft carriers, fleet aircraft carrier became the term to distinguish front-line aircraft carriers from the generic description of any warship carrying aircraft. In the post-war era, the United States Navy sought to give aircraft carriers a strategic bombing capability in addition to their tactical role, the earliest carrier aircraft were designed as fighters, scouts and gunfire observers. Torpedo bombers were developed to slow enemy ships so friendly battleships might catch, the fleet carriers longer range bombers were often used for the scouting role. By the time of the Korean War, the typical United States Navy fleet carrier embarked two squadrons of jet fighters, two squadrons of piston fighter-bombers, and a squadron of attack planes. As improved aircraft sensors became available, one or more squadrons of fighters and bombers became capable of night operations. Escort carrier Helicopter carrier List of aircraft carriers Seaplane tender
25.
Light aircraft carrier
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A light aircraft carrier, or light fleet carrier, is an aircraft carrier that is smaller than the standard carriers of a navy. The precise definition of the type varies by country, light carriers typically have a complement of aircraft only one-half to two-thirds the size of a fleet carrier. In World War II, the United States Navy produced a number of light carriers by converting cruiser hulls. The Independence-class ships, however, had the virtue of being available at a time when available carrier decks had been reduced to Enterprise and Saratoga in the Pacific, in addition, unlike escort carriers, they had enough speed to take part in fleet actions with the larger carriers. Late in the war, a follow on design to the Independence-class, two vessels in this class—Saipan and Wright—were completed after the wars end. After very brief lives as carriers, the Saipans were converted to command, the British 1942 design light fleet carrier was a scaled-down version of their Illustrious-class fleet carrier. The design could be built in a yard with little or no experience of warship construction, although built to merchant standards, the design incorporated better watertight subdivision. Expected to have a lifetime of three years, the last of the design was taken out of service in 2001. The first eight were built as the Colossus but revisions upgrading the design to larger and heavier aircraft led to the remainder being the Majestic class. In the post-war period, the Royal Navy operated a force of ten Colossus class carriers including the two maintenance carriers, by 1939 HMS Hermes was being considered as equivalent to a light aircraft carrier, due to her small size and lack of armour. Currently five light carriers are in service. The newest light carriers are the Italian Cavour and the Spanish Juan Carlos I, aircraft Carriers of the World,1914 to the Present. Watts, Anthony J. Japanese Warships of World War II
26.
Battle of Leyte
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Japan had conquered the Philippines in 1942. Controlling it was vital for Japans survival in World War II because it commanded sea routes to Borneo and Sumatra by which rubber, for the US, capturing the Philippines was a key strategic step in isolating Imperial Japans military holdings in China and the Pacific theater. It was also a matter of pride for MacArthur. Those relief forces were non-existent, Roosevelts true intentions in ordering MacArthur to flee the Philippines had been to prevent his capture by the Japanese, still, MacArthur had vowed that he would return to the Philippines. He repeatedly stated that it was an obligation of the US to liberate the Philippines as soon as possible. In March 1944, the Joint Chiefs of Staff ordered MacArthur to plan an attack on the southern Philippines by the end of the year, halsey then recommended a direct strike on Leyte, canceling other planned operations, and the Leyte invasion date moved forward to October. Leyte, one of the islands of the Philippines, has numerous deep-water approaches and sandy beaches which offered opportunities for amphibious assaults. American air forces based on Leyte could strike at enemy bases, a heavily forested north-south mountain range dominates the interior and separates two sizable valleys, or coastal plains. The larger Leyte Valley extends from the northern coast to the eastern shore and contains most of the towns. This continued south to the port of Ormoc City, then along the shore to Baybay town. The road then turned east to cross the mountainous waist of the island, below these towns, the mountainous southern third of Leyte was mostly undeveloped. High mountain peaks over 4,400 ft, as well as the jagged outcroppings, ravines, the timing late in the year of the assault would force combat troops and supporting pilots, as well as logistical units, to contend with monsoon rains. Japanese troop strength on Leyte was estimated by US intelligence at 20,000, preliminary operations for the Leyte invasion began at dawn on 17 October with minesweeping tasks and the movement of the 6th Rangers toward three small islands in Leyte Gulf. Although delayed by a storm, the Rangers were on Suluan, on Suluan, they dispersed a small group of Japanese defenders and destroyed a radio station, while they found Dinagat unoccupied. The next day, the third island Homonhon, was taken without any opposition, on Dinagat and Homonhom, the Rangers proceeded to erect navigation lights for the amphibious transports to follow. Meanwhile, reconnaissance by underwater demolition teams revealed clear landing beaches for assault troops on Leyte, independently, the 21st Infantry Regiment on 20 Oct. landed on Panaon Strait to control the entrance to Sogod Bay. Following four hours of naval gunfire on A-day,20 October. X Corps pushed across a 4 mi stretch of beach between Tacloban airfield and the Palo River,15 mi to the south, XXIV Corps units came ashore across a 3 mi strand between San José and the Daguitan River
27.
Leyte
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Leyte /ˈleɪtɛ/ is an island in the Visayas group of the Philippines. Politically, the island is divided into two provinces, Leyte and Southern Leyte, territorially, Southern Leyte includes the island of Panaon to its south. To the north of Leyte is the province of Biliran. The major cities of Leyte are Tacloban, on the shore at the northwest corner of Leyte Gulf. The island was once the location of Mairete, a community which was ruled by Datu Ete. Before being colonized by Spain, the island was home to indigenous animist Warays to the east. Leyte today is notable for the electric power plants near Ormoc. However, Leyte is most famous for its role in the reconquest of the Philippines in World War II. On 20 October 1944, General Douglas MacArthur waded ashore on Leyte, saying, I have returned, the convergence of naval forces resulted in the four-day Battle of Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle in history. The island measures about 180 kilometres north-south and about 65 kilometres at its widest point, in the north it nearly joins the island of Samar, separated by the San Juanico Strait, which becomes as narrow as 2 kilometres in some places. The island province of Biliran is also to the north of Leyte and is joined to Leyte island by a bridge across the narrow Biliran Strait, to the south, Leyte is separated from Mindanao by the Surigao Strait. To the east, Leyte is somewhat set back from the Philippine Sea of the Pacific Ocean, Samar to the northeast, to the west is the Camotes Sea. Leyte is mostly forested and mountainous, but the Leyte Valley in the northeast has much agriculture. The Leyte Provincial capital is the seat of the government where there is a historic mural depicting the First Mass of Limasawa in the Orient. The MacArthur Landing Memorial National Park in Red Beach, Palo and it also has a lagoon where a life-size statue of Gen. MacArthur stands. MacArthurs true landing took place at Dulag, Leyte, lake Danao is a violin-shaped lake hemmed by cloud-capped mountain ranges. Kalanggaman Island in Palompon, Leyte is an island with pure white sand. The ecological atmosphere of the island had been preserved by the municipality, nino Shrine and Heritage Museum boasts the painting of the fourteen stations of the cross done by Filipino artists and a bas-relief of the legend of the first Filipino man and woman
28.
Joseph J. Clark
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Admiral Joseph James Jocko Clark, USN was an admiral in the United States Navy, who commanded aircraft carriers during World War II. Born and raised in Oklahoma and a native of the Cherokee Nation, he was the first Native American to graduate from the United States Naval Academy, in 1917. Clarks nickname, Jocko, originated at the Naval Academy, on one of his first days there, during World War II, Clark commanded the carriers Suwannee and Yorktown. He was known as a commander, ready to take his group into battle. He commanded Task Group 58.1 in the Marianas campaign and his air groups conducted attacks on shuttle points Chichi and Iwo Jima so often that sailors of the Fast Carrier Task Force nicknamed them the Jocko Jimas. He operated his task group in conjunction with the rest of Task Force 58 in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and his flagship was the carrier Hornet. On the second day of the battle, with his planes returning after sundown, Clark ordered his ships to light up, Clark commanded the Fast Carrier Task Force during the Korean War. He was later promoted to Vice Admiral and rose to command the 7th Fleet, Clark retired on December 1,1953 with the rank of Admiral. His awards included the Navy Cross, the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, the Silver Star, the Legion of Merit, the Navy Commendation Medal, Admiral Clark died on July 13,1971 at St. Albans, New York. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Clarks flag lieutenant was historian Clark G. Reynolds uncle. Reynolds was chosen to co-author Clarks autobiography, Clark was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1952. In 1979, the frigate, USS Clark, was named in his honor. Carrier admiral by J. J. Clark with Clark G. Reynolds, on the warpath in the Pacific, Admiral Jocko Clark and the fast carriers, by Clark G. Reynolds Rear Admiral J. J
29.
Gerald F. Bogan
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Gerald Francis Bogan was a United States Navy aviator and vice admiral who served in World War I and II. Gerald Francis Bogan was born July 27,1894, in Mackinac Island, Michigan to Dr. James H. Bogan and he graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1916. He served in World War I in convoy duty between the English Channel and Gibraltar. After the war he served on destroyers, in 1925 he trained to be a Naval Aviator. He was among the first aviators to land on an aircraft carrier, Bogan served in the Pacific during World War II and was awarded the Navy Cross, two Navy Distinguished Service Medals, and the Legion of Merit with combat V device for actions during World War II. Bogan authored a memorandum that was leaked by Captain John G. Crommelin during the Revolt of the Admirals in September 1949. His memo described the situation in the Navy as follows, The morale of the Navy is lower today than at any time since I entered the ranks in 1916. The situation deteriorates with each press release, the memorandum was endorsed in writing by Admiral Arthur W. Radford and Chief of Naval Operations Louis E. Denfeld. In August 1963, Bogan was the captain of a 104-foot, $250,000, the yacht was en route from Honolulu to San Diego. Bogan and six members were rescued by the submarine USS Razorback. According to the crew, the yacht lost a wooden plank in its hull, causing it to flood and sink, Bogan died at Scripps Hospital in San Diego on June 8,1973. He was survived by his wife Katherine, stepson Harold, his two sisters Eleanore and Dorothy and his brother, James, Bogan was inducted into the Naval Aviation Hall of Honor,1992. USS Saratoga,27 September 1942 –7 April 1943 TG38.2 – CV – USS Intrepid, CVLs – USS Cabot, commander, Air Force, Atlantic Fleet, February 1946 – December 1948. Commander First Fleet,8 January 1949 –1 February 1950, Bogan, Gerald Francis Admiral Bogan photo collection at San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives
30.
Frederick Sherman
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Frederick Carl Sherman was a highly decorated admiral of the United States Navy during World War II. Sherman was born in Port Huron, Michigan in 1888 and his grandfather, Loren Sherman, was the longtime editor and publisher of The Daily Times in Port Huron. His father, Frederick Ward Sherman, sold the newspaper in 1907 and moved to California, Sherman graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1910. He served as commanding officer of submarines H-2 and O-2 during World War I, after becoming a naval aviator, Sherman served as executive officer of USS Saratoga in 1937, and of Naval Air Station San Diego to 1938. He commanded USS Lexington from 1940 until her loss in the Battle of the Coral Sea, promoted to rear admiral, he served as assistant chief of staff to COMINCH Admiral Ernest King until the end of 1942. He served in the Fast Carrier Task Force, as Commander, Carrier Division 2 in 1943, Sherman was a three-time winner of the Navy Cross. On 11 January 1961, Frederick C. Sherman Field at San Clemente Island, promoted to vice admiral in 1945, he became Commander, United States Fifth Fleet in 1946. Sherman retired in 1947, and died on 27 July 1957 at San Diego, Sherman wrote Combat Command, a history of the Pacific Theater of World War II, drawing on his personal experiences. Combat Command was published in 1950 by E. P, dutton Inc, and again by Bantam Books in 1982. Here is the bar of Vice Admiral Frederick C. Sherman, This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Naval History & Heritage Command, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, Vol. XIII. History of St. Clair County, Michigan, by William Lee Jenks,1911 http, //www. microworks. net/PACIFIC/biographies/frederick_sherman. htm
31.
Battle of Leyte Gulf
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The Battle of Leyte Gulf is generally considered to be the largest naval battle of World War II and, by some criteria, possibly the largest naval battle in history. It was fought in waters near the Philippine islands of Leyte, Samar and Luzon, from 23–26 October 1944, between combined American and Australian forces and the Imperial Japanese Navy. The Imperial Japanese Navy mobilized nearly all of its major naval vessels in an attempt to defeat the Allied invasion but was repulsed by the U. S. Navys 3rd. The IJN failed to achieve its objective, suffered heavy losses. The majority of its surviving ships, deprived of fuel, remained in their bases for the rest of the Pacific War. It was the first battle in which Japanese aircraft carried out organized kamikaze attacks, by the time of the battle, Japan had fewer aircraft than the Allied forces had sea vessels, demonstrating the difference in power of the two sides at this point of the war. S. 5th Fleets Fast Carrier Task Force captured most of the Mariana Islands and this offensive breached Japans strategic inner defense ring and gave the Americans a base from which long-range Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers could attack the Japanese home islands. The Japanese counterattacked in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the U. S. Navy destroyed three Japanese aircraft carriers and approximately 600 Japanese aircraft, leaving the IJN with virtually no carrier-borne air power or any experienced pilots. For subsequent operations, Admiral Ernest J. U. S. Army General Douglas MacArthur championed an invasion of the Philippines, which also lay across the supply lines to Japan. Leaving the Philippines in Japanese hands would be a blow to American prestige and an affront to MacArthur. However, Nimitz and MacArthur initially had opposing plans, with Nimitzs plan centered on an invasion of Formosa, Formosa could also serve as a base for an invasion of mainland China, which MacArthur felt was unnecessary. Nimitz eventually changed his mind and agreed to MacArthurs plan and it was also estimated that an invasion of Formosa would require about 12 divisions of U. S. Army soldiers and Marines. It was eventually decided that MacArthurs forces would invade the island of Leyte in the central Philippines, amphibious forces and close naval support would be provided by the 7th Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Thomas C. The 7th Fleet at this time contained units of the U. S. Navy, the U. S. 3rd Fleet—commanded by Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr. with Task Force 38 as its main component—would provide more distant cover and support for the invasion. A fundamental defect in this plan was there would be no single American naval admiral in overall command, Kinkaid and his 7th Fleet fell under MacArthur as Supreme Allied Commander Southwest Pacific, whereas Halseys 3rd Fleet reported to Nimitz as C-in-C Pacific Ocean Areas. This lack of unity of command, along with failures in communication, was to produce a crisis, by coincidence, the Japanese plan, using three separate fleets, also lacked an overall commander. The American options were apparent to the IJN, the plans were for complex offensive operations committing nearly all available forces to a decisive battle, despite this substantially depleting Japans slender reserves of fuel oil. The Japanese command therefore put Shō-Gō2 into action, launching waves of air attacks against 3rd Fleets carriers, following the American invasion of the Philippines, the Japanese Navy made the transition to Shō-Gō1
32.
Okinawa Prefecture
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The larger are mostly high islands and the smaller ones are mostly coral islands. The largest of the islands is Okinawa, the climate of the islands ranges from humid subtropical climate in the north to tropical rainforest climate in the south. Precipitation is very high, and is affected by the rainy season, the islands beyond the Tokara Strait are characterized by their coral reefs. The Amami, Okinawa, Miyako, and Yaeyama Islands have a native population collectively called the Ryukyuan people, the varied Ryukyuan languages are traditionally spoken on these islands, and the major islands have their own distinct languages. In modern times, the Japanese language is the language of the islands. The northern islands are called the Satsunan Islands, while the southern part of the chain are called the Ryukyu Islands in Japanese. Following are the grouping and names used by the Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department of the Japan Coast Guard, the islands are listed from north to south where possible. Nansei Islands Satsunan Islands Ōsumi Islands with, Tanegashima, Yaku, Kuchinoerabu, Mageshima in the North-Eastern Group and they agreed on February 15,2010, to use Amami-guntō for the Amami Islands, prior to that, Amami-shotō had also been used. The English and Japanese uses of the term Ryukyu differ, in English, the term Ryukyu may apply to the entire chain of islands, while in Japanese Ryukyu usually refers only to the islands that were previously part of the Ryūkyū Kingdom after 1624. Nansei-shotō is the name for the whole island chain in Japanese. Japan has used the name on nautical charts since 1907, based on the Japanese charts, the international chart series uses Nansei Shoto. Nansei literally means southwest, the direction of the chain from mainland Japan. Some humanities scholars prefer the uncommon term Ryūkyū-ko for the island chain. In geology, however, the Ryukyu Arc includes subsurface structures such as the Okinawa Trough, the name of Ryūkyū is strongly associated with the Ryūkyū Kingdom, a kingdom that originated from the Okinawa Islands and subjected the Sakishima and Amami Islands. The name is considered outdated in Japanese although some entities of Okinawa still bear the name. In Japanese, the Ryukyu Islands cover only the Okinawa, Miyako, the northern half of the island chain is referred to as the Satsunan Islands in Japanese, as opposed to Northern Ryukyu Islands in English. Humanities scholars generally agree that the Amami, Okinawa, Miyako, there is, however, no good name for the group. The native population do not have their own name, since they do not recognize themselves as a group this size, Ryukyu is the principal candidate because it roughly corresponds to the maximum extent of the Ryūkyū Kingdom
33.
Battle of Okinawa
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The 82-day-long battle lasted from 1 April until 22 June 1945. The Tenth was unique in that it had its own air force. The battle has been referred to as the typhoon of steel in English, the nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese kamikaze attacks, and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle was one of the bloodiest in the Pacific, with an total of over 82,000 direct casualties on both sides,14,009 Allied deaths and 77,417 Japanese soldiers. Allied grave registration forces counted 110,071 dead bodies of Japanese soldiers,149,425 Okinawans were killed, committed suicide or went missing, a significant proportion of the estimated pre-war 300,000 local population. As part of the operations surrounding the battle, the Japanese battleship Yamato was sunk. After the battle, Okinawa provided an anchorage, troop staging areas. Expeditionary Troops under Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. with Tenth Army, TF56 was the largest force within TF50 and was built around the 10th Army. The army had two corps under its command, III Amphibious Corps, consisting of 1st and 6th Marine Divisions, the 2nd Marine Division was an afloat reserve, and Tenth Army also controlled the 27th Infantry Division, earmarked as a garrison, and 77th Infantry Divisions. In all, the Army had over 102,000 soldiers, at the start of Battle of Okinawa 10th Army had 182,821 men under its command. It was planned that General Buckner would report to Turner until the phase was completed. Although Allied land forces were composed of U. S. units. Although all the carriers were provided by Britain, the carrier group was a combined British Commonwealth fleet with British, Canadian, New Zealand and Australian ships. Their mission was to neutralize Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, most of the air-to-air fighters and the small dive bombers and strike aircraft were U. S. Navy carrier-based airplanes. The Japanese land campaign was conducted by the 67, 000-strong regular 32nd Army and some 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy troops at Oroku naval base, supported by 39,000 drafted local Ryukyuan people. The Japanese had used kamikaze tactics since the Battle of Leyte Gulf, between the American landing on 1 April and 25 May, seven major kamikaze attacks were attempted, involving more than 1,500 planes. The 32nd Army initially consisted of the 9th, 24th, and 62nd Divisions, the 9th Division was moved to Taiwan prior to the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans. Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lt. General Mitsuru Ushijima, his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Chō and his chief of operations, Yahara advocated a defensive strategy, whilst Chō advocated an offensive one
34.
Kamikaze
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During World War II, about 3,862 kamikaze pilots died, and about 19% of kamikaze attacks managed to hit a ship. Kamikaze aircraft were essentially pilot-guided explosive missiles, purpose-built or converted from conventional aircraft, a kamikaze could sustain damage which would disable a conventional attacker and still achieve its objective. The goal of crippling or destroying large numbers of Allied ships, particularly aircraft carriers, was considered by the Empire of Japan to be a just reason for sacrificing pilots and these attacks, which began in October 1944, followed several critical military defeats for the Japanese. They had long since lost aerial dominance due to outdated aircraft, Japan suffered from a diminishing capacity for war, and a rapidly declining industrial capacity relative to the Allies. Japan was also losing pilots faster than it could train their replacements, in combination, these factors, coupled with the unwillingness to surrender, led to the use of kamikaze tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the Japanese home islands. While the term usually refers to the aerial strikes, it has also been applied to various other suicide attacks. The Japanese military also used or made plans for non-aerial Japanese Special Attack Units, including those involving submarines, human torpedoes, speedboats, the tradition of death instead of defeat, capture, and perceived shame was deeply entrenched in Japanese military culture. It was one of the traditions in the samurai life. The Japanese word kamikaze is usually translated as divine wind, in Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying out suicide attacks during 1944–1945 is tokubetsu kōgeki tai, which literally means special attack unit. This is usually abbreviated to tokkōtai, more specifically, air suicide attack units from the Imperial Japanese Navy were officially called shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai. Shinpū is the on-reading of the characters that form the word kamikaze in Japanese. As a result, the attack units are sometimes known in Japan as kamikaze tokubetsu kōgeki tai. Axell and Kase see these suicides as individual, impromptu decisions by men who were prepared to die. The case of Nikolai Gastellos taran on 26 June 1941 passed into Soviet air-warfare lore, in most cases, little evidence exists that such hits represented more than accidental collisions of the kind that sometimes happen in intense sea or air battles. One example of this occurred on 7 December 1941 during the attack on Pearl Harbor, First Lieutenant Fusata Iidas plane had taken a hit and had started leaking fuel when he apparently used it to make a suicide attack on Naval Air Station Kaneohe. Before taking off, he had told his men that if his plane were to become badly damaged he would crash it into an enemy target. During 1943–1944, U. S. forces steadily advanced toward Japan, newer U. S. -made planes, especially the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, began to outnumber and outclass Japans fighter planes. Tropical diseases, as well as shortages of parts and fuel
35.
USS Missouri (BB-63)
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USS Missouri is a United States Navy Iowa-class battleship and was the third ship of the U. S. Navy to be named after of the U. S. state of Missouri. Missouri was the last battleship commissioned by the United States and was best remembered as the site of the surrender of the Empire of Japan which ended World War II, Missouri was ordered in 1940 and commissioned in June 1944. In the Pacific Theater of World War II she fought in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa and shelled the Japanese home islands, in 1998, she was donated to the USS Missouri Memorial Association and became a museum ship at Pearl Harbor. Missouri was one of the Iowa-class fast battleship designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair. She was laid down at the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 6 January 1941, launched on 29 January 1944, the ship was the third of the Iowa class, but the fourth and final Iowa-class ship commissioned by the U. S. Navy. The ship was christened at her launching by Mary Margaret Truman, daughter of Harry S. Truman, Missouris main battery consisted of nine 16 in /50 cal Mark 7 guns, which could fire 2,700 lb armor-piercing shells some 20 mi. Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 in /38 cal guns in twin turrets, Missouri was the last U. S. battleship to be completed. Wisconsin, the highest-numbered U. S. battleship built, was completed before Missouri and she stood out of San Francisco Bay on 14 December and arrived at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on 24 December 1944. She departed Hawaii on 2 January 1945 and arrived in Ulithi, there she was temporary headquarters ship for Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher. Missouri then steamed with the carriers to Iwo Jima where her main guns provided direct, after TF58 returned to Ulithi on 5 March, Missouri was assigned to the Yorktown carrier task group. On 14 March, Missouri departed Ulithi in the screen of the fast carriers, during strikes against targets along the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan beginning on 18 March, Missouri shot down four Japanese aircraft. Raids against airfields and naval bases near the Inland Sea and southwestern Honshū continued, Missouri rejoined the screen of the carriers as Marine and Army units stormed the shores of Okinawa on the morning of 1 April. An attack by Japanese forces was repulsed successfully, on 11 April, a low-flying kamikaze Zero, although fired upon, crashed on Missouris starboard side, just below her main deck level. The starboard wing of the plane was thrown far forward, starting a fire at 5 in Gun Mount No.3. The battleship suffered only superficial damage, and the fire was quickly under control. The remains of the pilot were recovered on board the ship just aft of one of the 40 mm gun tubs, the following day he was buried at sea with military honors. About 23,05 on 17 April, Missouri detected an enemy submarine 12 mi from her formation and her report set off a hunter-killer operation by the light carrier Bataan and four destroyers, which sank the Japanese submarine I-56. Missouri was detached from the task force off Okinawa on 5 May
36.
Surrender of Japan
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The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2,1945, bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting major operations, on August 6,1945, at 8,15 AM local time, the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Sixteen hours later, American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japans surrender, warning them to expect a rain of ruin from the air, later in the day, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb, this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. After several more days of negotiations and a failed coup détat. In the radio address, called the Jewel Voice Broadcast, he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies, on August 28, the occupation of Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began. The role of the bombings in Japans unconditional surrender. The state of war ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28,1952. Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, by 1945, the Japanese had suffered an unbroken string of defeats for nearly two years in the South West Pacific, the Marianas campaign, and the Philippines campaign. In July 1944, following the loss of Saipan, General Hideki Tōjō was replaced as minister by General Kuniaki Koiso. After the Japanese loss of the Philippines, Koiso in turn was replaced by Admiral Kantarō Suzuki, the Allies captured the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the first half of 1945. Okinawa was to be an area for Operation Downfall, the American invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. The Allied submarine campaign and the mining of Japanese coastal waters had largely destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet, the destruction of the Japanese merchant fleet, combined with the strategic bombing of Japanese industry, had wrecked Japans war economy. Production of coal, iron, steel, rubber, and other vital supplies was only a fraction of that before the war, as a result of the losses it had suffered, the Imperial Japanese Navy had ceased to be an effective fighting force. Although 19 destroyers and 38 submarines were still operational, their use was limited by the lack of fuel, the only course left is for Japans one hundred million people to sacrifice their lives by charging the enemy to make them lose the will to fight. As a final attempt to stop the Allied advances, the Japanese Imperial High Command planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū codenamed Operation Ketsugō and this was to be a radical departure from the defense in depth plans used in the invasions of Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Instead, everything was staked on the beachhead, more than 3,000 kamikazes would be sent to attack the transports before troops. The strategy of making a last stand at Kyūshū was based on the assumption of continued Soviet neutrality, a set of caves were excavated near Nagano on Honshu, the largest of the Japanese islands. In the event of invasion, these caves, the Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters, were to be used by the army to direct the war and to house the Emperor and his family
37.
Combined Fleet
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For the Carrier Striking Task Force, see Kido Butai. The Combined Fleet was the main ocean-going component of the Imperial Japanese Navy, the Combined Fleet was formally created for the first time on 18 July 1894 by the merger of the Standing Fleet and the Western Fleet. The Standing Fleet contained the navys most modern and combat-capable warships, the Western Fleet was a reserve force consisting primarily of obsolete ships deemed unsuitable for front-line combat operations, but still suitable for commerce protection and coastal defense. Vice-admiral Itoh Sukeyuki was appointed the first Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet. for the duration of the first Sino-Japanese War against China, the Combined Fleet was re-formed during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 to provide a unified overall command for the three separate fleets in the Imperial Japanese Navy. The IJN 1st Fleet was the battleship force, which formed the backbone of the navy and was intended to be used in a traditional line-of-battle showdown with an equivalent enemy battleship fleet. The IJN 2nd Fleet was a fast, mobile force with armored cruisers. The IJN 3rd Fleet was primarily a reserve fleet of obsolete vessels considered too weak for front-line combat service, admiral Togo Heihachiro was commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet during the Russo-Japanese War. The Combined Fleet was not maintained as a permanent organization, but was created when necessary during fleet maneuvers or when called for by extraordinary circumstances. Thus, during the period from 1905–1924, the Combined Fleet was created only sporadically as the occasion or circumstances dictated, and disbanded immediately afterwards. As this was not intended to be permanent and since the commander of IJN 1st Fleet concurrently directed the Combined Fleet, from 1933, with the Manchurian Incident and the increasing tension with China, a permanent HQ staff for the Combined Fleet was established. By the late 1930s, it included most of Japans warships—only the base units, the Special Naval Landing Forces, the Combined Fleet came under direct command of the Imperial General Headquarters in 1937. With the start of the Pacific War with the attack on Pearl Harbor carried out by the Combined Fleets Kido Butai and it comprised the battleships, aircraft carriers, aircraft, and the components that made up the main fighting strength of the IJN. It was first mobilized on the whole for the Battle of Midway, after the devastating carrier losses at Midway and in the Solomon Islands campaign, the navy re-organized into a number of Area Fleets for local operational control of various geographic zones. The Combined Fleet then evolved into more of an administrative organization, in the resultant Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf the Japanese fleet was decimated. The remnants of the Combined Fleet fled to Okinawa, but further operations were hindered by lack of fuel, by the time of the final suicide mission of the battleship Yamato in Operation Ten-Go, the Combined Fleet had ceased to exist as an effective combat force. The Combined Fleet was formally dissolved on 10 October 1945, commander in chief Chief of staff DAlbas, Andrieu. Death of a Navy, Japanese Naval Action in World War II, a Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945. World War II Armed Forces – Orders of Battle and Organizations Nihon Kaigun
38.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
39.
British Pacific Fleet
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The British Pacific Fleet was a Royal Navy formation which saw action against Japan during the Second World War. The fleet was composed of British Commonwealth naval vessels, the BPF formally came into being on 22 November 1944. Its main base was at Sydney, Australia, with a base at Manus Island. The US was liberating British territories in the Pacific and extending its influence and it was therefore seen as a political and military imperative by the British Government to restore a British presence in the region and to deploy British forces against Japan. The British Government was determined that British territories, such as Hong Kong, the British Government was not initially unanimous on the commitment of the BPF. Churchill, in particular, argued against it, not wishing to be a junior partner in what had been exclusively the United States battle. He also considered that a British presence would be unwelcome and should be concentrated on Burma, the Admiralty had proposed a British role in the Pacific in early 1944 but the initial USN response had been discouraging. These were eventually overcome or discounted and at a meeting, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt intervened to say that the British Fleet was no sooner offered than accepted, in this, though the fact was not mentioned, he overruled Admiral Kings opinion. The Australian Government had sought US military assistance in 1942, when it was faced with the possibility of Japanese invasion, while Australia had made a significant contribution to the Pacific War, it had never been an equal partner with its US counterparts in strategy. It was argued that a British presence would act as a counterbalance to the powerful and he later transferred his flag to a more suitable vessel, the battleship Howe. The Eastern Fleet was based in Ceylon, and reorganised into the British East Indies Fleet, the BPF operated against targets in Sumatra, gaining experience until early 1945, when it departed Trincomalee for Sydney. With its larger vessels integrated with United States Navy formations since 1942, a high proportion of naval aviators were New Zealanders and Canadians. The USN also contributed to the BPF, as did personnel from the South African Navy, port facilities in Australia and New Zealand also made vital contributions in support of the British Pacific Fleet. During World War II, the fleet was commanded by Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser, in practice, command of the fleet in action devolved to Vice-Admiral Sir Bernard Rawlings, with Vice-Admiral Sir Philip Vian in charge of air operations by the Royal Navys Fleet Air Arm. The fighting end of the fleet was referred to as Task Force 37 or 57, the 1st Aircraft Carrier Squadron was the lead carrier formation. No.300 Wing RAF was established in Australia in late 1944 to fly aircraft in support of the BPF. The wing was expanded to a group in 1945 and conducted regular flights from Sydney to the forward bases. The requirement that the BPF be self-sufficient meant the establishment of a train that could support a naval force at sea for weeks or months
40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
41.
Clark Reynolds
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Dr. Clark Gilbert Reynolds, B. A. M. A. Ph. D. was an historian of naval warfare, with a particular interest in the development of U. S. naval aviation. In addition, he made contributions to the fields of history, strategic history. Reynolds went on the Duke University, where he earned his master of arts degree in history in 1963 and his Ph. D. in 1964 under Professor Theodore Ropp. Reynolds began his career as an instructor, and later a professor, in the Department of English, History. From there, he went to the University of Maine, where he served in the Department of History from 1968 to 1976 as Associate, while at the University of Maine, he and William J. From 1976 to 1978, he was Professor, and later head of the Department of Humanities with the rank of captain in the U. S, merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point New York. In 1988, he was appointed professor of history and served as chairman of the history Department at the College of Charleston from 1988 to 1993. In 1999, he was appointed Distinguished Professor and served in capacity until his retirement in 2002. Carrier Admiral by J. J. Clark with Clark G. Reynolds, the American Military Institute awarded Reynolds with its Moncado Prize for articles that appeared in Military History in 1975 and 1988. In 1963, Reynolds married Constance A, a lover of jazz music from the 1920–1940 era, Reynolds often served as a volunteer disk jockey on radio programs broadcast on the Maine Public Broadcasting Network and South Carolina Education Radio. Dr. Clark G. Reynolds died on December 10,2005, in Pisgah Forest, Reynolds uncle had been Admiral Joseph James Jocko Clarks Flag Lieutenant, which is partly why he co-authored Admiral Clarks memoirs, and would later write his biography
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United States
United States Navy
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