1.
Federal government of the United States
–
The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
Federal government of the United States
–
The
United States Capitol is the
seat of government for Congress.
Federal government of the United States
–
Great Seal of the United States
Federal government of the United States
–
Diagram of the Federal Government and American Union, 1862.
2.
Southwest, Washington D.C.
–
Southwest is the southwestern quadrant of Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States, and is located south of the National Mall and west of South Capitol Street. It is the smallest quadrant of the city, Southwest is small enough that it is frequently referred to as a neighborhood in and of itself. However, it contains five separate neighborhoods. The Southwest Waterfront, also called Near Southwest, is between I-395 and Fort Lesley J. McNair, Southwest Waterfront is a primarily residential neighborhood. It also is home to several Washington DC marinas, including the Washington Marina, The Capitol Yacht Club, the Gangplank Marina, buzzard Point, a largely undeveloped industrial area between South Capitol Street and Fort McNair. Buzzard Point was the home of the U. S. Coast Guard, the headquarters moved to the former St. Elizabeths Hospital campus elsewhere in DC in 2013. The Bellevue neighborhood occupies all of the Southwest land between South Capitol Street and the Anacostia and Potomac rivers, included is the small Hadley Hospital. The Blue, Orange, and Silver lines of the Washington Metro have the stations in the Southwest Federal Center, Smithsonian, LEnfant Plaza. The Yellow line also stops at LEnfant Plaza, Bolling and Bellevue have no Metrorail service, although the DC Council has considered some versions of the Anacostia streetcar that would extend to Bolling. S. Prior to 1847, much of the Virginia portion of the District of Columbia, after the Civil War, the Southwest Waterfront became a neighborhood for the poorer classes of Washingtonians. Each half was centered on religious establishments, St. Dominics Catholic Church and Talmud Torah Congregation on the west, and Friendship Baptist Church on the east. Waterfront developed into a quite contradictory area, it had a commercial district with grocery stores, shops. However, most of the neighborhood was a poor shantytown of tenements, shacks. These places, some of them in the shadow of the Capitol Building, were frequent subjects of photographs highlighting the stark contrast, in the 1950s, city planners working with the U. S. The seizure of the area, including well maintained properties, was upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Berman v. Parker. Justice William Douglas emphasized the squalor and segregation the area suffered, only a few buildings were left intact, notably the Maine Avenue fish market, the Wheat Row townhouses, the Thomas Law House, and the St. Dominics and Friendship churches. The Southeast/Southwest Freeway was constructed where F Street, SW, had once been, the rebuilt Southwest featured a large concentration of office and residential buildings in the brutalist style that was then popular. It was during this time that most of the Southwest Federal Center was built, the Arena Stage was built a block west of the Mall, and a number of hotels and restaurants were built on the riverfront to attract tourists
Southwest, Washington D.C.
–
Color-enhanced
USGS satellite image of Washington, DC, taken April 26, 2002. The "crosshairs" in the image mark the quadrant divisions of Washington, with the
U.S. Capitol at the center of the dividing lines. To the west of the Capitol extends the
National Mall, visible as a slight green band in the image. The Northwest quadrant is the largest, located north of the Mall and west of North Capital Street.
Southwest, Washington D.C.
–
12th St. tunnel under I-395 in Southwest Washington
3.
Washington, D.C.
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
Washington, D.C.
–
Clockwise from top left:
Smithsonian Institution Building,
Rock Creek Park,
National Mall (including the
Lincoln Memorial in the foreground),
Howard Theatre and the
Frederick Douglass National Historic Site
Washington, D.C.
–
Map of the District of Columbia in 1835, prior to the
retrocession
Washington, D.C.
–
Ford's Theatre in the 19th century, site of the 1865
assassination of
President Lincoln
Washington, D.C.
–
Crowds surrounding the
Reflecting Pool during the 1963
March on Washington
4.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
5.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
United States dollar
–
Series of 1917
$1 United States bill
United States dollar
–
Federal Reserve Notes
United States dollar
–
Spanish silver real or
peso of 1768
United States dollar
–
Obverse of rare 1934 $500 Federal Reserve Note, featuring a portrait of President
William McKinley.
6.
Ajit Pai (FCC)
–
Ajit Varadaraj Pai is the Chairman of the United States Federal Communications Commission. He has served on the FCC since being appointed by President Barack Obama in May 2012, in January 2017, President Donald Trump elevated Pai to Chairman of the agency. He is the first Indian American to hold the office and he was initially nominated for a Republican Party position on the commission by President Barack Obama at the recommendation of Mitch McConnell. He was confirmed unanimously by the United States Senate on May 7,2012, in March 2017, President Donald Trump announced that he would renominate Pai to serve another five-year term at the FCC, which will require confirmation by the U. S. Senate. The son of immigrants from India, Pai was born on January 10,1973 in Buffalo and he grew up in rural Parsons, Kansas. Both of his parents were doctors at the county hospital, Pai attended Harvard University where he participated in the Harvard Speech & Parliamentary Debate Society. Following law school, Pai clerked for Martin Leach-Cross Feldman of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana. After moving to Washington, DC in 1998, Pai worked for the United States Department of Justice’s Antitrust Division as an Honors Program trial attorney on the Telecommunications Task Force. There, he worked on proposed mergers and acquisitions and on novel requests for regulatory relief following the enactment of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Pai left Verizon in April 2003 and was hired as Deputy Chief Counsel to the United States Senate Judiciary Committee’s Subcommittee on Administrative Oversight and he returned to the Department of Justice to serve as Senior Counsel in the Office of Legal Policy in May 2004. He held that position until February 2005, when he was hired as Chief Counsel to the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, between 2007 and 2011, Pai held several positions in the FCCs Office of General Counsel, serving most prominently as Deputy General Counsel. In 2010, Pai was one of 55 individuals nationwide chosen for the 2011 Marshall Memorial Fellowship, a leadership development initiative of the German Marshall Fund of the United States. Pai returned to the sector in April 2011, working in the Washington. In 2011, Pai was then nominated for a Republican Party position on the Federal Communications Commission by President Barack Obama at the recommendation of Minority leader Mitch McConnell. He was confirmed unanimously by the United States Senate on May 7,2012 and was sworn in on May 14,2012 for a term that concluded on June 30,2016. Pai has been an advocate for less regulation during his tenure on the FCC, in addition, Pai is seen as a closer ally to broadcasters than other members of the FCC. Pai gave his first major speech since taking office on July 18,2012 at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, specifically, he called for a reinvigoration of Section 7 of the Communications Act, which gives the commission a one-year deadline to review proposals for new technologies and services. He introduced the idea of creating an IP Transition Task Force to expedite the country’s transition to all-IP networks and he urged the commission to settle the nine-year-old contributions reform proceeding for the Universal Service Fund by the end of the year
Ajit Pai (FCC)
–
Ajit Varadaraj Pai
7.
Statute
–
A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a state, city or country. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy, statutes are rules made by legislative bodies, they are distinguished from case law or precedent, which is decided by courts, and regulations issued by government agencies. Statute law is written by a legislative body and signed into law by its executive. Before a statute becomes law in countries, it must be agreed upon by the highest executive in the government. A universal problem encountered by lawmakers throughout human history is how to organize published statutes, such publications have a habit of starting small but growing rapidly over time, as new statutes are enacted in response to the exigencies of the moment. Eventually, persons trying to find the law are forced to sort through a number of statutes enacted at various points in time to determine which portions are still in effect. In turn, in theory, the code will thenceforth reflect the current cumulative state of the law in that jurisdiction. In many nations statutory law is distinguished from and subordinate to constitutional law, statute is also another word for law. The term was adapted from England in about the 18th century, in the Autonomous Communities of Spain, the autonomy statute is a legal document similar to a state constitution in a federated state. The autonomies statutes in Spain have the rank of Ley Organica, leyes Organicas rank between the Constitution and ordinary laws. The name was chosen, among others, to avoid confusion with the term Constitution, in biblical terminology, statute refers to a law given without any reason or justification. The classic example is the statute regarding the Red Heifer. The opposite of a chok is a mishpat, a law given for a reason, e. g. the Sabbath laws, which were given because God created the world in six days. That which upholds, supports or maintains the order of the universe meaning the Law or Natural Law. This is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion, Constitution Legislation Legislature Organic statute Statutory law
Statute
–
Statute of
Grand Duchy of Lithuania, written in
Polish
8.
Competition
–
It arises whenever at least two parties strive for a goal which cannot be shared, where ones gain is the others loss. Competition occurs naturally between living organisms which co-exist in the same environment, for example, animals compete over water supplies, food, mates, and other biological resources. Humans usually compete for food and mates, though when these needs are met deep rivalries often arise over the pursuit of wealth, power, prestige, and fame. Competition is often considered to be the opposite of cooperation, however in the real world, optimal strategies to achieve goals are studied in the branch of mathematics known as games theory. Also competition inside a company is usually stimulated with the purpose of meeting and reaching higher quality of services or improved products that the company may produce or develop. Competition can have both beneficial and detrimental effects, many evolutionary biologists view inter-species and intra-species competition as the driving force of adaptation, and ultimately of evolution. However, some disagree, citing competition as a driving force only on a small scale. Some social Darwinists claim that competition also serves as a mechanism for determining the best-suited group, positively, competition may serve as a form of recreation or a challenge provided that it is non-hostile. On the negative side, competition can cause injury and loss to the organisms involved, competition within, between, and among species is one of the most important forces in biology, especially in the field of ecology. Third parties within a species often favour highly competitive strategies leading to extinction when environmental conditions are harsh. Competition is also present between species, when resources are limited, several species may depend on these resources. Thus, each of the species competes with the others to access to the resources. As a result, species less suited to compete for the resources may die out unless they adapt by character dislocation, according to evolutionary theory, this competition within and between species for resources plays a significant role in natural selection. This is illustrated by living plant communities where asymmetric competition and competitive dominance frequently occur, game theory is the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers. Game theory is used in economics, political science, and psychology, as well as logic, computer science, biology. Originally, it mainly addressed zero-sum games, in one persons gains result in losses for the other participants. Game theory is a method used in mathematical economics and business for modeling competing behaviors of interacting agents. This research usually focuses on particular sets of strategies known as solution concepts or equilibria, a common assumption is that players act rationally
Competition
–
Competition in sports. A selection of images showing some of the sporting events that are classed as
athletics competitions.
Competition
–
The
Department of Justice building in
Washington, D.C. is home to the influential
antitrust enforcers of U.S. competition laws
Competition
–
The
USOC 's headquarters in
Colorado Springs, Colorado. The
Olympic Games are regarded as the international pinnacle of sports competition.
Competition
–
Baseball, a competitive sport
9.
Communications Act of 1934
–
The Act replaced the Federal Radio Commission with the Federal Communications Commission. It also transferred regulation of telephone services from the Interstate Commerce Commission to the FCC. On January 3,1996, the 104th Congress of the United States amended or repealed sections of the Communications Act of 1934 with the new Telecommunications Act of 1996 and it was the first major overhaul of American telecommunications policy in nearly 62 years. In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt asked Daniel C, roper, Secretary of Commerce, to appoint an interdepartmental committee for studying electronic communications. The Committee reported that the service, as far as congressional action is involved. A recommendation was made for the establishment of a new agency that would regulate all interstate and foreign communication by wire and radio, telegraphy, telephone, on February 26,1934, the President sent a special message to Congress urging the creation of the Federal Communications Commission. The following day Senator Clarence Dill and Representative Sam Rayburn introduced bills to carry out this recommendation, the Senate Bill passed the House on June 1,1934, and the conference report was adopted by both houses eight days later. The Communications Act was signed by President Roosevelt on June 1934, particular parts of it became effective July 1,1934, other parts on July 11,1934. And thus the FCC was born, the Communications Act of 1934 followed the precedents of trial cases set under the Commerce Clause of the U. S. Constitution, regulating commerce among the several states. In 1914 the U. S. Supreme Court set limits on price discrimination that were effectively interstate commerce in Houston, the railway was setting lower prices for intrastate carriers within Texas while charging more for carriers that were going through or out of the state. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the ICC, and maximum prices were set to limit the damage that other states could face due to price discrimination, Communications technology was determined to be an interstate good. The goal was to have telephone and broadcasting regulated with the jurisdiction in a way similar to that in which the ICC regulates the railways. The act did not, however, allow for price regulation through the FCC due to lobbying efforts from the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners. Currently there are some challenges and proposed changes to the Act, the company CellAntenna has sued the FCC claiming that the Homeland Security Act of 2002 did override the Communications Act of 1934. As the law today, the 1934 Communications Act prohibits local and state law enforcement from using jamming devices to thwart criminal. In addition, there is talk about the need for an Internet kill switch and this act removes the powers established in the 1934 Act and gives the President the authority to stop the Internet in case of a cyber attack. S. Educators wanted more of radio to be given to them, they had termed a special interest by the Federal Radio Commission. The Wagner-Hatfield amendment would have given 25% of all radio broadcasting facilities to non-profit institutions and organizations and it would also have allowed these educational stations to sell advertising in order to become self-sufficient
Communications Act of 1934
–
Communications Act of 1934
10.
Interstate Commerce Commission
–
The Interstate Commerce Commission was a regulatory agency in the United States created by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. Congress expanded ICC authority to other modes of commerce beginning in 1906. The agency was abolished in 1995, and its functions were transferred to the Surface Transportation Board. The Commissions five members were appointed by the President with the consent of the United States Senate and this was the first independent agency. The ICC was established by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, the creation of the commission was the result of widespread and longstanding anti-railroad agitation. A central issue was rate discrimination between similarly situated customers and communities, various sections of the Interstate Commerce Act banned personal discrimination and required shipping rates to be just and reasonable. President Cleveland appointed Thomas M. Cooley as the first chairman of the ICC, Cooley had been Dean of the University of Michigan Law School and Chief Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court. The Commission had a troubled start because the law that created it failed to give it adequate enforcement powers, the Commission is, or can be made, of great use to the railroads. It satisfies the popular clamor for a government supervision of the railroads, - William H. H. Miller, US Attorney General, circa 1889. Following passage of the 1887 act, the ICC proceeded to set maximum shipping rates for railroads, however, in the late 1890s several railroads challenged the agencys ratemaking authority in litigation, and the courts severely limited the ICCs powers. Congress expanded the powers through subsequent legislation. The 1893 Railroad Safety Appliance Act gave the ICC jurisdiction over railroad safety, removing this authority from the states, and this was followed with amendments in 1903 and 1910. The Hepburn Act of 1906 authorized the ICC to set railroad rates. A long-standing controversy was how to interpret language in the Act that banned long haul-short haul fare discrimination, the Valuation Act of 1913 required the ICC to organize a Bureau of Valuation that would assess the value of railroad property. This information would be used to set rates, in 1934, Congress transferred the telecommunications authority to the new Federal Communications Commission. In 1935, Congress passed the Motor Carrier Act, which extended ICC authority to regulate interstate bus lines and trucking as common carriers. Between 1920 and 1923, William Z. Ripley, a professor of economy at Harvard University. His plan became known as the Ripley Plan, in 1929 the ICC published Ripleys Plan under the title Complete Plan of Consolidation
Interstate Commerce Commission
–
A 1914 cartoon shows railroad companies asking the ICC (depicted as
Uncle Sam) for permission to raise rates, while the ghost of a horrified
William Henry Vanderbilt looks on.
Interstate Commerce Commission
–
Seal
Interstate Commerce Commission
–
A Puck magazine cartoon from 1907 depicting two large bears named "Interstate Commerce Commission" and "Federal Courts" attacking
Wall Street.
11.
U.S. state
–
A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
U.S. state
–
U.S. states
12.
District of Columbia
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
District of Columbia
–
Clockwise from top left:
Smithsonian Institution Building,
Rock Creek Park,
National Mall (including the
Lincoln Memorial in the foreground),
Howard Theatre and the
Frederick Douglass National Historic Site
District of Columbia
–
Map of the District of Columbia in 1835, prior to the
retrocession
District of Columbia
–
Ford's Theatre in the 19th century, site of the 1865
assassination of
President Lincoln
District of Columbia
–
Crowds surrounding the
Reflecting Pool during the 1963
March on Washington
13.
Territories of the United States
–
Territories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions directly overseen by the United States federal government. These territories are classified by whether they are incorporated and whether they have a government through an Organic Act passed by the U. S. Congress. Currently, the United States has sixteen territories, five of which are inhabited, Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, the U. S. Virgin Islands. They are classified as unincorporated territories and they are organized, self-governing territories with locally elected governors and territorial legislatures. Each also elects a member to the U. S. House of Representatives. Eleven territories are small islands, atolls and reefs, spread across the Caribbean and Pacific, the status of some are disputed by Colombia, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, and the Marshall Islands. The Palmyra Atoll is the territory currently incorporated. Historically, territories were created to govern newly acquired land while the borders of the United States were still evolving, other territories administered by the United States went on to become independent countries, such as the Philippines, Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Palau. Many organized incorporated territories of the United States existed from 1789 to 1959, currently, the United States has sixteen territories, five of which are permanently inhabited, Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, United States Virgin Islands and American Samoa. The 11 uninhabited territories administered by the Interior Department are Palmyra Atoll, Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, while claimed by the US, Navassa Island, Wake Island, Serranilla Bank and Bajo Nuevo Bank are disputed. Territories have always been a part of the United States, by Act of Congress, the term United States, when used in a geographical sense, means the continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Virgin Islands of the United States. Since political union with the Northern Mariana Islands in 1986, they too are treated as a part of the U. S, an Executive Order in 2007 includes American Samoa as U. S. geographical extent duly reflected in U. S. State Department documents. Approximately 4 million islanders are U. S. citizens, about 32,000 U. S. non-citizen nationals live in American Samoa, under current law among the territories, only persons born in American Samoa and Swains Island are non-citizen U. S. nationals. American Samoans are under the protection of the U. S. with freedom of U. S. travel without visas. The five inhabited U. S. territories have local voting rights and protections under U. S. courts, pay some U. S. taxes, depending on the congress, they may also vote on the floor in the House Committee of the Whole. S. Every four years, the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their candidates at conventions which include delegates from the five major territories. The citizens there, however, do not vote in the election for U. S. President. S. Incorporated territories are considered a part of the United States
Territories of the United States
–
View of
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Territories of the United States
–
Flag
Territories of the United States
–
Protestant Cay in
Christiansted, U.S. Virgin Islands
Territories of the United States
–
Tumon Beach in Guam
14.
North America
–
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
North America
–
Map of North America, from 1621.
North America
–
North America
North America
–
The
El Castillo pyramid, at
Chichén Itzá, Mexico.
North America
–
Benjamin West 's
The Death of General Wolfe (1771) depicting the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham.
15.
Telecommunications Act of 1996
–
The Telecommunications Act of 1996 was the first significant overhaul of telecommunications law in more than sixty years, amending the Communications Act of 1934. One of the most controversial titles was Title 3, which allowed for media cross-ownership, the legislations primary goal was deregulation of the converging broadcasting and telecommunications markets. S. Communications policy, covering telecommunications and broadcasting, the Act left most regulation of intrastate telephone services to the states. In the 1970s and 1980s, a combination of change, court decisions. These changes amounted to a rollback of New Deal market regulation. Congress attempted to create a framework for the transition from primarily monopoly provision to competitive provision of telecommunications services. The Act was approved by the 104th Congress on January 3,1996 and it was the first bill signed in cyberspace and the first bill signed at the Library of Congress. A purpose of the 1996 Act was to foster competition among companies that use similar underlying network technologies to provide a type of service. For example, it creates separate regulatory regimes for carriers providing voice telephone service and providers of cable television, one key provision allowed the FCC to preempt state or local legal requirements that acted as a barrier to entry in the provision of interstate or intrastate telecommunications service. Under these conditions, many calls will arise between parties on different networks, the 1996 Act requires that intercarrier compensation rates among competing local exchange carriers be based on the “additional costs of terminating such calls”. However, the created by the 1996 Act set different intercarrier compensation rates for services that were not competing at that time. This requirement has only partially implemented, however, and therefore significant implicit universal services subsidies still remain in above-cost rates for certain services. Providers from separate regulatory regimes have been brought into competition with one another as a result of subsequent deployment of broadband technologies in telephone. Moreover, these technologies do not recognize national borders, much less state boundaries. Economic regulations intended to protect against monopoly power may not be fully taking into account intermodal competition, the framework may not effectively address interconnection, access, and social policy issues for an IP architecture in which multiple applications ride on top of the physical network layer. Generally speaking, the number of networks is limited by cost constraint up-front. In this new environment, there will be three categories of competition,1. Intermodal competition among a number of broadband network providers that offer a suite of voice, data, video
Telecommunications Act of 1996
–
Telecommunications Act of 1996
16.
Network neutrality
–
Research suggests that a combination of policy instruments will help realize the range of valued political and economic objectives central to the network neutrality debate. Network neutrality is the principle that all Internet traffic should be treated equally, Internet traffic includes all of the different messages, files and data sent over the Internet, including, for example, emails, digital audio files, digital video files, etc. The idea of an open Internet is the idea that the resources of the Internet and means to operate on it should be easily accessible to all individuals, companies. This often includes ideas such as net neutrality, open standards, transparency, lack of Internet censorship, a closed Internet refers to the opposite situation, in which established persons, corporations or governments favor certain uses. A closed Internet may have restricted access to necessary web standards, artificially degrade some services, some countries block certain websites or types of sites and monitor and/or censor Internet use using Internet police, a specialized type of law enforcement or secret police. The concept of a network made up of dumb pipes has been around since at least the early 1990s. The term dumb network refers to a network which is set up, in 2013 the software company MetroTech Net, Inc. coined the term dumb wave, which is the 2010s-era application of the dumb pipe concept to the ubiquitous wireless network. The end-to-end principle is a principle of design was first set out in the 1981 paper End-to-end arguments in system design by Jerome H. Saltzer, David P. Reed. They argued that reliable systems tend to require end-to-end processing to operate correctly and this leads to the model of a minimal dumb network with smart terminals, a completely different model from the previous paradigm of the smart network with dumb terminals. The end-to-end principle is related, and sometimes seen as a direct precursor to the principle of net neutrality. Traffic shaping is the control of network traffic to optimize or guarantee performance, improve latency. In practice, traffic shaping is accomplished by throttling certain types of data. More specifically, traffic shaping is any action on a set of packets which imposes additional delay on those packets such that they conform to some predetermined constraint. If the core of a network has more bandwidth than is permitted to enter at the edges, for example, landline telephone network employs admission control to limit user demand on the network core by refusing to create a circuit for the requested connection. During a natural disaster, for example, most users will get a signal if they pick up a landline phone, as the phone company prioritizes 9-1-1. Over-provisioning is a form of statistical multiplexing that makes liberal estimates of peak user demand, over-provisioning is used in private networks such as WebEx and the Internet 2 Abilene Network, an American university network. David Isenberg believes that continued over-provisioning will always provide more capacity for less expense than QoS, discrimination by protocol is the favoring or blocking information based on aspects of the communications protocol that the computers are using to communicate. Comcast admitted no wrongdoing in its settlement of up to US$16 dollars per share in December 2009
Network neutrality
–
Users with faster Internet connectivity (e.g., fiber) abandon a slow-loading video at a faster rate than users with slower Internet connectivity (e.g., cable or mobile). A "fast lane" in the Internet can irrevocably decrease the user's tolerance to the relative slowness of the "slow lane".
17.
Innovation
–
Innovation can be defined simply as a new idea, device or method. However, innovation is also viewed as the application of better solutions that meet new requirements, unarticulated needs. This is accomplished through more-effective products, processes, services, technologies, or business models that are available to markets, governments. The term innovation can be defined as something original and more effective and, as a consequence, new and it is related to, but not the same as, invention. Innovation is often manifested via the engineering process, the opposite of innovation is exnovation. In industrial economics, innovations are created and found empirically from services to meet the consumer demand. A2013 survey of literature on innovation found over 40 definitions and it is both a process and an outcome. In business and economics, innovation can be a catalyst to growth and he famously asserted that creative destruction is the essential fact about capitalism. One prime example was the boom of Silicon Valley startups out of the Stanford Industrial Park. In 1957, dissatisfied employees of Shockley Semiconductor, the company of Nobel laureate and co-inventor of the transistor William Shockley, left to form an independent firm, after several years, Fairchild developed into a formidable presence in the sector. Eventually, these founders left to start their own based on their own, unique, latest ideas. Over the next 20 years, this snowball process launched the momentous startup company explosion of technology firms. Essentially, Silicon Valley began as 65 new enterprises born out of Shockley’s eight former employees, since then, hubs of innovation have sprung up globally with similar metonyms, including Silicon Alley encompassing New York City. In the organizational context, innovation may be linked to changes in efficiency, productivity, quality, competitiveness. However, recent research findings highlight the role of organizational culture in enabling organizations to translate innovative activity into tangible performance improvements. Organizations can also improve profits and performance by providing work groups opportunities and resources to innovate and it is the means by which the entrepreneur either creates new wealth-producing resources or endows existing resources with enhanced potential for creating wealth. –Drucker According to Clayton Christensen, disruptive innovation is the key to success in business. The organisation requires a structure in order to retain competitive advantage
Innovation
–
Original model of three phases of the process of Technological Change
Innovation
–
For other uses, see
Innovation (disambiguation).
18.
Internet service provider
–
An Internet service provider is an organization that provides services for accessing and using the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation. The Internet was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities, by the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. The remaining restrictions were removed by 1995,4 years after the introduction of the World Wide Web, in 1989, the first ISPs were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US and its first customer was served in November 1989. On 23 April 2014, the U. S, a possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, the FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times. On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to free speech. They both stand for the same concept, on 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the rule on its new Net Neutrality regulations. ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network, available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable, wireless Ethernet, and fiber optics. For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial-up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line, using fiber-optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names. Wireless access is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access, a mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not. Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services, other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation
Internet service provider
–
Local ISP in Manhattan installing fiber for provisioning Internet access
19.
Media regulation
–
Media regulation is the control or guidance of mass media by governments and other bodies. Balance between positive and negative defined liberties, Media is at a position between the commerce and democracy. These require the balance between rights and obligations, to maintain the contractual balance, society expects the media to take their privilege responsibly. Besides, market forces failed to guarantee the wide range of public opinions, intend to the expectation and ensurance, regulation over the media formalized. At the early period of the history of China, the relationship between government and society was extremely unbalanced. Government held power over the Chinese people and controlled the media, the economic reform decreased the governing function of media and created a tendency for mass media to stand for the society but not only authority. The previous unbalanced structure between powered government and weak society was loosed by the policy in some level, but not truly changed until the emergence of Internet, at first the regulator did not regard Internet as a category of mass media but a technique of business. Underestimating the power of the internet as a communications tool resulted in a lack of internet regulation, since then, the internet has changed communication methods, media structure and overthrown the pattern of public voice expression in China. Regulators have not and would not let the Internet out of control, in recent years, the strategy when approaching the Internet has been to regulate while developing. The internet regulation in China generally formed by, Legislation China is the one who owns the greatest amount of legislation in the world, administration Internet regulation departments in China have respective distribution of work. Agenda control It requires communicators to set up the relationship between expected information targets and the targets, guide the direction of information to reach the expectation. Training Regulator delivers the expectation of Internet environment to the population through training and educating to intense people’s conscious about behavior norms, in most EU member states, they have removed media ownership regulations and replaced them with competition laws. Competition laws are created by a governing body that protect consumers from predatory business practices by ensuring that fair competition exists in an open-market economy. However, these laws cannot escape the problem of convergence. The media systems in Scandinavian countries are twin-duopolistic with powerful public service broadcasting, hallin and Mancini introduced the Norwegian media system as Democratic Corporatist. Newspapers started early and developed very well without state regulation until the 1960s, the rise of the advertising industry helped the most powerful newspapers grow increasingly, while the little publications were struggling at the bottom of the market. Because of the lack of diversity in the industry, the Norwegian Government took action. In 1969, Norwegian government started to provide subsidies to small local newspapers
Media regulation
–
Media regulation
20.
Public health
–
It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, Public health incorporates the interdisciplinary approaches of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health and occupational safety, the focus of public health intervention is to improve health and quality of life through prevention and treatment of disease and other physical and mental health conditions. This is done through surveillance of cases and health indicators, there is a great disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming, many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations, Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization is the agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, for example, in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response. The Public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state-owned health care facilities. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011. Although the prioritization of pressing public health issues is important, Laurie Garrett argues that there are following consequences, when foreign aid is funnelled into disease-specific programs, the importance of public health in general is disregarded. This public health problem of stovepiping is thought to create a lack of funds to other existing diseases in a given country. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people suffer from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by the year 2030, the risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO’s latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1.5 billion adults were overweight in 2008, the United States is the leading country with 30. 6% of its population being obese
Public health
–
Newspaper headlines from around the world about
polio vaccine tests (13 April 1955)
Public health
–
Three former directors of the
Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980
Public health
–
Emergency Response Team in
Burma after
Cyclone Nargis in 2008
Public health
–
The primitive nature of
medieval medicine rendered Europe helpless to the onslaught of the
Black Death in the 14th century. Fragment of a miniature from "The Chronicles of Gilles Li Muisis" (1272-1352). Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, MS 13076-77, f. 24v.
21.
Stakeholder (corporate)
–
The theory was later developed and championed by R. Edward Freeman in the 1980s. Since then it has gained acceptance in business practice and in theorizing relating to strategic management, corporate governance, business purpose. A corporate stakeholder can affect or be affected by the actions of a business as a whole, any action taken by any organization or any group might affect those people who are linked with them in the private sector. For examples these are parents, children, customers, owners, employees, associates, partners, contractors, primary Stakeholders – usually internal stakeholders, are those that engage in economic transactions with the business. Secondary Stakeholders – usually external stakeholders, are those who – although they do not engage in direct economic exchange with the business – are affected by or can affect its actions. Excluded Stakeholders – those such as children or the disinterested public, now as the concept takes an anthropocentric perspective, while some groups like the general public may be recognized as stakeholders others remain excluded. Such a perspective does not give plants, animals or even geology a voice as stakeholders and this includes not only its vendors, employees, and customers, but even members of a community where its offices or factory may affect the local economy or environment. In this context, stakeholder includes not only the directors or trustees on its governing board but also all persons who paid in to the figurative stake, other stakeholders would be funders and the design-and-construction team. In that usage, constituent is a synonym for stakeholder, in the field of corporate governance and corporate responsibility, a major debate is ongoing about whether the firm or company should be managed for stakeholders, stockholders, or customers. Proponents in favour of stakeholders may base their arguments on the four key assertions. There is even evidence that the effects of such a policy are not only additive. For instance, by simultaneously addressing customer wishes in addition to employee and stockholder interests, 2) Supporters also take issue with the preeminent role given to stockholders by many business thinkers, especially in the past. The argument is that debt holders, employees, and suppliers also make contributions, 3) These normative arguments would matter little if stockholders had complete control in guiding the firm. However, many believe that due to certain kinds of board of directors structures, 4) The greatest value of a company is its image and brand. Post, Preston, Sachs, use the definition of the term stakeholder, A person. Stakeholders can affect or be affected by the actions, objectives and policies. Some examples of key stakeholders are creditors, directors, employees, government, owners, suppliers, unions, a companys customers are entitled to fair trading practices but they are not entitled to the same consideration as the companys employees. This definition differs from the definition of the term stakeholder in Stakeholder theory that also includes competitors as stakeholders of a corporation
Stakeholder (corporate)
–
Ethics and principles
22.
Organizational culture
–
Organizational culture encompasses values and behaviours that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization. In Three Bell Curves, Business Culture Decoded Rosauer outlines the three manageable ingredients he says guides the culture of any business, ingredient #1 – Employee #2 The Work waste #3 The Customer. Ravasi and Schultz wrote that organizational culture is a set of shared assumptions that guide what happens in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for various situations. It is also the pattern of such collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new members as a way of perceiving and, even. Thus, organizational culture affects the way people and groups interact with other, with clients. In addition, organizational culture may affect how much employees identify with an organization, Schein, Deal and Kennedy, and Kotter advanced the idea that organizations often have very differing cultures as well as subcultures. Organizational culture refers to culture in any type of organization including that of schools, universities, not-for-profit groups, government agencies, in business, terms such as corporate culture and company culture are often used to refer to a similar concept. The term corporate culture became known in the business world in the late 1980s. Corporate culture was used by managers, sociologists, and organizational theorists by the beginning of the 80s. The related idea of organizational climate emerged in the 1960s and 70s, if organizational culture is seen as something that characterizes an organization, it can be manipulated and altered depending on leadership and members. Culture as root metaphor sees the organization as its culture, created through communication and symbols, Culture is basic, with personal experience producing a variety of perspectives. In such environments, strong cultures help firms operate like well-oiled machines, conversely, there is weak culture where there is little alignment with organizational values, and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy. Research shows that organizations that foster strong cultures have clear values that give employees a reason to embrace the culture, groupthink was described by Irving Janis. This is a state in which if they have different ideas, they do not challenge organizational thinking. In fact, groupthink is very common and happens all the time, members that are defiant are often turned down or seen as a negative influence by the rest of the group because they bring conflict. Such cultures possess high employee involvement, strong internal communications and an acceptance, additionally, organizational cultures that explicitly emphasize factors related to the demands placed on them by industry technology and growth will be better performers in their industries. According to Kotter and Heskett, organizations with adaptive cultures perform much better than organizations with unadaptive cultures, an unadaptive culture can significantly reduce a firms effectiveness, disabling the firm from pursuing all its competitive/operational options. Healthy companies are able to deal with concerns about the well-being of the organization internally
Organizational culture
–
Business administration
23.
President of the United States
–
The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
President of the United States
–
Incumbent
Barack Obama since January 20, 2009 (2009-01-20)
President of the United States
–
Presidential Seal
President of the United States
–
Obama signing legislation at the
Resolute desk
President of the United States
–
Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, successfully preserved the
Union during the
American Civil War
24.
United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
United States Senate
–
United States Senate
United States Senate
–
Seal of the U.S. Senate
United States Senate
–
The Senate side of the
United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.
United States Senate
–
A typical Senate desk
25.
Political party
–
A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government. The party agrees on some proposed policies and programmes, with a view to promoting the good or furthering their supporters interests. While there is some international commonality in the way political parties are recognized, and in how they operate, there are many differences. Many political parties have a core, but some do not. In many democracies, political parties are elected by the electorate to run a government, many countries, such as Germany and India, have several significant political parties, and some nations have one-party systems, such as China and Cuba. The United States is in practice a two-party system, but with smaller parties also participating. Its two most important parties are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party, the first political factions, cohering around a basic, if fluid, set of principles, emerged from the Exclusion Crisis and Glorious Revolution in late 17th century England. The leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government in the period 1721–1742, as the century wore on, the factions slowly began to adopt more coherent political tendencies as the interests of their power bases began to diverge. The Whig partys initial base of support from the aristocratic families widened to include the emerging industrial interests. A major influence on the Whigs were the political ideas of John Locke. They acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and they finally regained power with the accession of George III in 1760 under Lord Bute. Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged, the first such party was the Rockingham Whigs under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. A coalition including the Rockingham Whigs, led by the Earl of Shelburne, took power in 1782, the new government, led by the radical politician Charles James Fox in coalition with Lord North, was soon brought down and replaced by William Pitt the Younger in 1783. It was now that a genuine two-party system began to emerge, by the time of this split the Whig party was increasingly influenced by the ideas of Adam Smith, founder of classical liberalism. As Wilson and Reill note, Adam Smiths theory melded nicely with the political stance of the Whig Party. The modern Conservative Party was created out of the Pittite Tories of the early 19th century, in the late 1820s disputes over political reform broke up this grouping. A government led by the Duke of Wellington collapsed amidst dire election results, following this disaster Robert Peel set about assembling a new coalition of forces. However, a consensus reached on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for a decade, Party politics revived in 1829 with the split of the Democratic-Republican Party into the Jacksonian Democrats led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, led by Henry Clay
Political party
–
In A Block for the Wigs (1783),
James Gillray caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the center.
Political party
–
Charles Stewart Parnell, leader of the
Irish Parliamentary Party.
Political party
–
A poster for the
European Parliament election 2004 in Italy, showing party lists
26.
Ajit Varadaraj Pai
–
Ajit Varadaraj Pai is the Chairman of the United States Federal Communications Commission. He has served on the FCC since being appointed by President Barack Obama in May 2012, in January 2017, President Donald Trump elevated Pai to Chairman of the agency. He is the first Indian American to hold the office and he was initially nominated for a Republican Party position on the commission by President Barack Obama at the recommendation of Mitch McConnell. He was confirmed unanimously by the United States Senate on May 7,2012, in March 2017, President Donald Trump announced that he would renominate Pai to serve another five-year term at the FCC, which will require confirmation by the U. S. Senate. The son of immigrants from India, Pai was born on January 10,1973 in Buffalo and he grew up in rural Parsons, Kansas. Both of his parents were doctors at the county hospital, Pai attended Harvard University where he participated in the Harvard Speech & Parliamentary Debate Society. Following law school, Pai clerked for Martin Leach-Cross Feldman of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana. After moving to Washington, DC in 1998, Pai worked for the United States Department of Justice’s Antitrust Division as an Honors Program trial attorney on the Telecommunications Task Force. There, he worked on proposed mergers and acquisitions and on novel requests for regulatory relief following the enactment of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Pai left Verizon in April 2003 and was hired as Deputy Chief Counsel to the United States Senate Judiciary Committee’s Subcommittee on Administrative Oversight and he returned to the Department of Justice to serve as Senior Counsel in the Office of Legal Policy in May 2004. He held that position until February 2005, when he was hired as Chief Counsel to the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, between 2007 and 2011, Pai held several positions in the FCCs Office of General Counsel, serving most prominently as Deputy General Counsel. In 2010, Pai was one of 55 individuals nationwide chosen for the 2011 Marshall Memorial Fellowship, a leadership development initiative of the German Marshall Fund of the United States. Pai returned to the sector in April 2011, working in the Washington. In 2011, Pai was then nominated for a Republican Party position on the Federal Communications Commission by President Barack Obama at the recommendation of Minority leader Mitch McConnell. He was confirmed unanimously by the United States Senate on May 7,2012 and was sworn in on May 14,2012 for a term that concluded on June 30,2016. Pai has been an advocate for less regulation during his tenure on the FCC, in addition, Pai is seen as a closer ally to broadcasters than other members of the FCC. Pai gave his first major speech since taking office on July 18,2012 at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, specifically, he called for a reinvigoration of Section 7 of the Communications Act, which gives the commission a one-year deadline to review proposals for new technologies and services. He introduced the idea of creating an IP Transition Task Force to expedite the country’s transition to all-IP networks and he urged the commission to settle the nine-year-old contributions reform proceeding for the Universal Service Fund by the end of the year
Ajit Varadaraj Pai
–
Ajit Varadaraj Pai
27.
Mignon Clyburn
–
Mignon L. Clyburn is a Commissioner at the Federal Communications Commission since she was nominated by President Barack Obama on June 25,2009, and sworn in on August 3,2009. She was renominated for an FCC Commissioner on June 7,2012, on May 20,2013, she was appointed by President Barack Obama as Acting Chairwoman of the Federal Communications Commission. Commissioner Clyburn is the daughter of U. S, representative Jim Clyburn and a member of the Federal Communications Commission. Prior to her nomination to the FCC, she served for 11 years as the representative of South Carolinas 6th congressional district on the South Carolina Public Service Commission. She was sworn in for her first term in July 1998 and she served as the chair of the PSC from July 2002 through July 2004. In 2009 she was designated a Womens History Month Honoree by the National Womens History Project, on November 21,2014 she participated in a reddit AMA in which she was criticized by users for unsatisfactorily answering questions about how the FCC has handled net neutrality rulemaking
Mignon Clyburn
–
Clyburn in 2014
28.
Jessica Rosenworcel
–
Jessica Rosenworcel was a member of the U. S. Federal Communications Commission, an independent agency of the United States government. She was nominated by President Barack Obama in October 2011 and her confirmation was delayed for months when Republican Senator Chuck Grassley refused to bring it up for a vote until the FCC released documents about a project he opposed. She was confirmed unanimously by the United States Senate on May 7,2012, according to law, commissioners may continue serving until the appointment of their replacements, but may not serve beyond the end of the next session of Congress following term expiration. In May 2015, President Obama renominated Rosenworcel for a second term, prior to joining the FCC, she practiced communications law in the private sector. In 1999, she joined the Wireline Competition Bureau of the FCC, starting in 2007, she served as Senior Communications Counsel to the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, under the leadership of Senator John D. Rockefeller IV. She previously served in the role on the Committee under the leadership of Senator Daniel K. Inouye. On July 13,2012, Politico designated Rosenworcel as one of 50 politicos to watch, describing her as whip-smart and intensely serious. Regarding net neutrality, Rosenworcel said, We cannot have a two-tiered Internet with fast lanes that speed the traffic of the privileged, Rosenworcel has been a leading champion of updating national education technology policies in order to wire the country’s schools and libraries with broadband. In addition, Rosenworcel is responsible for coining the term the Homework gap and has brought attention to the need of students to get online when they are outside of school. A native of Hartford, Connecticut, Rosenworcel received her bachelor of degree from Wesleyan University. She lives in Washington, D. C. with her husband and she is the sister of Brian Rosenworcel, the drummer for the band Guster
Jessica Rosenworcel
–
Rosenworcel in 2014
29.
Hearing (law)
–
In law, a hearing is a proceeding before a court or other decision-making body or officer, such as a government agency or a Parliamentary committee. A hearing is generally distinguished from a trial in that it is usually shorter, limited evidence and testimony may also be presented in hearings to supplement the legal arguments. In the United States, one aspect of the due process revolution is that administrative decisions that were once made much less formally must now be preceded by a hearing. An important step in development was the Supreme Court decision in Goldberg v. Kelly,397 U. S.254. There the Court held that an agency could not terminate a recipients welfare benefits without a pre-termination hearing, the decision also illustrated that what constitutes a hearing can depend on the context. Congressional hearing Preliminary hearing Unofficial hearing Continuance Due process Jury trial Lawsuit Right to a fair trial Rule of law Trial by ordeal
Hearing (law)
–
Picture from the
Berry confirmation hearing by the
U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs in the
Dirksen Senate Office Building, Rm. 342.
30.
Consumer protection
–
The laws are designed to prevent the businesses that engage in fraud or specified unfair practices from gaining an advantage over competitors. They may also provide protection for those most vulnerable in society. Consumer protection laws are a form of government regulation that aim to protect the rights of consumers, for example, a government may require businesses to disclose detailed information about products—particularly in areas where safety or public health is an issue, such as food. A consumer is defined as someone who acquires goods or services for use or ownership rather than for resale or use in production. Consumer protection can also be asserted via non-government organizations and individuals as consumer activism, Consumer protection law or consumer law is considered an area of law that regulates private law relationships between individual consumers and the businesses that sell those goods and services. Its a way of preventing fraud and scams from service and sales contracts, bill collector regulation, pricing, utility turnoffs, consolidation, the following lists consumer legislation at the nation-state level. In the EU member states Germany and the United Kingdom there is also the applicability of law at the EU level to be considered, in Australia, the corresponding agency is the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission or the individual State Consumer Affairs agencies. The Australian Securities and Investments Commission has responsibility for consumer protection regulation of financial services, however, in practice it does so through privately run EDR schemes such as the Financial Ombudsman Service. Germany as a state of the European Union is bound by the consumer protection directives of the European Union. A minister of the cabinet is responsible for consumer rights. In the current cabinet of Angela Merkel, this is Heiko Maas.84,71 BVerwGE 183), in India The Consumer protection act,1986 is governing consumer protection. Appeal could be filed to the State Consumer Disputes Redress Commissions, in recent years, many effective judgment have been passed by some state and National Consumer Forums. The Sale of Goods Act of 1930 act provides some safeguards to buyers of goods if goods purchased do not fulfill the express or implied conditions, the Civil Code in Taiwan contains five books, General Principles, Obligations, Rights over Things, Family, and Succession. The second book of the Code, the Book of Obligations, the Consumer Protection Commission of Executive Yuan serves as an ombudsman supervising, coordinating, reporting any unsafe products/services and periodically reviewing the legislation. Specifics of the division of labour between the EU and the UK are detailed here, domestic laws originated within the ambit of contract and tort but, with the influence of EU law, it is emerging as an independent area of law. In many circumstances, where law is in question, the matter judicially treated as tort, contract. Consumer Protection issues are dealt with when complaints are made to the Director-General of Fair Trade, the Office of Fair Trading will then investigate, impose an injunction or take the matter to litigation. However, consumers cannot directly complain to the OFT, complaints need to be made to the Citizens Advice Consumer Service who will provide legal advice to complainants, or re-direct the individual complaint to Trading Standards for investigation
Consumer protection
–
Consumer protection laws often mandate the posting of notices, such as this one which appears in all
automotive repair shops in California
31.
Disability rights movement
–
The disability rights movement is a global movement to secure equal opportunities and equal rights for all people with disabilities. Disability activists are working to break institutional, physical, and societal barriers that prevent people with disabilities from living their lives like other citizens, the social model of disability suggests disability is caused by the way society is organised, rather than by a person’s disability. This model suggests barriers in society are created by ableism, when barriers are removed, people with disabilities can be independent and equal in society. There are three types of barriers, Attitudinal barriers, are created by people who see only disability when associating with people with disabilities in some way. These attitudinal barriers can be witnessed through bullying, discrimination, and these barriers include low expectations of people with disabilities. These barriers contribute to all other barriers, attitudes towards people with disabilities in low and middle-income countries can be even more extreme. Environmental barriers, inaccessible environments, natural or built, create disability by creating barriers to inclusion, institutional barriers, include many laws, policies, practices, or strategies that discriminate against people with disabilities. Restrictive laws exist in countries, particularly affecting people with intellectual or psychosocial disabilities. Other barriers include, internalised barriers, inadequate data and statistics, access to public areas such as city streets, public buildings, and restrooms are some of the more visible changes brought about in recent decades to remove physical barriers. People with color vision deficiency regularly deal with discrimination due to their inability to distinguish certain colors. It has been adopted rapidly by numerous businesses to boost sales, unlike many of the leaders in the physical disability rights community, self-advocacy has been slow in developing for people with developmental disabilities. As a result, much of the work done by the Disability Rights Movement was completed by allies, or those without disabilities, parents, friends, and siblings fought for education and acceptance when their loved ones with cognitive disabilities could not. Today, the movement has a social focus to increase this public awareness, as evidenced by the R-Word Campaign. Advocates for the rights of people with mental health disabilities focus mainly on self-determination, and these movements have supported people with disabilities to live as more active participants in society. Access to education and employment have also been a focus of the disability rights movement. Adaptive technologies, enabling people to work jobs they could not have previously, help create access to jobs, access in the classroom has helped improve education opportunities and independence for people with disabilities. Freedom from abuse, neglect, and violations of a persons rights are important goals of the disability rights movement. As a result of the work done through the disability rights movement, significant disability rights legislation was passed in the 1970s through the 1990s in the U. S
Disability rights movement
–
Floor marker for disabled people in Narita Airport, Japan
Disability rights movement
Disability rights movement
–
Disability rights activist outside
Scottish Parliament, 30 March 2013
32.
Frequency allocation
–
Frequency allocation is the division of the electromagnetic spectrum into radio frequency bands. This spectrum management is regulated by governments in most countries, Radio propagation does not stop at national boundaries. Giving technical and economic reasons, governments have sought to harmonise the allocation of RF bands, Frequency allocation is also a special term, used in national frequency administration. The allocation might be primary, secondary, exclusive, and shared, in NATO countries military mobile utilizations will be in accordance with the NATO Joint Civil/Military Frequency Agreement. Spectrum management Amateur radio frequency allocations Spectrum reallocation International Telecommunication Union ITU Radio Regulations - Volume 1 international table of frequencies by ITU Region
Frequency allocation
–
United States radio spectrum frequency allocations chart as of 2011
Frequency allocation
–
United States radio spectrum frequency allocations chart as of 2003
33.
Electromagnetic interference
–
The disturbance may degrade the performance of the circuit or even stop it from functioning. In the case of a path, these effects can range from an increase in error rate to a total loss of the data. Both man-made and natural sources generate changing electrical currents and voltages that can cause EMI, automobile ignition systems, mobile phones, thunderstorms, the Sun, and it can also affect mobile phones, FM radios, and televisions. EMI can be used intentionally for radio jamming, as in electronic warfare, in 1933, a meeting of the International Electrotechnical Commission in Paris recommended the International Special Committee on Radio Interference be set up to deal with the emerging problem of EMI. CISPR subsequently produced technical publications covering measurement and test techniques and recommended emission and these have evolved over the decades and form the basis of much of the worlds EMC regulations today. Test methods and limits were based on CISPR publications, although similar limits were already enforced in parts of Europe, one of these was the EMC Directive and it applies to all equipment placed on the market or taken into service. Its scope covers all apparatus liable to cause electromagnetic disturbance or the performance of which is liable to be affected by such disturbance and this was the first time there was a legal requirement on immunity, as well as emissions on apparatus intended for the general population. Many countries now have similar requirements for products to some level of Electromagnetic Compatibility regulation. Electromagnetic interference can be categorized as follows, Narrowband EMI or RFI interference typically emanates from intended transmissions, such as radio, broadband EMI or RFI interference is unintentional radiation from sources such as electric power transmission lines. Conducted electromagnetic interference is caused by the contact of the conductors as opposed to radiated EMI. Electromagnetic disturbances in the EM field of a conductor will no longer be confined to the surface of the conductor and this persists in all conductors and mutual inductance between two radiated electromagnetic fields will result in EMI. Interference with the meaning of electromagnetic interference, also radio-frequency interference is – according to Article 1, for lower frequencies, EMI is caused by conduction and, for higher frequencies, by radiation. EMI through the wire is also very common in an electrical facility. Newer radio systems incorporate several improvements that enhance the selectivity, in digital radio systems, such as Wi-Fi, error-correction techniques can be used. Spread-spectrum and frequency-hopping techniques can be used with analogue and digital signalling to improve resistance to interference. A highly directional receiver, such as an antenna or a diversity receiver. In the United States, the 1982 Public Law 97-259 allowed the Federal Communications Commission to regulate the susceptibility of electronic equipment. Electromagnetic interference at 2.4 GHz can be caused by 802. 11b and 802. 11g wireless devices, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors and cordless telephones, video senders, and microwave ovens
Electromagnetic interference
–
Electromagnetic interference in analog TV signal
34.
Electronic media
–
Electronic media are media that use electronics or electromechanical audience to access the content. This is in contrast to media, which today are most often created electronically. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the public are video recordings, audio recordings, multimedia presentations, slide presentations, CD-ROM. Most new media are in the form of digital media, however, electronic media may be in either analogue electronics data or digital electronic data format. Although the term is associated with content recorded on a storage medium, recordings are not required for live broadcasting. Any equipment used in the communication process may also be considered electronic media. Electronic media are ubiquitous in most of the developed world, electronic media devices have found their way into all parts of modern life. The term is relevant to professional career development regarding related skill set
Electronic media
–
A screenshot of a web page. The computers to store, transmit, and display the web page are electronic media. The web page is an electronic medium.
35.
Cable television
–
This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables, analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A cable channel is a television network available via cable television, alternative terms include non-broadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts. Examples of cable/satellite channels/cable networks available in many countries are HBO, MTV, Cartoon Network, E. Eurosport, the abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, in areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large community antennas were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting for radio are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924, Cable television has gone through a series of steps of evolution in the United States and Canada. Particularly in Canada, communities with their own signals were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Early systems carried only a maximum of seven channels, using 2,4,5 or 6,7,9,11 and 13, as the equipment was unable to confine the signal discreetly within the assigned channel bandwidth. The reason 4 and 5 along with 6 and 7 could be used together was because of the 4 MHz gap between 4 and 5 and the nearly 90 MHz gap between 6 and 7. Even though eight channels are listed, in systems that maximized 7 channels. As equipment improved, all channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be priority, later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common, Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups, about this time, operators expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the midband and superband VHF channels adjacent to the high band 7-13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2-13 on each of the two cables, during the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government access created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. These stations evolved partially into todays over-the-air digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e. g, many live local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most major television markets in the early 1980s. This evolved into todays many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-only produced television movies and miniseries, Cable specialty channels, starting with channels oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and narrowcasting became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast signals on cable systems, by the mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulator to enter into distribution contracts with cable networks on their own. By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain different selections of additional channels above the basic selection, by subscribing to additional tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels
Cable television
–
Coaxial cable used to carry cable television into subscribers' residences.
Cable television
–
A cable television distribution box (left) in the basement of a building in Germany, with a splitter (right) which supplies the signal to separate cables which go to different rooms
36.
Direct broadcast satellite
–
A direct-broadcast satellite is a type of artificial satellite which usually broadcasts satellite television signals for home reception. The type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as direct-broadcast satellite television or direct-to-home television and these services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country. Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels, really intended for cable distribution, in 1977, the ITU adopted an international BSS Plan under which each country was allocated specific frequencies at specific orbital locations for domestic service. Over the years, this plan has been modified to, for example, accommodate new countries, increase coverage areas, at present, numerous countries have brought into use their BSS Plan allocations. By contrast, the term DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a range of frequencies transmitted from satellites that are not part of any internationally planned band. The term DBS is often used interchangeably with DTH to cover both analog and digital video and audio services received by relatively small dishes, a DBS service usually refers to either a commercial service, or a group of free channels available from one orbital position targeting one country. In certain regions of the world, especially in North America, DBS is used to refer to providers of subscription satellite packages, the second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc, was launched in 1989. Sky TV started as a four-channel free-to-air analogue service on the Astra 1A satellite, by 1991, Sky had changed to a conditional access pay model, and it launched a digital service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue transmission ceasing in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature is used in the UK or Ireland. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB, PrimeStar began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was joined by DirecTV, in 1994. At the time, DirecTVs introduction was the most successful consumer electronics debut in American history, although PrimeStar transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was ultimately unable to compete with DirecTV, which required a smaller satellite dish and could deliver more programming. DirecTV purchased PrimeStar in 1999 and moved all of that subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In 2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News Corporations controlling interest in DirecTV, in 1996, EchoStars Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTVs primary competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went under, astro was also started, using a direct broadcast satellite system. Dominion Video Satellite Inc. s Sky Angel launched on a platform in the United States in 1996, with its DBS service geared toward the faith. It grew from six to 36 television and radio channels of entertainment, Christian-inspirational programming. Dominion, under its corporate name Video Satellite Systems Inc. Sky Angel, although a separate and independent DBS service, used the satellites, transmission facilities
Direct broadcast satellite
–
A DTH dish antenna mounted on wall
Direct broadcast satellite
–
Astro satellite dishes
Direct broadcast satellite
–
Mahabir Pun hand-making a satellite dish in
Nepal
37.
Entrepreneurs
–
What appears as a real opportunity ex ante might actually be a non-opportunity or one that cannot be actualized by entrepreneurs lacking the necessary business skills, financial or social capital. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas. They act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise, Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. For Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur, the ‘norm’ of a healthy economy. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, for example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals. In the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration, Entrepreneur, is a loanword from French. First used in 1723, today the term entrepreneur implies qualities of leadership, initiative, economist Robert Reich has called team-building, leadership, and management ability essential qualities for the entrepreneur. Historically the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work in the late 17th and early 18th centuries of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith, which was foundational to classical economics. In the 20th century, entrepreneurship was studied by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises, the term entrepreneurship was coined around the 1920s, while the loan from French of the word entrepreneur dates to the 1850s. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation, thus, creative destruction is largely responsible for long-term economic growth. The idea that leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory. For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted in new industries and in new combinations of currently existing inputs, Schumpeters initial example of this was the combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce the horseless carriage. In this case the innovation, the car, was transformational and it did not immediately replace the horse-drawn carriage, but in time, incremental improvements reduced the cost and improved the technology, leading to the modern auto industry. Despite Schumpeters early 20th-century contributions, traditional microeconomic theory did not formally consider the entrepreneur in its theoretical frameworks, in this treatment, the entrepreneur was an implied but unspecified actor, consistent with the concept of the entrepreneur being the agent of x-efficiency. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did not bear risk, the capitalist did, Schumpeter was of the opinion that entrepreneurs shift the Production Possibility Curve to a higher level using innovations. Cantillon emphasized the willingness of the entrepreneur to assume risk and to deal with uncertainty, thus, he draws attention to the function of the entrepreneur, and distinguishes clearly between the function of the entrepreneur and the owner who provides the money
Entrepreneurs
–
Left to right,
Eric Schmidt,
Sergey Brin and
Larry Page of
Google, which is cited as an example of entrepreneurship and
disruptive innovation. As of the 2010s, Google is a huge corporation, but in the late 1990s, it started out as an entrepreneurial venture in a garage.
Entrepreneurs
–
In 2012, Ambassador-at-Large for Global Women's Issues
Melanne Verveer greeted participants in an African Women's Entrepreneurship Program at the State Department in Washington, D.C.
Entrepreneurs
–
British entrepreneur
Karren Brady has an estimated net worth of $123 million
Entrepreneurs
–
Dell Women's Entrepreneur
Network event in New York City, May 2013
38.
Electromagnetic spectrum
–
The electromagnetic spectrum is the collective term for all known frequencies and their linked wavelengths of the known photons. The electromagnetic spectrum of an object has a different meaning, and is instead the characteristic distribution of radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. Visible light lies toward the end, with wavelengths from 400 to 700 nanometres. The limit for long wavelengths is the size of the universe itself, until the middle of the 20th century it was believed by most physicists that this spectrum was infinite and continuous. Nearly all types of radiation can be used for spectroscopy, to study. Other technological uses are described under electromagnetic radiation, for most of history, visible light was the only known part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and studied some of its properties, the study of light continued, and during the 16th and 17th centuries conflicting theories regarded light as either a wave or a particle. The first discovery of electromagnetic radiation other than visible light came in 1800 and he was studying the temperature of different colors by moving a thermometer through light split by a prism. He noticed that the highest temperature was beyond red and he theorized that this temperature change was due to calorific rays that were a type of light ray that could not be seen. The next year, Johann Ritter, working at the end of the spectrum. These behaved similarly to visible light rays, but were beyond them in the spectrum. They were later renamed ultraviolet radiation, during the 1860s James Maxwell developed four partial differential equations for the electromagnetic field. Two of these equations predicted the possibility of, and behavior of, analyzing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realized that they must travel at a speed that was about the known speed of light. This startling coincidence in value led Maxwell to make the inference that light itself is a type of electromagnetic wave, maxwells equations predicted an infinite number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling at the speed of light. This was the first indication of the existence of the electromagnetic spectrum. Maxwells predicted waves included waves at very low compared to infrared. Hertz found the waves and was able to infer that they traveled at the speed of light, Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. For example, Hertz was able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree resin, in a later experiment, Hertz similarly produced and measured the properties of microwaves
Electromagnetic spectrum
–
The electromagnetic spectrum
39.
Telecommunication
–
Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology and it is transmitted either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation. Such transmission paths are divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing. The term is used in its plural form, telecommunications. Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth, the word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele, meaning distant, far off, or afar, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the French, because its use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer. Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century, in the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could pass a single bit of information. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, in 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres, as a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Homing pigeons have occasionally used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military, frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons, in the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed. Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the telegraph in 1837. Also, the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke. Both inventors viewed their device as an improvement to the electromagnetic telegraph not as a new device, samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
Telecommunication
–
A satellite communication antenna at the biggest facility for satellite communication in Raisting, Bavaria, Germany
Telecommunication
–
Visualization from the
Opte Project of the various routes through a portion of the Internet.
Telecommunication
–
A replica of one of
Chappe's semaphore towers.
Telecommunication
–
Optical fiber provides cheaper bandwidth for long distance communication.
40.
United States Department of Justice
–
The department was formed in 1870 during the Ulysses S. Grant administration. In its early years, the DOJ vigorously prosecuted Ku Klux Klan members, the Department of Justice administers several federal law enforcement agencies including the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Drug Enforcement Administration. The department has responsibility to investigate instances of fraud, to represent the United States in legal matters such as in the Supreme Court. The department also has responsibilities to review actions of law enforcement conduct by the Violent Crime Control. The Department is headed by the United States Attorney General, who is nominated by the President, the current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions. The U. S. Attorney General was initially a one-person and it was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789, but this grew with the bureaucracy. At one time the Attorney General gave legal advice to the U. S. Congress as well as the President, until March 3,1853, the salary of the Attorney General was set by statute at less than the amount paid to other Cabinet members. Early Attorneys General supplemented their salary by engaging in private practice of law. Following unsuccessful efforts to put the Attorney Generals Office on a footing, in 1869. On February 19,1868, Lawrence introduced a bill in Congress to create the Department of Justice, President Ulysses S. Grant then signed the bill into law on June 22,1870. The Department of Justice officially began operations on July 1,1870, just prior to the Civil War, in February 1861, the Confederate States of America established a Department of Justice. Grant appointed Amos T. Akerman as Attorney General and Benjamin H. Bristow as Americas first Solicitor General, both Akerman and Bristow used the Department of Justice to vigorously prosecute Ku Klux Klan members in the early 1870s. In the first few years of Grants first term in there were 1000 indictments against Klan members with over 550 convictions from the Department of Justice. The result was a decrease in violence in the South. Akerman gave credit to Grant and told a friend that no one was better or stronger then Grant when it came to prosecuting terrorists. Akermans successor, George H. Williams, in December 1871, the law did create a new office, that of Solicitor General, to supervise and conduct government litigation in the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1884, control of federal prisons was transferred to the new department, new facilities were built, including the penitentiary at Leavenworth in 1895, and a facility for women located in West Virginia, at Alderson was established in 1924. The U. S. Department of Justice building was completed in 1935 from a design by Milton Bennett Medary, upon Medarys death in 1929, the other partners of his Philadelphia firm Zantzinger, Borie and Medary took over the project
United States Department of Justice
–
The
Robert F. Kennedy Building in August 2006. The building serves as the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Justice.
United States Department of Justice
–
Seal of the United States Department of Justice
41.
Federal Register
–
The Federal Register, abbreviated FR or sometimes Fed. Reg. is the journal of the federal government of the United States that contains government agency rules, proposed rules. It is published daily, except on federal holidays, the Federal Register is compiled by the Office of the Federal Register and is printed by the Government Publishing Office. There are no restrictions on the Federal Register, as a work of the U. S. government. In essence, the Federal Register is a way for the government to announce changes to government requirements, policies, the notice and comment process, as outlined in the Administrative Procedure Act, gives the people a chance to participate in agency rulemaking. Publication of documents in the Federal Register also constitutes constructive notice, the Federal Register is the main source for the U. S. Both proposed and final rules are published in the Federal Register, a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking typically requests public comment on a proposed rule, and provides notice of any public meetings where a proposed rule will be discussed. The public comments are considered by the government agency. The United States Government Manual is published as an edition of the Federal Register. Its focus is on programs and activities, to purchase current or back print copies of the Federal Register, one may contact the U. S. Government Publishing Office. In each issue of the Federal Register, there is a subscription page, currently, a years subscription rate within the U. S. is US$929. Each individual issue may be priced from $11 to $33 depending on its pages, virtually every law library associated with an American Bar Association–accredited law school will also have a set, as will federal depository libraries. The Federal Register has been online since 1994. Federal depository libraries within the U. S. also receive copies of the text, outside the U. S. some major libraries may also carry the Federal Register. To help federal agencies manage their dockets, the Federal Docket Management System was launched in 2005 and is the side of regulations. gov. In April 2009, Citation Technologies created a free, searchable website for Federal Register articles dating from 1996 to the present. GovPulse. us, a finalist in the Sunlight Foundations Apps for America 2, provides a web 2.0 interface to the Federal Register, including sparklines of agency activity, on July 25,2010, the Federal Register 2.0 website went live. The new website is a collaboration between the developers who created GovPulse. us, the Government Publishing Office and the National Archives, on August 1,2011, the Federal Register announced a new application programming interface to facilitate programmatic access to the Federal Register content
Federal Register
–
Cover
42.
Intellectual property law
–
Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights are the protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, the Statute of Monopolies and the British Statute of Anne are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. The first known use of the intellectual property dates to 1769. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, the German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property to the confederation. According to Lemley, it was only at point that the term really began to be used in the United States. The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I for monopoly privileges, the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine. The term can be used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown. The statement that discoveries are. property goes back earlier, in Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. Until recently, the purpose of property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time, the concepts origins can potentially be traced back further. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one years patent to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury. Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, a copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms. Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed, an industrial design right protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern, an industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Plant breeders rights or plant variety rights are the rights to use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined, a trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders
Intellectual property law
–
The
Statute of Anne came into force in 1710
Intellectual property law
–
Demonstration in
Sweden in support of
file sharing, 2006.
Intellectual property law
–
"Copying is not theft!" badge with a character resembling
Mickey Mouse in reference to the in popular culture rationale behind the
Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998
Intellectual property law
–
RIAA representative
Hilary Rosen testifies before the Senate Judiciary Committee on the future of digital music (July 11, 2000)
43.
Electronic commerce
–
E-commerce is a transaction of buying or selling online. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web for at least one part of the life cycle although it may also use other technologies such as e-mail. 1979, Michael Aldrich demonstrates the first online shopping system,1981, Thomson Holidays UK is the first business-to-business online shopping system to be installed. 1982, Minitel was introduced nationwide in France by France Télécom,1983, California State Assembly holds first hearing on electronic commerce in Volcano, California. Testifying are CPUC, MCI Mail, Prodigy, CompuServe, Volcano Telephone and it is the first comprehensive electronic commerce service. 1989, In May 1989, Sequoia Data Corp, introduced Compumarket The first internet based system for e-commerce. Sellers and buyers could post items for sale and buyers could search the database,1990, Tim Berners-Lee writes the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, using a NeXT computer. 1992, Book Stacks Unlimited in Cleveland opens a sales website selling books online with credit card processing. 1993, Paget Press releases edition No.3 of the first app store, The Electronic AppWrapper 1994, Netscape 1.0 is introduced in late 1994 with SSL encryption that made transactions secure. 1994, Ipswitch IMail Server becomes the first software available online for sale,1994, Ten Summoners Tales by Sting becomes the first secure online purchase through NetMarket. 1995, The US National Science Foundation lifts its former strict prohibition of commercial enterprise on the Internet, the shopping service at launch featured W H Smith, Tesco, Virgin Megastores/Our Price, Great Universal Stores, Interflora, Dixons Retail, Past Times, PC World and Innovations. 1995, Jeff Bezos launches Amazon. com and the first commercial-free 24-hour, internet-only radio stations, Radio HK, eBay is founded by computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as AuctionWeb. 1996, IndiaMART B2B marketplace established in India,1996, ECPlaza B2B marketplace established in Korea. 1996, The use of Excalibur BBS with replicated Storefronts was an implementation of electronic commerce started by a group of SysOps in Australia. 1998, Electronic postal stamps can be purchased and downloaded for printing from the Web,1999, Alibaba Group is established in China. Business. com sold for US $7.5 million to eCompanies, the peer-to-peer filesharing software Napster launches. ATG Stores launches to sell items for the home online. 2000, Complete Idiots Guide to E-commerce released on Amazon 2000,2001, Alibaba. com achieved profitability in December 2001
Electronic commerce
–
An example of an
automated online assistant on a merchandising website.
44.
General Services Administration
–
The General Services Administration is an independent agency of the United States government, established in 1949 to help manage and support the basic functioning of federal agencies. GSA employs about 12,000 federal workers and has an operating budget of roughly $26.3 billion. GSA oversees $66 billion of procurement annually and it contributes to the management of about $500 billion in U. S. federal property, divided chiefly among 8,300 owned and leased buildings and a 210,000 vehicle motor pool. GSAs business lines include the Federal Acquisition Service, the Public Buildings Service, the GSA is member of the Procurement G6, an informal group leading the use of framework agreements and e-procurement instruments in public procurement. In 1947 President Harry Truman asked former President Herbert Hoover to lead what became known as the Hoover Commission to make recommendations to reorganize the operations of the federal government, one of the recommendations of the commission was the establishment of an Office of the General Services. This proposed office would combine the responsibilities of the following organizations, General Jess Larson, Administrator of the War Assets Administration, was named GSAs first Administrator. The first job awaiting Administrator Larson and the newly formed GSA was a renovation of the White House. The structure had fallen into such a state of disrepair by 1949 that one inspector of the time said the structure was standing “purely from habit. Everything, except the four walls without a roof, was stripped down. GSA completed the renovation in 1952, GSA headquarters, located at Eighteenth and F Streets, NW, was U. S. General Services Administration Building listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 as Interior Department Offices, in 1960, GSA created the Federal Telecommunications System, a government-wide intercity telephone system. In 1970, the Nixon administration created the Consumer Product Information Coordinating Center, the Federal Buildings Fund was initiated in 1974, which allowed the GSA to issue rent bills to federal agencies. In 1972, the GSA established the Automated Data and Telecommunications Service, in 1973, the GSA created the Office of Federal Management Policy. GSA’s Office of Acquisition Policy centralized procurement policy in 1978, in 1984, GSA introduced the federal government to the use of charge cards, known as the GMA SmartPay system. The National Archives and Records Administration was spun off into an independent agency in 1985, the same year, the GSA began to provide governmentwide policy oversight and guidance for federal real property management as a result of an Executive Order signed by President Ronald Reagan. In 2003, the Federal Protective Service was moved to the Department of Homeland Security, in 2005, GSA reorganized to merge the Federal Supply Service and Federal Technology Service business lines into the Federal Acquisition Service. On April 3,2009, President Barack Obama nominated Martha N. Johnson to serve as the GSA Administrator, after a 9-month delay, the United States Senate confirmed her nomination on February 4,2010. In July 1991, GSA contractors began the excavation of what is now the Ted Weiss Federal Building in New York City, when initial excavation disturbed burials, destroying skeletons and artifacts, GSA sent archaeologists to excavate—but hid their findings from the public
General Services Administration
–
Thoughtful analysis to balance GSA preservation, cost, and performance goals supported historic window retention with replacement of non-historic windows at this 1930 courthouse
General Services Administration
–
Official seal
45.
Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)
–
Pennsylvania Avenue is a street in Washington, D. C. that connects the White House and the United States Capitol. Called Americas Main Street, it is the location of official parades and processions, moreover, Pennsylvania Avenue is an important commuter route and is part of the National Highway System. The avenue runs for a total of 5.8 miles inside Washington and it continues within the city for 3.5 miles, from the southeast corner of the Capitol grounds through the Capitol Hill neighborhood, and over the Anacostia River on the John Philip Sousa Bridge. At this point, as a highway, it becomes Southern Maryland Boulevard. At one point in the century, Pennsylvania Avenue was designated DC4. Northwest of the White House, Pennsylvania Avenue runs for 1.4 miles to its end at M Street NW in Georgetown, from 1862 to 1962, streetcars ran the length of the avenue from Georgetown to the Anacostia River. Although Pennsylvania Avenue extends six miles within Washington, D. C. the expanse between the White House and the Capitol constitutes the heart of the nation. Washington called this stretch most magnificent & most convenient, and it has served the country well, laid out by Pierre Charles LEnfant, Pennsylvania Avenue was one of the earliest streets constructed in the Federal City. The first reference to the street as Pennsylvania Avenue comes in a 1791 letter from Thomas Jefferson, one theory is that the street was named for Pennsylvania as consolation for moving the capital from Philadelphia. Both Jefferson and George Washington considered the avenue an important feature of the new capital, after inspecting LEnfants plan, President Washington referred to the thoroughfare as a Grand Avenue. Jefferson concurred, and while the avenue was little more than a wide dirt road ridiculed as The Great Serbonian Bog. At one time Pennsylvania Avenue provided an unobstructed view between the White House and the Capitol, the construction of an expansion to the Treasury Building blocked this view, and supposedly President Andrew Jackson did this on purpose. In November 2012, as part of preparations for the inauguration of Barack Obama. On September 30,1965, portions of the avenue and surrounding area were designated the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site, the National Park Service administers this area which includes the United States Navy Memorial, Old Post Office Tower, and Pershing Park. Congress created the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation on October 27,1972 to rehabilitate the street between the Capitol and the White House, an area seen as blighted. In 2010, the District of Columbia designated Pennsylvania Avenue from the terminus of John Philip Sousa Bridge to the Maryland state line to be a D. C. The city spent $430 million to beautify the street and improve the roadway, ever since an impromptu procession formed around Jeffersons second inauguration, every United States president except Ronald Reagan has paraded down the Avenue after taking the oath of office. From William Henry Harrison to Gerald Ford, the funeral corteges of seven of the eight presidents who died in office, franklin Roosevelt was the only president who died in office whose cortege did not follow this route
Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)
–
Looking southeast down Pennsylvania Avenue,
NW towards the
United States Capitol seen here from the
Old Post Office Pavilion.
Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)
–
Pennsylvania Avenue NW street sign near
The White House
Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)
–
A 1942 photo of a DC 4 shield.
Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)
–
Drawing of Pennsylvania Avenue and the Capitol before it was burned down in 1814
46.
Frank R. McNinch
–
Frank Ramsay McNinch was born in Charlotte, North Carolina. He was a figure who served as the mayor of Charlotte, as chairman of the Federal Power Commission. In the 1928 presidential election, McNinch, a Democrat, supported Republican Herbert Hoover for president and he was later appointed FPC chairman by Franklin D. Roosevelt. The controversial 1938 Orson Welles War of the Worlds radio broadcast occurred during his tenure as FCC head, McNinch resigned as FCC chairman on July 25,1939, due to ill health. His home, the Frank Ramsay McNinch House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999, lanham, MD, University Press of America. Charlotte-Mecklenburg website biography Time magazine Chairmen of the FPC and FERC Radios War of the Worlds Broadcast Frank McNinch Papers, J. Murrey Atkins Library, UNC Charlotte
Frank R. McNinch
–
McNinch takes the oath of office, October 1, 1937, administered by Pansy Wiltshire; photo by
Harris & Ewing
47.
T.A.M. Craven
–
Tunis Augustus Macdonough Craven was a United States Navy officer in the first half of the 20th century involved in the development of radio and communications. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Craven graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1913 and he was a Navy engineer involved in the early history of radio and a close friend of Stanford C. In 1917 he was ordered to the Office of Director of Naval Communications, in 1927 he served as a technical adviser to the U. S. delegation to Washington international communications conference, and subsequently served as executive officer aboard the oil tanker USS Sapelo. He resigned from duty in 1930, immediately taking a reserve commission. He remained a commander in the reserves until 1944, Craven served as Chief Engineer to the Federal Communications Commission between 1935 and 1937 before being appointed to the commission by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937. A Democrat by party, he was frequently at odds with chairman James Lawrence Fly and he declined reappointment at the end of his term in 1944, choosing instead to return to private industry as the vice-president of Iowa Broadcasting Company, owned by the Cowles interests. After a long delay, FCC general counsel Charles R. Denny was nominated to succeed Craven in March,1945, Craven was appointed to an unusual second appointment by President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 2 July 1956 to 25 March 1963
T.A.M. Craven
–
T.A.M. Craven at his desk, July, 1937, while he was still Chief Engineer of the FCC.
48.
Thad H. Brown
–
Thaddeus Harold Brown was a Republican lawyer and politician from the U. S. State of Ohio. Thad H. Brown was born January 10,1887 at Cardington, Morrow County, Ohio, son of William Henry Brown and he was married November 10,1915 to Marie Thrailkill. In 1920, Brown was post Commander of American Legion in Columbus and he was elected Ohio Secretary of State in 1922 and 1924, serving 1923-1927. Brown was a candidate in the Republican primary for Ohio Governor in 1926, a delegate to the 1928 Republican National Convention. March 28,1932, Brown was appointed to the Federal Radio Commission, on July 11,1934, he was appointed a Commissioner to the newly formed Federal Communications Commission and served until June 30,1940. Thad H. Brown died in Cleveland, Ohio, February 25,1941 and he was a Presbyterian, Mason, Phi Kappa Psi, Phi Delta Phi, and Shriner
Thad H. Brown
–
1937 in
Washington, D.C.
Thad H. Brown
–
FCC Commissioners Frederick I. Thompson,
T.A.M. Craven, Chairman
James L. Fly, Commissioners Thad H. Brown, and
Norman S. Case, left to right, inspect the latest in television, December 1, 1939.
49.
Norman S. Case
–
Norman Stanley Case was the Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island from 1927 to 1928 and the 56th Governor of Rhode Island from 1928 to 1933. In addition, he served in the Army during World War I. Case was a member of the Republican Party during his time in office. He was a member of the General Society of Mayflower Descendants and he was also an active member of the Freemasons, and was a Baptist. Norman S. Case was born in Providence, Rhode Island and he attended Brown University, graduating in 1908, and went on to Harvard Law School. He left Harvard for Boston University Law School, from which he received his law degree in 1912, Case opened a law practice in Providence, and was soon elected to the Providence City Council as a Republican. Case was married on June 28,1916, to Emma Louise Arnold, shortly after the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Captain Case and his troop were mustered into Federal service on July 25. On August 20, Cases troop was re-organized as Company A of the 103d Machine Gun Battalion which was assigned to the 26th Division and he sailed for Europe on October 2 and served in France with his unit. He was reassigned as Judge Advocate of the 26th Division on January 1,1918 and he was reassigned to the administrative section of the Headquarters of the Services of Supply on August 11 and to the supply section on April 20,1919. He returned to the United States on July 17,1919 and was discharged two days later and he was awarded the Order of the Black Star of Benin by the French government in recognition of his service. Case remained a city councilor during his military service, President Warren G. Harding appointed Case U. S. District Attorney for Rhode Island in 1921, he left the position in 1926 to run for Lieutenant Governor. He won the election, taking office in 1927, just over a year later, on February 4,1928, Governor Aram J. Pothier died in office, Case won the governorship in his own right in 1928, and was reelected in 1930. Case was soundly defeated by T. F. Green in his 1932 bid for reelection and this election marked a tidal shift in Rhode Island politics from being predominantly Republican to being predominantly Democratic. In 1945, by-then Senator T. F. Green opposed Cases candidacy for a third term, Case was succeeded on the FCC by former Vermont governor William H. Wills. After leaving the FCC, Case returned to law practice, joining Frank W. Wozencraft, former general counsel for RCA. The Political Graveyard profile of Norman S. Case
Norman S. Case
–
Norman Stanley Case
Norman S. Case
–
Case during his time with the FCC
Norman S. Case
–
FCC Commissioners Frederick I. Thompson,
T.A.M. Craven, Chairman
James L. Fly, Commissioners
Thad H. Brown, and Norman S. Case, left to right, inspect the latest in television, December 1, 1939.
.
