1.
Summit
–
A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
2.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Mountain range
–
A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
4.
Inner Western Carpathians
–
Divisions of the Carpathians are categorization of the Carpathian mountains system. Below is an overview of the major subdivisions and ranges of the Carpathian Mountains. The Carpathians are a subsystem of a bigger Alps-Himalaya System that stretches from the western Europe all the way to southern Asia, the last level of the division, i. e. the actual mountain ranges and basins, is usually classified as units. The main divisions are shown in the map on the right, to generalize, there are three major provinces, Western Carpathians, Eastern Carpathians, and Southern Carpathians. The division is largely undisputed at the lowest level, but various divisions are given for the higher levels, a geomorphological division has been used as much as the data was available, other new physiogeographic divisions were used in other cases. Where the classification of a higher title is known/sure, it is added at the end of the name in brackets. Their geologic features are distinct, but multiple traditions, languages and nationalities have developed overlapping variants for the divisions. In Romania, it is usual to divide the Eastern Carpathians in Romanian territory into three groups, instead in Outer and Inner Eastern Carpathians. But it is not a region and its inclusion is disputed in some sources. The Serbian Carpathians are sometimes considered part of the Southern Carpathians, with the difficulty of finding their exact subdivisions, they are given only as a list of the final units from the west to the east and south, in a separate listing at the end. In Poland Central Beskidian Piedmont and Lower Beskids belongs to Western Carpathians province, note that there are many variants for the divisions and names of these ranges. Wooded Beskids, Bieszczady or Western Bieszczady + Bukovské vrchy Mts. e. e, the term Bihor Massif is sometimes used for the Apuseni Mountains and Poiana Ruscă. Trascău Mountains RO, Munții Poiana Ruscă Poiana Ruscă Lipova Plateau Bega-Timiș Groove Orăștie Groove, hațeg Depression RO, Munții Banatului Banat Mountains sensu stricto, i. e. Semenic Mountains, Locva Mountains, Anina Mountains and Dognecea Mountains Almăj Mountains Timiș-Cerna Gap, incl. Almăj Depression Caraș Hills RO, Depresiunea Transilvaniei, i. e. Transylvanian Depression, some authors do not consider it to be part of the Carpathians. Mureș-Turda Depression Sibiu Depression Făgăraș Depression Transylvanian Plateau, Târnava Plateau, hârtibaci Plateau and Secașe Plateau Transylvanian Plain, or Transylvanian Plateau sensu stricto Someș Plateau Serbian, Karpatske planine, i. e. Carpathian Mountains. Sometimes considered part of the Southern Carpathians, sometimes not considered part of the Carpathians at all, origin and growth of the Western Carpathian orogenetic wedge during the mesozoic. Geologica Carpathica Special Issues,53, Proceedings of XVII, congress of Carpathian-Balkan Geological Association Bratislava, September 1 -42002 Mazúr, E. Lukniš M. Geomorphological division of SSR and ČSSR. Moravo-Silesian Beskids, Collection of tourist maps 1,50000, geology of the Carpathian Region, pp.106,108,109,172,554, etc
5.
Western Carpathians
–
The Western Carpathians are a mountain range and geomorphological province that forms the western part of the Carpathian Mountains. In the south the North Hungarian Mountains cover northern Hungary, the area of the Western Carpathians comprises about 70,000 km². The highest elevation is the Gerlachovský štít, most of the perimeter of the Western Carpathians is quite sharply defined by valleys. To the northwest and north they are separated from the Bohemian Massif by the Forecarpathian Lowland, to the south the mountain chain falls away towards the Pannonian Plain, a large plain situated between the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, and the main mass of the Eastern Carpathians. The boundary between the Western Carpathians and the Eastern Alps is formed by the Vienna Basin, the Hainburg Hills of the Little Carpathians at Devín Gate, and a gap carved by the Danube. To the east and northeast the mountains are bounded by the East Slovak and Sandomierz Basins, the Western Carpathians are part of the northern branch of alpine orogeny, which was formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean millions of years ago. The Western Carpathians are part of the Alpide belt, to the west they longitudinally join the Alps, but the exact boundary is hidden under the Neogene sedimentary fill of the Vienna Basin. To the east, their boundary with the Eastern Carpathians is the valley of the Hornád or Uzh River, the northern boundary with the East European craton and Bohemian Massif is well marked by the thrust of nappes of the Carpathian flysch belt. The southern boundary is clear, because later postorogenetic evolution caused formation of basins. The Western Carpathians have a geological structure, that has been formed since the Paleozoic era. The oldest Paleozoic rocks experienced the first stage of deformation during the Hercynian orogeny, Alpine orogeny affected the area in several stages from Jurassic to Neogene. During this period, parts of Tethys Ocean were subducted under the African plate, tectonic units of the Western Carpathians are arranged in belt-like order, with the external units in the north and internal units in the south. After a subduction of the Meliata Ocean, the Internal Western Carpathians were formed
6.
Slovakia
–
Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Slovakias territory spans about 49,000 square kilometres and is mostly mountainous. The population is over 5 million and comprises mostly ethnic Slovaks, the capital and largest city is Bratislava. The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries, in the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samos Empire and in the 9th century established the Principality of Nitra. In the 10th century, the territory was integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary, which became part of the Habsburg Empire. After World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a separate Slovak Republic existed in World War II as a client state of Nazi Germany. In 1945, Czechoslovakia was reëstablished under Communist rule as a Soviet satellite, in 1989 the Velvet Revolution ended authoritarian Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The country maintains a combination of economy with universal health care. The country joined the European Union in 2004 and the Eurozone on 1 January 2009, Slovakia is also a member of the Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, CERN, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group. The Slovak economy is one of the fastest growing economies in Europe and its legal tender, the Euro, is the worlds 2nd most traded currency. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes, in 2016, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 165 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world. Slovakia is the world’s biggest per-capita car producer with a total of 1,040,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2016 alone, the car industry represents 43 percent of Slovakia’s industrial output, and a quarter of its exports. Radiocarbon datingputs the oldest surviving archaeological artefacts from Slovakia – found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom – at 270,000 BC and these ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia. Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era come from the Prévôt cave near Bojnice, the most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium, discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth-bone, the statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina and these findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe. The Bronze Age in the territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BC
7.
Austria
–
Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
8.
Poland
–
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
9.
High Tatras
–
The High Tatras or High Tatra Mountains, are a mountain range along the border of northern Slovakia in the Prešov Region, and southern Poland in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. They are a range of the Tatra Mountains chain, the mountain range borders Belianske Tatras to the east, Podtatranská kotlina to the south and Western Tatras to the west. The major part and all the highest peaks of the mountains are situated in Slovakia, the highest peak is Gerlachovský štít, at 2,655 metres. The first European cross-border national park was founded here—Tatra National Park—with Tatra National Park in Slovakia in 1948, the adjacent parks protect UNESCOs trans-border Tatra Biosphere Reserve. Fauna Many rare and endemic animals and plant species are native to the High Tatras and they include the Tatras endemic goat-antelope and critically endangered species, the Tatra chamois. Predators include Eurasian brown bear, Eurasian lynx, marten, wolf, the Alpine marmot is common in the range. Flora Flora of the High Tatras includes, the endemic Tatra scurvy-grass, yellow saxifrage, ground covering net-leaved willow, Norway spruce, Swiss pine. The 15 highest peaks of the High Tatras—all located in Slovakia—are, Kriváň,2494 meters, also called Slovakias most beautiful mountain Rysy, the popular Polish−Slovak summit border crossing. Rysy has three peaks, the middle at 2,503 meters, the north-western at 2,499 meters, the north-western peak is the highest point of Poland. Slavkovský štít,2452 meters tall, within the Tatra National Park, czarny Staw pod Rysami -1,583 m,76 m deep. Wielki Staw Polski -1,664 m,79 m deep, Štrbské pleso -1,347 m,20 m deep. Veľké Hincovo pleso -1,945 m,54 m deep, popradské pleso -1,494 m,17 m deep. Zmrzlé pleso Ťažké pleso Ľadové pleso Batizovské pleso Veľké Spišské pleso -2,019 m,10 m deep, Veľké Žabie pleso -1,921 m,7 m deep Vysne Bielovoeske Zabie pleso -1,699 m,25 m deep. Nizne Bielovodske Zabie pleso -1,675 m,21 m deep, czarny Staw Gąsienicowy -1,624 m,51 m deep. The area is known for winter sports. Ski resorts include Štrbské pleso, Starý Smokovec and Tatranská Lomnica in Slovakia, the town of Poprad is the gateway to the Slovak Tatra resorts. People The Górale people, a group of people with a distinctive traditional culture, are of the High Tatras and other mountain ranges. Ludwig Greiner identified Gerlachovský štít as the highest summit of the Tatra Mountains, and it is also the highest point of Slovakia
10.
Pieniny Klippen Belt
–
The Pieniny Klippen Belt is in geology a tectonically and orographically remarkable zone in the Western Carpathians, with a very complex geological structure. The Pieniny Klippen Belt is considered one of the main tectonic sutures of the Carpathians, the klippen belt then continues to Ukraine and ends in Romania. In some places it is covered with deposits, for example in the Podhale basin in Poland. Klippes, which are the most characteristic features of the belt, are Jurassic to lower Cretaceous lenses - rigid blocks of limestone and these blocks are also cropping out in tectonic windows in the overlying middle Cretaceous to Paleogene sediments. Strong tectonic deformation is a result of two phases during the Alpine orogeny. The oldest phase is called the Laramide phase or Jarmuta phase and occurred in the Cretaceous and it caused thrusting of the nappes. The second phase is called the Savian or Helvetian phase and it was induced by subduction of the Northern Penninic ocean and caused the formation of the Carpathian Flysch Belt. The Pieniny Klippen Belt is divided into numerous tectonic units, the oldest rocks of the Klippen belt are Middle Jurassic to upper Cretaceous. They are in normal positions, with only minor hiatus. Large scale crustal shortening caused rocks of different tectonic units and origin to be thrusted over each other and these tectonic units are, The Czorsztyn unit, named after Czorsztyn in Poland, is found in the most northern part of the Klippen Belt. It consists of marine sediments, usually Jurassic nodular limestones. The Jurassic sediments of this unit are mostly deep marine in origin, most of the other tectonic units were deposited between the shallow Czorsztyn and deep marine Kysuca unit. The Pruske unit has a transitional facies between shallow and deep marine environments, the Klape unit composed of cretaceous turbiditic sediments containing exotic conglomerates with pebbles from an unknown source area. It is probably an acretionary wedge or some unknown terrane carried by the Fatric, Orava unit with typical limestones with unique ammonite fauna, typical klippes occur only in Orava region. The Manín unit contains typical Urgonian limestone and it has only partially a tectonic style of klippes, It is usually assigned to the Fatricum as well as the Drietoma and Haligovce units. Its origin is disputed, because some geologists consider it a proximal part of the Tatric sedimentary cover. The Czorsztyn unit has the shallowest marine facies, reconstruction of the older phases of development is not possible because of absence of pre-triassic rocks. The development of Pieniny Klippen Belt started on passive margin of European platform in Lower Jurassic with rifting, rifting resulted in the opening of basinal area called the Kysuca basin or Vahic Ocean to the south of the Oravic area
11.
Little Carpathians
–
The Little Carpathians are a low, about 100 km long, mountain range, part of the Carpathian Mountains. The Little Carpathians are bordered by Záhorie Lowland in the west, in 1976, the Little Carpathians were declared a protected area under the name Little Carpathians Protected Landscape Area, covering 646.1 km2. The area is rich in flora and fauna diversity and contains numerous castles, most notably the Bratislava Castle and caves, the three highest mountains are Záruby at 768 m, Vysoká at 754 m and Vápenná at 752 m. Little Carpathians are further divided into four parts, Devín Carpathians, Pezinok Carpathians, Brezová Carpathians, the mountains are densely forested, the southeastern part contains extensive vineyards. Several castles or castle ruins are situated in the Little Carpathians, for example Devín Castle, Čachtice Castle, Červený Kameň Castle, geologically, the mountain range is part of the Tatra-Fatra Belt of core mountains. There are several faults which produced earthquakes in past. Of them most notable is Dobra Voda fault and this particular fault is also closely monitored because of its proximity to NPP Jaslovske Bohunice. The most important karst forms include caves Deravá, Tmavá skala, Driny, Čachtická cave, Driny, a limestone cave, is the only cave open to public. Major streams include Vydrica and Suchý jarok, the Little Carpathians are seismically one of the most active regions in Slovakia and epicentres of earthquakes with approximate magnitude of 2.5 on Richter magnitude scale scale are located here. While being a low range, the Little Carpathians were always considered a mountain barrier due to being surrounded by various lowlands. In the past, various types of ore were mined in the Little Carpathians used for the production of gold, silver, antimony, manganese, during Second World War, Little Carpathians were the birthplace of partisan group Janko Kráľ. Insurgency in the mountains lasted until the occupation by the Soviet Red Army in 1945, the mountain range contains a dense network of trails and the recreational infrastructure is relatively well developed, especially in the south. The Little Carpathians are popular as a place for the inhabitants of Bratislava. Since the Middle Ages, the area is known for its wines, well known centers of local wine-making include Svätý Jur, Modra and Pezinok. Main tourist centers include the Slovak capital Bratislava, Pezinská Baba, geomorphological division of Slovakia Tourism in Slovakia Little Carpathians at Spectacular Slovakia Little Carpathians Wine Route
12.
Tatra Mountains
–
The Tatra Mountains, Tatras or Tatra, are a mountain range that form a natural border between Slovakia and Poland. They are the highest mountain range in the Carpathian Mountains, the Tatras should be distinguished from the Low Tatras which are located south of the Tatra Mountains in Slovakia. The Tatra Mountains occupy an area of 785 square kilometres, of which about 610 square kilometres lie within Slovakia, the highest peak, called Gerlach, at 2,655 m is located north of Poprad. The highest point in Poland, Rysy, at 2,499 m is located south of Zakopane. The Tatras length, measured from the foothills of the Kobyli Wierch to the southwestern foot of Ostry Wierch Kwaczański, in a straight line is 57 km. The range is only 19 km wide, the Tatras main ridge leads from Huciańska Pass in the west to Zdziarska Pass to the east. In 1992 the Polish and Slovak parks were designated a transboundary biosphere reserve by UNESCO in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves under its Man. It is the highest mountain range within Carpathians, by the end of the First Polish Republic and the Polish border between the Kingdom of Hungary in the Tatras was not strictly defined. The Tatras became an unoccupied borderland, two years later, the First Partition of Poland allocated the lands to Austria. In 1824, Zakopane good and Fish Creek Valley with Morskie Oko purchased from the authorities of the Austrian Hungarian Emanuel Homolacs. In 1867 formed the Austria-Hungary and the Tatra Mountains have become imaginary border between the two states of the monarchy, but the border still has not been exactly determined. In 1889, Count Władysław Zamoyski purchased at auction a good Zakopane, due to numerous disputes over lands belonging in the late nineteenth century, attempts were made to the delimitation of the border. They did not bring effect in 1897, and the case went to a court that on September 13,1902 determined the exact course of the Austria-Hungary border in the disputed area. The Tatras lie in the zone of Central Europe. They are an important barrier to the movements of air masses and their mountainous topography causes one of the most diverse climates in that region. Winds The average wind speed on the summits is 6 m/s. southerly winds on the northern side westerly winds at the base of Tatra foehn winds most often occur between October and May and they are warm and dry and can cause extensive damage. On 19 November 2004, large parts of the forests in the southern Slovak part of the High Tatras were damaged by a wind storm. Three million cubic metres of trees were uprooted, two died and several villages were totally cut off
13.
Western Tatras
–
The Western Tatras are mountains in the Tatras, part of the Carpathian Mountains, located on the Polish-Slovak borders. The mountains border the High Tatras in the east, Podtatranská kotlina in the south, Choč Mountains in the west, the main ridge is 37 kilometers long and the mountain range contains 31 two-thousanders. Western Tatras are the second highest mountain range both in Poland and Slovakia, its highest peak is Bystrá at 2,248 meters, other notable mountains include Jakubiná, Baranec, Baníkov, Tri kopy, Plačlivé, Ostrý Roháč, Volovec, Kasprowy Wierch and Giewont. In Slovakia, they are located in the traditional regions of Liptov. The highest point in Poland is Starorobociański Wierch, all visitors to the Western Tatras area in Slovakia are obliged since July 1,2006 to cover all costs of their rescue by the Mountain Rescue Service. Visitors are prohibited from leaving the marked tourist routes, sleeping in the mountains or setting fire are strictly prohibited, the Western Tatras are subdivided into 6 regions on the Slovak side and 4 on the Polish side. The exact number is difficult to obtain because of lack of a definition and because it is sometimes hard to prove what is a tarn. All other tourist centers lie at the borders of the mountains, including, Oravice, Zuberec, Bobrovecká vápenica, Žiar, Konská, Jakubovany-Studená dolina, Pribylina. Eastern Tatras – mountain range bordering the Western Tatras in the east Mountain Rescue Service Tourism in Slovakia Touristic map 1,25000 Západné Tatry - Podbanské - Zverovka, VKÚ a. s
14.
Low Tatras
–
The Low Tatras or Low Tatra is a mountain range of the Inner Western Carpathians in central Slovakia. It is located south of the Tatras proper, from which it is separated by the valleys of the Váh, the valley formed by the Hron River is situated south of the Low Tatras range. The ridge runs west-eastwards and is about 80 km long, the Čertovica pass divides the range into two parts. The highest peaks of the Low Tatras are located in its western part, Ďumbier is the highest mountain at 2,042 m AMSL. Its neighbour Chopok is accessible by a chairlift, and it is the most visited place in the Low Tatras, other peaks in the western part include Dereše and Chabenec. The highest peak in the part is Kráľova hoľa. The best viewpoints in western part are Veľká Chochuľa, Salatín, Chabenec, Skalka, Chopok, Ďumbier, Siná, Poludnica and Baba. Several karst areas are situated in limestone and dolomite formations at the southern and northern edges of the main ridge, among many discovered caves, Bystrianska Cave, Cave of Dead Bats, Demänovská jaskyňa Slobody, Demänová Ice Cave, and Važecká Cave are open to the public. The biggest canyon is Hučiaky under Salatín in Ludrová valley near Ružomberok, the highest waterfall is under Brankov near Ružomberok - Podsuchá, reachable by green marked footpath from Podsuchá. The biggest tarn is Vrbické pleso in the Demänovská dolina Valley, the mountains are densely forested and their rich fauna includes bear, wolf, and lynx. The alpine meadows are the habitat of chamois, most of the Low Tatras is protected by the Low Tatras National Park, established in 1978. The area of the National Park is 728 km² and the buffer zone takes 1,102 km²,1,830 km² together, tourism is very popular in the Tatras. During the winter there are ski resorts in Low Tatras, for example Jasná, Mýto pod Ďumbierom. Not only are these hubs of hiking and cross-country skiing trails, Liptovsky Mikulas also offers a range of summer activities such as rafting, kayaking, boating on the lake, fishing, a hot springs aqua park and hiking. There are many places to stay, restaurants and bars in the town, the steep northern slopes of the range are popular with climbers. Other attractions include an 18-hole golf course near Tále, mountain Rescue Service Official website Basic information about the Low Tatras Low Tatras National Park at Slovakia. Travel Map of eastern part of the Low Tatras
15.
Basement (geology)
–
In the same way, the sediments or sedimentary rocks on top of the basement can be called a cover or sedimentary cover. Basement rock is the foundation of ancient, and oldest metamorphic and igneous rock that forms the crust of continents. Basement rock is contrasted to overlying sedimentary rocks which are laid down on top of the basement rocks after the continent was formed, the sedimentary rocks which may be deposited on top of the basement usually form a relatively thin veneer, but can be more than 3 miles thick. The basement rock of the crust can be 20–30 miles thick, the basement rock can be located under layers of sedimentary rock, or be visible at the surface. Basement rock is visible at the bottom of the Grand Canyon, consisting of 1. 7-2 billion year old granite, an extensive cross section of sedimentary rocks laid down on top of it through the ages is visible as well. The basement rocks of the continental crust tend to be older than the oceanic crust. The oceanic crust can be from 0-250 million years in age, the basement rocks are often highly metamorphosed and complex. They may consist of different types of rock - volcanic, intrusive igneous. They may also contain fragments of oceanic crust that became wedged between plates when a terrane was accreted to the edge of the continent, any of this material may be folded, refolded and metamorphosed. New igneous rock may freshly intrude into the crust from underneath, or may form underplating, much of the basement rock may have originally been oceanic crust, but it was highly metamorphosed and converted into continental crust via a series of events. A typical pattern is as follows and this produces an oceanic chain of volcanoes, like Japan. This volcanism causes metamorphosis of rocks, intrusions of magma that produce such as granite. This tends to make the crust lighter and thicker, as a result making it immune to subduction, oceanic crust can be subducted, while continental crust cannot. Eventually, the subduction of the oceanic crust can bring the volcano chain close to a continent. When the overriding plate collides with the continent, instead of being subducted, it is accreted to the edge of the continent and becomes a part of that continent. In this manner, continents can grow over time as new terranes are accreted to their edges, as such, the basement rock can become younger going closer to the edge of the continent. There are exceptions of however, such as exotic terranes, exotic terranes are pieces or fragments of other continents that have broken off their original parent continent and have become accreted to a different continent. For instance, Pangea consisted of most of the Earths continents being accreted into one giant supercontinent, most continents indeed have several continental cratons, in other words they are made up of the accretion of many smaller continents, such as Asia, Africa, and Europe
16.
Horst (geology)
–
In physical geography and geology, a horst is the raised fault block bounded by normal faults or graben. A horst is a block of the Earths crust that has lifted, or has remained stationary. Horst is Dutch and German for heap, the Vosges Mountains in France and Black Forest in Germany are examples of horsts, as are the Table, Jura and the Dole mountains. In many rift basins around the world, the vast majority of discovered hydrocarbons are found in conventional traps associated with horsts. Basin and range topography Fault-block mountain Plateau This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
