1.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
2.
Jeremy Fogel
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Jeremy Don Fogel is a Senior United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Fogel was appointed by President Bill Clinton and he was a judge for the municipal court and superior court of Santa Clara County, California from 1981 to 1998. On October 3,2011, he became Director of the Federal Judicial Center, Fogel was born in San Francisco, California, and received a B. A. from Stanford University in 1971 and a J. D. from Harvard Law School in 1974. He entered private practice in San Jose, California until 1978 and he was a lecturer in human development at San Jose State University from 1977 to 1978 and member of the Santa Clara County Bar Association from 1978 to 1981. With the Mental Health Advocacy Project, he was an attorney from 1978 to 1981. Along with his work, Fogel lectures at Stanford Law School, one of his courses was Psychology of Litigation. He was appointed by Democratic governor Jerry Brown as a judge on the Santa Clara County Municipal Court from 1981 to 1986, Brown successor, Republican governor George Deukmejian, appointed Fogel to a judgeship at the Superior Court of Santa Clara County in 1986, Fogel remained until 1998. In 1997, Fogel heard a case challenging Measure B, an initiative for a public transportation sales tax passed by 52 percent of voters. Challengers argued that because Measure B was a tax rather than a general tax. Fogel dismissed the lawsuit on April 3,1997, two days after it opened. Fogel was nominated by President Bill Clinton on September 8,1997 and he was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 16,1998, and received his commission on March 17,1998. He assumed senior status on December 31,2014, Fogel has presided over federal criminal cases, including trials for perjury and fraud. In 2010, he presided over the case of Federal Bureau of Investigation employee Rachelle Thomas-Zuill. On January 8,2010, Fogel sentenced two people to prison for defrauding 24 Hour Fitness, one of the convicted, Susan Powell. Powell got 15 months, and advertising executive Michael Johnston got 5 months, sundberg pleaded guilty in January 2010 to mail fraud. Other cases that Fogel has presided over federally included that of serial bank robber Froilan Alix Roldan, Roldan robbed $90,000 from a Bank of America branch in Santa Clara, California over three instances in three years. On December 15,2006, in the case Morales v. can be fixed, California then delayed the execution, as it could not comply with Fogels order. Under the same painful death criteria, Fogel issued a stay of execution for Albert Greenwood Brown on September 28,2010, two days before Brown was scheduled to be executed
3.
Chief Justice of the United States
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The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the United States federal court system and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States. The Chief Justice is one of nine Supreme Court justices, the eight are the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1789 until 1866, the office was known as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice also serves as a spokesperson for the judicial branch. The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments, when the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the courts opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the courts meetings, in the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the Senate. In modern tradition, the Chief Justice also has the duty of administering the oath of office of the President of the United States. The first Chief Justice was John Jay, the 17th and current Chief Justice is John G. Roberts, Jr. The office was known as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and is still informally referred to using that title. However,28 U. S. C. §1 specifies that the title is Chief Justice of the United States, the title was changed from Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Congress in 1866 at the suggestion of the sixth Chief Justice, Salmon P. Chase. Chase wished to emphasize the Supreme Courts role as a branch of government. The first Chief Justice commissioned using the new title was Melville Fuller in 1888, use of the previous title when referring to Chief Justices John Jay through Roger B. Taney is technically correct, as that was the title during their time on the court. The other eight members of the court are officially Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, the Chief Justice is the only member of the court to whom the Constitution refers as a Justice, and only in Article I. Article III of the Constitution refers to all members of the Supreme Court simply as Judges, the Chief Justice is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed to sit on the Court by the United States Senate. The salary of the Chief Justice is set by Congress, the Constitution prohibits Congress from lowering the salary of any judge, including the Chief Justice, while that judge holds office. As of 2015, the salary is $258,100 per year, which is higher than that of the Associate Justices. Three serving Associate Justices have received promotions to Chief Justice, Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, Associate Justice Abe Fortas was nominated to the position of Chief Justice of the United States, but his nomination was filibustered by Senate Republicans in 1968. Despite the failed nomination, Fortas remained an Associate Justice until his resignation the following year, there have been 21 individuals nominated for Chief Justice, of whom 17 have been confirmed by the Senate, although a different 17 have served
4.
Administrative Office of the United States Courts
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The Administrative Office of the United States Courts is the administrative agency of the United States federal court system. The AO is the central support entity for the judicial branch. It provides a range of administrative, legal, financial, management, program. The AO implements and executes Judicial Conference policies, as well as applicable federal statutes, the AO facilitates communications within the judiciary and with Congress, the executive branch, and the public on behalf of the judiciary. The mission of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts is to provide a variety of functions to the United States federal judiciary. The AO prepares and submits the budget for the courts to the Judicial Conference for approval by Congress and it analyzes legislation from Congress that will affect the courts operations or personnel, and it interprets and applies the new laws. It also provides help to members of the courts in the form of clerks, probation and pretrial services officers, court reporters. It also works together with the General Services Administration to develop and operate suitable accommodations for federal courts, the director of the AO serves as Secretary of the Judicial Conference and is appointed, along with the deputy director, by the Chief Justice of the United States. The Administrative Office of the U. S, Courts was established by an act of Congress on November 6,1939. For 150 years, administrative responsibility for the courts shifted from the Treasury Department to the Interior Department in 1849. Reform proposals ranged from separate appropriation bills for the courts to the authorization of senior circuit judges as administrators for all the courts within their respective circuits, some circuits established conferences of judges to discuss problems of case management and court administration. After the defeat of Roosevelt’s court-packing plan, Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes responded to suggestions for less sweeping administrative changes, the committee’s proposed Administrative Office of the U. S. The committee proposal found support in both the Senate and House of Representatives, which considered several versions before passage in August 1939. It also mandated annual circuit conferences at which circuit and district judges would meet with members of the bar to discuss judicial administration, James C. Duff is the current Director of the AO. On November 4,2014 it was announced by Chief Justice John Roberts he would again become Director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts. He succeeded Director Judge John D. Bates, henry P. Chandler, 1939–1956 Warren Olney III, 1958–1967 Ernest C. Friesen, 1968–1970 Rowland F. Kirks, 1970–1977 William E. Foley, 1977–1985 Leonidas Ralph Mecham, Duff, 2006–2011 2015–present Thomas F. Hogan, 2011–2013 John D
5.
Earl Warren
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Earl Warren was an American jurist and politician, who served as the 30th Governor of California and later the 14th Chief Justice of the United States. Warren is the person elected to three consecutive terms as Governor of California, and with those three elected terms he is second only to Jerry Brown for total gubernatorial wins in California. Before holding these positions, he was the District Attorney for Alameda County, California, Warren was the nominee of the Republican Party for Vice President in 1948, as the running mate of Thomas E. Dewey. He was appointed to chair what became known as the Warren Commission, which was formed to investigate the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Earl Warren was born in Los Angeles, on March 19,1891, to Mathias H. Warren, a Norwegian immigrant whose family name was Varren, and his wife, Crystal. Mathias Warren was an employee of the Southern Pacific Railroad. After he was blacklisted for joining in a strike, the moved to Bakersfield, California. Matthias worked in a repair yard, and Earl had summer jobs in railroading. Earl Warren grew up in Bakersfield, where he attended Washington Junior High and his father was murdered there by an unknown person during a robbery. In 1912 Warren graduated with a B. A. in political science from the University of California, in 1914 he earned his J. D. at the University of California, Berkeley School of Law. He was a member of The Gun Club secret society, and the Sigma Phi Society, as an undergraduate, Warren also played clarinet in the Cal Band. Warren maintained a friendship with fellow Cal student Robert Gordon Sproul. In 1948, at the Republican National Convention, Sproul would nominate Warren for Vice President, Warren was admitted to the California bar in 1914. Warren worked a year for Associated Oil Company in San Francisco, then joined Robinson & Robinson, in August 1917, Warren enlisted in the U. S. Army for World War I service. Assigned to the 91st Division at Camp Lewis, Washington, 1st Lieutenant Earl Warren was discharged in 1918. After the war, he served as a clerk of the Judicial Committee for the 1919 Session of the California State Assembly, then as the Deputy City Attorney in Oakland, Warren came to the attention of powerful Republican Joseph R. Knowland, publisher of The Oakland Tribune. He was strongly influenced by California Governor Hiram Johnson and other leaders of the Progressive Era to oppose corruption, in 1925, Warren was appointed as the District Attorney of Alameda County. Warren was re-elected to three four-year terms, Warren vigorously investigated allegations that a deputy sheriff was taking bribes in connection with street-paving arrangements
6.
Social science
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Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
7.
Stanley Forman Reed
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For the Indian newspaper editor and British politician, see Stanley Reed. Stanley Forman Reed was a noted American attorney who served as United States Solicitor General from 1935 to 1938 and he was the last Supreme Court Justice who did not graduate from law school to serve on the Supreme Court. Stanley Reed was born in the town of Minerva in Mason County, Kentucky, on the last day of 1884 to John. His father was a physician and a Protestant who adhered to no particular organized church. The Reeds and Formans traced their history to the earliest colonial period in America, Reed attended Kentucky Wesleyan College and received a B. A. degree in 1902. He then attended Yale University as an undergraduate, and obtained a second B. A. in 1906 and he studied law at the University of Virginia and Columbia University, but did not obtain a law degree. Reed married the former Winifred Elgin in May 1908, the couple had two sons, John A. and Stanley Jr. who both became attorneys. In 1909 he traveled to France and studied at the Sorbonne, after his studies in France, Reed returned to Kentucky. He was admitted to the bar in 1910 and established a practice in Maysville. He was elected to the Kentucky General Assembly in 1912 and served two two-year terms, after the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Reed joined the United States Army and was commissioned a lieutenant. When the war ended in 1918, Reed returned to his law practice. He represented the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway and the Kentucky Burley Tobacco Growers Association, Stanley Reed was very active in the Sons of the American Revolution and Sons of Colonial Wars, while his wife was a national officer in the Daughters of the American Revolution. The Reeds settled on a farm near Maysville, where Stanley Reed raised prize-winning Holstein cattle in his spare time, Reeds work for a number of large agricultural interests in Kentucky made him a nationally known authority on the law of agricultural cooperatives. It was this reputation which brought him to the attention of federal officials, Herbert Hoover had been elected President of the United States in November 1928, and took office in March 1929. But even then, the industry in the United States was heading for a depression. Unlike his predecessor, Hoover agreed to provide some support for agriculture. The act established and was administered by the Federal Farm Board, the crash of the stock market in late October 1929 led the Federal Farm Boards general counsel to resign. Although Reed was a Democrat, his reputation as a corporate agricultural lawyer led President Hoover to appoint him the new general counsel of the Federal Farm Board on November 7,1929, Reed served as general counsel until December 1932
8.
Research
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It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field, to test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of research are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development of methods. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences, there are several forms of research, scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577, Research has been defined in a number of different ways. Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell and it consists of three steps, pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question. Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary and this material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the research is to produce new knowledge. Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to, in analytical work, there are typically some new mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals, graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation. Scientific research is a way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature, scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic, Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the correct answer to a question. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, an example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, Artistic research, also seen as practice-based research, can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge
9.
Sentence (law)
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A sentence is a decree of punishment. In law, a forms the final explicit act of a judge-ruled process. The sentence can generally involve a decree of imprisonment, a fine and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted of a crime and those imprisoned for multiple crimes will serve a consecutive sentence, a concurrent sentence, or somewhere in between, sometimes subject to a cap. Additional sentences include, Intermediate or those served on the weekend, if a sentence gets reduced to a less harsh punishment, then the sentence is said to have been mitigated or commuted. Rarely murder charges are mitigated and reduced to manslaughter charges, Sentencing law sometimes includes cliffs that result in much stiffer penalties when certain facts apply. For instance, a career criminal or habitual offender law may subject a defendant to a significant increase in his sentence if he commits a third offense of a certain kind. This makes it difficult for fine gradations in punishments to be achieved, the first use of this word with this meaning was in Roman law, where it indicated the opinion of a jurist on a given question, expressed in written or in oral responsa. It was also the opinion of senators and it finally was also the decision of the judging organ, as well as the decision of the Arbiters. Sentences are variously classified depending on the field, or kind of action, or system it refers to, civil, penal, administrative. Sentences of mere clearance, of condemnation, of constitution, the jurisdiction and the legal competence, single judges, courts, tribunals, appeals, supreme courts, constitutional courts, etc. meant as the various degrees of judgment and appeal. The content, partial, cautelar, interlocutory, preliminar, definitive sentences and this kind of sentence became better developed and remained in wider use in common law systems. The sentence meted out depends on the principle used by the court. Depending on respective systems, the phases that precede the sentence may vary relevantly, the sentence usually has to be rendered of public domain and in most systems it has to be accompanied by the reasons for its content. A sentence can be annulled in some cases, that many systems usually pre-determine. The most frequent case is related to irregularities found ex-post in the procedure, the most éclatant is perhaps in penal cases, in most systems the definitive sentence is unique, in the precise sense that no one can be judged more than once for the same action. Sentences are in many systems a source of law, as an interpretation of the law in front of concrete cases. The sentence is issued by the judge in the name of the superior authority of the state. Criminal costs Criminal sentencing in Canada Criminal sentencing in the United States English criminal law Incapacitation Sentencing disparity Sentencing in England and Wales Sentencing
10.
John G. Roberts, Jr.
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John Glover Roberts Jr. is the 17th and current Chief Justice of the United States. He took his seat on September 29,2005, having been nominated by President George W. Bush after the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist and he has been described as having a conservative judicial philosophy in his jurisprudence. Roberts grew up in northwest Indiana and was educated in a private school and he then attended Harvard College and Harvard Law School, where he was a managing editor of the Harvard Law Review. During this time, he argued 39 cases before the Supreme Court, during his two-year tenure on the D. C. Circuit, Roberts authored 49 opinions, eliciting two dissents from other judges, and authoring three dissents of his own, notably, he represented 19 states in United States v. Microsoft. When Chief Justice Rehnquist died before Robertss confirmation hearings began, Bush instead nominated Roberts to fill the Chief Justice position, Roberts has authored the majority opinion in many landmark cases, including Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1, Shelby County v. Holder, and National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, John Glover Roberts was born in Buffalo, New York, the son of Rosemary and John Glover Jack Roberts Sr. His father was a plant manager with Bethlehem Steel and he has Irish, Welsh, and Czech ancestry. When Roberts was in grade, his family moved to Long Beach. He grew up with three sisters, Kathy, Peggy, and Barbara, Roberts attended Notre Dame Elementary School, a Roman Catholic grade school in Long Beach. In 1973, he graduated from La Lumiere School, a Roman Catholic boarding school in La Porte, Indiana and he studied five years of Latin, some French, and was known generally for his devotion to his studies. He was captain of the team, and was a regional champion in wrestling. He participated in choir and drama, co-edited the school newspaper, and served on the athletic council and he attended Harvard College, graduating in 1976 with an A. B. summa cum laude in history in three years. He then attended Harvard Law School where he was an editor of the Harvard Law Review. He graduated from law school with a J. D. magna cum laude in 1979, after graduating from law school, Roberts served as a law clerk for Judge Henry Friendly on the Second Circuit Court of Appeals for one year. Roberts frequently cites Judge Friendly in his opinions, from 1980 to 1981, he clerked for then-Associate Justice William Rehnquist on the United States Supreme Court. From 1981 to 1982, he served in the Reagan administration as a Special Assistant to U. S. Attorney General William French Smith, from 1982 to 1986, Roberts served as Associate Counsel to the President under White House Counsel Fred Fielding. Roberts entered private law practice in 1986 as an associate at the Washington, D. C. -based law firm of Hogan & Hartson, Roberts also argued on behalf of the homeless, a case which became one of Roberts few appellate losses
11.
Kimberly J. Mueller
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Kimberly Jo Mueller is a United States District Judge of the Sacramento Division of United States District Court for the Eastern District of California. She is the first female judge to serve in the Eastern District. Mueller obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree from Pomona College in 1981, Mueller served as a legislative aide for California State Assembly member Lloyd Connelly. After moving to Sacramentos Tahoe Park neighborhood, Mueller was elected to the Sacramento City Council, while on the council, Mueller was selected to serve as Vice-Mayor and chair of the citys budget committee. She also led an effort with then-Mayor Anne Rudin to introduce campaign finance reform to the citys politics. Mueller left her position on the Sacramento City Council in 1992 to attend Stanford Law School, after graduation, she worked for five years at the Sacramento office of Orrick, Herrington and Sutcliffe, and later opened her own private practice. Mueller currently is a professor at the University of the Pacific McGeorge School of Law. On March 10,2010, President Barack Obama nominated Mueller to serve as United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of California and her nomination was unanimously confirmed by the United States Senate on December 16,2010. Mueller received her commission on December 21,2010, kimberly J. Mueller at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center
12.
James C. Duff
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James C. Duff is the Director of the Administrative Office of the U. S. Courts. He was appointed to the position by Chief Justice John G. Roberts and this is Duffs second appointment to lead the Administrative Office. He previously served as Director from 2006 to 2011, the Director of the Administrative Office is the chief administrative officer of the federal courts. He serves under the direction of the Judicial Conference of the United States, the Chief Justice selects the Director. From September 2011 to December 2014, Duff was chief officer of the Newseum. During his tenure, Newseum revenues increased by 25 percent, expenses decreased by 6 percent, admissions increased, Duff graduated magna cum laude from the University of Kentucky Honors Program in 1975 with a degree in political science and philosophy, where he was Phi Beta Kappa. He also was a walk-on on the basketball team. After studying at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland in 1974, he returned to the U. S. in 1975 and he graduated from Georgetown Law School in 1981, then worked at the law firm Clifford and Warnke, where in 1990 he became a partner. He also served as counselor to the Chief Justice as presiding officer of the U. S. Senate’s 1999 presidential impeachment trial. From 2000 to 2006, Duff served as the partner of the Washington office of Baker, Donelson, Bearman, Caldwell & Berkowitz. There he represented the Federal Judges Association before Congress as well as the Freedom Forum, Duff has taught Constitutional Law at Georgetown University as an adjunct professor for 15 years. He was named the prestigious Peter Mullen Professor of Law at Georgetown University for the fall of 2014, in September 2005, Duff was a pallbearer at Rehnquists funeral, alongside seven of Rehnquists former law clerks. From July 2006 through September 15,2011, Duff served as Director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts and he was appointed in April 2006 by United States Chief Justice John Roberts. On May 31,2011, Duff announced that he was stepping down to assume the position of CEO at the Freedom Forum. He was named to the University of Kentucky Arts & Sciences Hall of Fame in 2012 and was given the Georgetown Entertainment, Duff was elected to the membership at the American Law Institute in 2016. On November 4,2014 it was announced by Chief Justice John Roberts that Duff would once again become Director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts and he succeeded Director Judge John D. Bates. Duff and his wife, Kathleen Gallagher Duff, live in Bethesda, Maryland, the Supreme Court Fellows Program Serving in the Chief Justices Shadow
13.
Nonprofit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
