1.
Public space
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A public space is a social space that is generally open and accessible to people. Roads, public squares, parks and beaches are considered public space. To a limited extent, government buildings which are open to the public, such as libraries are public spaces, although they tend to have restricted areas. Recently, the concept of Shared space has been advanced to enhance the experience of pedestrians in public space used by automobiles. Public space has become something of a touchstone for critical theory in relation to philosophy, geography, visual art, cultural studies, social studies. The term public space is often misconstrued to mean other things such as gathering place. One of the earliest examples of spaces are commons. For example, no fees or paid tickets are required for entry, non-government-owned malls are examples of private space with the appearance of being public space. In Nordic countries like Norway, Sweden and Finland, all areas are considered public space, due to a law. In the United States the right of the people to engage in speech, the government cannot usually limit ones speech beyond what is reasonable in a public space, which is considered to be a public forum. This is not to say that the government can control what one says in their own home or to others, parks, malls, beaches, waiting rooms, etc. may be closed at night. As this does not exclude any specific group, it is not considered a restriction on public use. Entry to public parks cannot be restricted based upon a users residence, in some cultures, there is no expectation of privacy in a public space, however civil inattention is a process whereby individuals are able to maintain their privacy within a crowd. Public space is shared and created for open usage throughout the community. The area is built for a range of types of recreation. The physical setting is socially constructed, which creates a behavior influence, limitations are imposed in the space to prevent certain actions from occurring--public behavior that is considered obnoxious or out of character --and are supported by law or ordinance. Police forces are involved in moving unwanted members of the public from public spaces. In fact, by not being provided suitable access, disabled people are excluded from some spaces
2.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
3.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Lab Architecture Studio
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LAB Architecture Studio is a firm of architects and urban designers based in Melbourne, Australia with international offices in London and Shanghai. Davidson suffered a stroke in 2010 and has no involvement with Lab Architecture Studio. Bates was the architect to Daniel Libeskind for the Berlin, city edge competition entry as well as the Berlin Museum extension Competition entry. After business partner Peter Davidson suffered a stroke in 2010. Quoted in The Age, Nina Libeskind referred to Bates Cynical opportunism, in 2012 Bates was appointed chair of architectural design at the University of Melbourne.6 hectare corner site bound by Flinders St and Swanston in Melbourne, Australia. With a building footprint of 45,000 square metres the precinct incorporates commercial, civic, five designs were shortlisted from the 177 entries. The winning design of Bates Smart Architects and Lab Studio Architects was announced in July 1997, the main plaza can accommodate up to 25000 people. The outdoor amphitheatre plays host to a variety of festivals and concerts as well as broadcasting cultural events such as the annual Tropfest, federation Square was met with widespread disapproval, the architects receiving hate mail from people who loathed the design
6.
Bates Smart
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Bates Smart is an architectural firm with studios in Melbourne and Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1853 by Joseph Reed as the practice Reed and Barnes, it is Australias second oldest architectural firm, in 1883 Henderson and Smart, joined Joseph Reed as partners, and when W. B. Tappin became a partner the firm was renamed Reed, Smart, when Reed died, Smart became head of the firm. Smart died two years later and N. G. Peebles joined with F. J. Smarts son as Smart, Tappin, the firm later became Bates, Peebles and Smart to work on the State Library of Victorias Reading Room. When Peebles died, the firm became Bates Smart and they were later joined by Sir Osborn McCutcheon who remained Principal Partner until his retirement. After 1995 the firm has been known simply as Bates Smart
7.
Flinders Street railway station
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Flinders Street railway station is a railway station on the corner of Flinders and Swanston Streets in Melbourne, Australia. It serves the metropolitan rail network. Backing onto the city reach of the Yarra River in the heart of the city, Flinders Street is served by Metros suburban services, and V/Line regional services to Gippsland. It is the busiest station on Melbournes metropolitan network and the busiest railway station in Australia and it was the first railway station in an Australian city and the worlds busiest passenger station in the late 1920s. The main station building, completed in 1909, is an icon of Melbourne, with its prominent dome, arched entrance, tower. It is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register, Flinders Street Station is responsible for two of Melbournes busiest pedestrian crossings, both across Flinders Street, including one of Melbournes few pedestrian scrambles. The first railway station to occupy the Flinders Street site was called Melbourne Terminus and it was opened on 12 September 1854 by the Lieutenant-Governor, Charles Hotham. The terminus was the first city railway station in Australia, and it travelled to Sandridge, over the now redeveloped Sandridge Bridge, travelling along the now light rail Port Melbourne line. The first terminus had a single platform 30 metres long, and was located beside the Fish Market building on the south-west corner of Swanston and Flinders Streets. An additional platform was provided in 1877, along with two bridges to provide passenger access, followed by additional timber and corrugated iron buildings. The first signal boxes were opened at the station in 1883, by the 1890s a third island platform had been constructed. Melbournes two other early central-city stations, Spencer Street and Princes Bridge, opened in 1859, Princes Bridge was originally separated from Flinders Street, even though it was only on the opposite side of Swanston Street. Once the railway line was extended under the street in 1865 to join the two, Princes Bridge was closed and it was not reopened until April 1879, and from 1909 slowly became amalgamated into Flinders Street. Federation Square now occupies its site, up until the 1880s a number of designs for a new station had been prepared, but none ever went any further. In 1882, the government decided to build a new passenger station to replace the existing ad-hoc construction. A design competition was held in 1899 with 17 entries received. The train shed over the platforms was intended to have arched roofs running north-south. Work began in 1900 on the rearrangement of the station tracks, work on the central pedestrian subway started in 1901, with the foundations of the main building completed by 1903
8.
Central business district
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A central business district is the commercial and business centre of a city. In larger cities, it is synonymous with the citys financial district. Both the CBD and the city centre or downtown may also coincide with the central activities district, a citys CBD is usually typified by a concentration of retail and office buildings. The CBD usually has a density higher than the surrounding districts of the city. The CBD is often also the city centre or downtown, Mexico City also has a historic city centre, the colonial-era Centro Histórico, along with two CBDs, the mid-late 20th century Paseo de la Reforma - Polanco, and the new Santa Fe. The shape and type of a CBD almost always reflect the citys history. Cities with maximum building height restrictions often have a historic section quite apart from the financial. It has been said that downtowns are therefore distinct from both CBDs and city centres. CBDs usually have very small resident populations, for example, the population of the City of London declined from over 200,000 in the year 1700 to less than 10,000 today. In some instances, however, CBD populations are increasing as younger professional, the Buenos Aires Central Business District, is the main commercial centre of Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina. The actual area was the point of first European settlement and its north-south axis runs from Monserrat in the south to Retiro railway station in the north. Its east-west axis runs from Buenos Aires Ecological Reserve and Puerto Madero, the district is the financial, commercial, and cultural hub of Argentina. Its port is one of the busiest in South America, navigable rivers by way of the Río de la Plata connect the port to northeast Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay. As a result, it serves as the hub for a vast area of the southeastern region of the South American continent. Tax collection related to the port has caused political problems in the past. The Buenos Aires Human Development Index is likewise high by international standards, the term is used to refer to the business and financial area of a state capital city such as the Sydney CBD, Melbourne CBD, Brisbane CBD, Perth CBD and Adelaide CBD. The city centres of some cities, such as Townsville, Bendigo. More recently, in cities the city centre, which may or may not be distinct from the CBD, is increasingly separately identified
9.
Flinders Street, Melbourne
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Flinders Street is a notable street in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Running roughly parallel to the Yarra River, Flinders Street forms the edge of the Hoddle Grid. It is exactly one mile in length and one and half chains in width and it is named for the explorer Matthew Flinders, who was credited with discovering Port Phillip at the time of its naming. It extends eastwards as far as Spring Street and the Treasury Gardens, as the closest street to the river, Flinders Street serviced Melbournes original river port. Customs House, now the site for Victorias Immigration Museum, is situated on Flinders Street, the street is home to Flinders Street station, the central station in Melbournes suburban rail network. Tram routes 70 and 75, as well as the City Circle route, run along Flinders Street, and the Flinders Street Viaduct runs parallel to the street, linking the citys two major railway stations. It was once home to the Melbourne Fish Market, a building constructed in 1890, covering 23,000 square metres. The market was demolished between 1958 and 1960 after which the became a public carpark. The site is now home to the three towers of the Northbank Place complex which includes office space, residential apartments, retail outlets, an overpass was built over the intersection with King Street as part of the construction of Kings Way. It extended from Downie Street to just east of Custom House Lane, the overpass opened in stages with trams using it from early 1960 and other traffic from mid 1960. Many businesses and properties were overshadowed by the overpass which resulted in property values dropping, plans to revitalise the area in the early 1960s never eventuated. In April 2005, the State Government announced a plan to revitalise the south west corner of the CBD with the overpass destined for demolition, the project commenced in June and concluded in August bringing four and a half decades of depression in the area to an end
10.
Swanston Street, Melbourne
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Swanston Street is a major thoroughfare in the centre of Melbourne, Australia. It is one of the streets of the Melbourne CBD and was laid out in 1837 as part of the original Hoddle Grid. The street vertically bisects Melbournes city centre and is famous as the worlds busiest tram corridor, for its heritage buildings, Swanston Street runs roughly north-south in-between Russell Street to the east and Elizabeth Street to the west. To the south it becomes St Kilda Road after the intersection with Flinders Street and this northern section was originally named Madeline Street. Swanston Street was one of the main north–south streets originally laid out in the 1837 Hoddle Grid, originally carrying pedestrians and horse-drawn cart traffic, the street resembled many typical European avenues of the 19th century. By the end of the 19th century it was carrying one of the tram lines through the city. In the 1990s the street was closed to daytime private through-traffic between Flinders and La Trobe Streets, roughly half its length and this section is known as Swanston Street Walk. Swanston Street was redeveloped in 1992 with a number of public sculptures being established through the Percent for Art Program, the most famous of these statues is of a small bronze dog called Larry La Trobe by Melbourne artist, Pamela Irving. By the turn of the 21st century, the street carried nine tram routes, in November 2008, newly elected Lord Mayor of Melbourne Robert Doyle proposed to return private vehicle traffic to the street. The move attracted opposition from the Public Transport Users Association, Australian Greens, nine tram routes currently run along the street, with the frequency of trams making Swanston Street the worlds busiest tram corridor. The parking of tour buses along the street caused controversy in September 2008 when a young cyclist was killed by a bus as it turned out of a parking spot. There had previously been calls to the council to relocate the large buses from the street there was little space between buses and trams. Many marches, rallies and protests involve the use of Swanston Street, Swanston Street was one of the busiest roads in Melbourne, carrying large private automobile volumes, before being converted to a restricted traffic strip in 1992. The street was made partially car-free, with limited exemptions for small freight, buses, since the 1990s, proposals for the street to become entirely car-free have continuously gained support and momentum. On 27 January 2010, it was announced that the length of Swanston Street would become car-free. The $25.6 million proposal included plans for several city squares along the street, aside from trams, the only motorised vehicular access is for small-scale freight at certain times, and emergency vehicles. The construction program commenced in late 2011 and was completed in late 2012, Swanston Street was the shooting location for the 1976 video for AC/DCs song Its a Long Way to the Top. It led to a street being renamed ACDC Lane in honour of the music video
11.
Ian Potter Centre: NGV Australia
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The Ian Potter Centre, NGV Australia is an art gallery that houses the Australian part of the art collection of the National Gallery of Victoria. The Ian Potter Centre, NGV Australia is located at Federation Square in Melbourne, Victoria, while the gallerys international works are displayed at the NGV International on St Kilda Road. There are over 20,000 Australian artworks, including paintings, sculpture, prints, photography, fashion and textiles, the Ian Potter Centre is a legacy of the businessman and philanthropist Sir Ian Potter. Well-known works at the Ian Potter Centre include Frederick McCubbins The pioneer, also featured are works from Sidney Nolan, Arthur Boyd, Albert Tucker, Arthur Streeton, John Perceval, Margaret Preston, Bill Henson, Howard Arkley and Fred Williams. Indigenous art includes works by William Barak and Emily Kngwarreye, the design of the Ian Potter Centre was commissioned to Lab Architecture Studio in association with Bates Smart of Melbourne, headed by Peter Davidson and Donald Bates. Their work has earned them The RAIA National Award for Interior Architecture as well as the Marion Mahony Interior Architecture Award. List of museums in Melbourne National Gallery of Victoria NGV Collection, Australian Art The Ian Potter Centre, NGV Australia at FedSquare
12.
Australian Centre for the Moving Image
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The Australian Centre for the Moving Image is Australias only national museum of film, video games, digital culture and art – situated at the heart of Melbourne in Federation Square. During the 2013-14 financial year,1.3 million people visited ACMI, ACMI started life as the State Film Centre of Victoria in 1946. In the 1950s, the State Film Centre was involved in producing a number of projects for television and it also played a role as an archive of Australian films, such as The Sentimental Bloke and On Our Selection. During the 1960s, the State Film Centre provided advice on film treatments, production, scripts, in 1969, the centre assumed management of the newly constructed State Film Theatre, providing a facility for exhibiting material not screened in commercial cinemas. In 1988, the State Film Centre Education Program was set up, the program provided screenings for VCE students, based on core texts, and in-service days for their teachers. In 1993, a Victorian state government report reaffirmed the viability of a proposal for an Australian Centre for the Moving Image, Federation Square was to be a new civic space, built above the Jolimont railyards, to mark the celebration of Australias Centenary of Federation. On 1 January 2002, the Australian Centre for the Moving Image was officially established by the Film Act 2001, the first stage was opened in October, with two exhibitions, Deep Space, Sensation & Immersion and Ngarinyin Pathways Dulwan, running in ACMIs Screen Gallery. A few weeks later, ACMI Cinemas officially opened, in September 2009, the Australian Mediatheque and the Screen Worlds gallery opened. The Screen Worlds exhibition was opened by Cate Blanchett, who loaned her Oscar for best supporting actress for her part as Katharine Hepburn in The Aviator. Screen Worlds, The Story of Film, Television and Digital Culture is a free and permanent exhibition space constructed to educate the public about the moving image, a museum about moving pictures. From 1992, John J. Smithies was Director of the State Film Centre of Victoria, at Cinemedia, Smithies was Deputy Director, with prime responsibility for developing the Australian Centre for the Moving Image. He became the first director and CEO of ACMI in March 2002 and he was responsible for opening the new public facilities in October 2002. After a period of turmoil, with the organisation over budget, Smithies left ACMI in 2004, tony Sweeney was appointed director and CEO of ACMI in 2005. Before his move to Australia, he had been the Deputy Director of the National Museum of Photography, Film & Television and he directed the Museums Imaging Frontiers masterplan re-development, which generated record visitor numbers and international critical acclaim. The Museum is now seen as one of the leading centres for culture. At ACMI he oversaw record organisational growth, performance and visitation, having spent ten years in the role, Sweeney resigned in order to return to his family in Britain. Katrina Sedgwick took up the position in February 2015, ACMI has two main cinemas that are equipped to play every film, video and digital video format, with the most extensive projection facilities in the southern hemisphere. THX certified sound systems allow high quality attention to acoustics, Cinema 1 seats 168, and Cinema 2 seats 390
13.
City of Melbourne
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The City of Melbourne is a local government area in Victoria, Australia, located in the central city area of Melbourne. The city has an area of 36 square kilometres and has a population of 127,672, the citys motto is Vires acquirit eundo which means She gathers strength as she goes. The current Lord Mayor is Robert Doyle, the Melbourne City Council holds office in Melbourne Town Hall. Unlike other Australian capital cities, Melbourne did not originate under official auspices, having been a province of New South Wales from its establishment in 1835, affairs of the settlement had been administered by the Parliament of New South Wales. With the growth of the settlement there had been a demand by the inhabitants for greater autonomy over their own affairs. On 12 August 1842, Melbourne was incorporated as a town by Act 6 Victoria No.7 of the Governor and Legislative Council of New South Wales. The town of Melbourne was raised to the status of a city by Letters Patent of Queen Victoria dated 25 June 1847, the Letters Patent also constituted the Anglican Diocese of Melbourne and declared Melbourne a cathedral city. The citys initial boundaries, as set down in Act 8 Victoria No, on 18 December 1902, King Edward VII conferred the title Lord Mayor on the mayor of the City of Melbourne. On 30 October 1905, Melbourne absorbed two neighbouring council areas, now included in the City was the Borough of Flemington and Kensington which had been formed in 1882 when it broke away from the City of Essendon. The second, the Town of North Melbourne, formerly known as Hotham, had established on 30 September 1859. Both town halls are still in use today as public buildings—the former in Kensington near the present-day Newmarket railway station, the Melbourne and Geelong Corporations Act 1938 allowed for three councillors for each of the eleven wards, with a general election held on 24 August 1939. Following a recommendation by the Local Government Advisory Board in 1978, three years later, an additional ward was added. The wards were abolished in 2001, with the council having an elected Lord Mayor with a Deputy Lord Mayor, in 2012, the number of Councillors was increased to nine, in addition to the Lord Mayor and Deputy Lord Mayor. In 2005, the announced the construction of a new 6-star environmental office building, Council House 2. In July 2009, Lord Mayor Robert Doyle unveiled a new identity for the City of Melbourne. Melbourne City Council is composed of eleven Councillors, including the Lord Mayor, both the Lord Mayor and Deputy Lord Mayor are directly elected, while the nine other Councillors are elected proportionally as a single ward. Voting entity eligibility includes various classes of business interests, in addition to residents and they are, Some other local councils in the Melbourne metropolitan area have sister city relationships, see Local Government Areas of Victoria
14.
City Square, Melbourne
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The City Square is a pedestrian plaza and former civic centre located in the Central Business District of Melbourne, Australia. The square is bounded by Swanston Street, Collins Street, Flinders Lane. Melbourne Town Hall and St Paul’s Cathedral are prominent landmarks to the north and south respectively, the square has been redeveloped several times and associated with a number of controversies over the years. Melbourne was originally planned with a number of large parks around the periphery of its business district. Convinced that public squares only encouraged democracy the government of the time demanded that no towns laid out at that time should have them included within their boundaries. Following this, Council began the process of acquiring properties along Swanston Street between the Town Hall and St Paul’s Cathedral and these included Cathedral Hotel, Cathedral House, Guys Buildings, Greens Building and the Town Hall Chambers as well as Wentworth House and Regency House on Flinders Lane. The Regent Theatre was also intended to be demolished, but was saved by a union ban, however, the restriction of the site area and the presence of a long blank façade limited any grand visions for the space. By 1968 a temporary square was installed, in February 1976 a performance by the band AC/DC was filmed there for a video clip for the single Its a Long Way to the Top. The video was filmed on the day as the well-known version filmed on the back of a flatbed truck travelling down Swanston Street. In 1976, a competition was launched by Melbourne City Council to design a permanent square which was won by Denton Corker Marshall architects. The area was paved with sawn bluestone. The Burke and Wills Statue by Charles Summers was positioned next to the cascades, following its opening by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 May 1980 the new square attracted criticism from the general public. A large yellow steel sculpture titled “Vault” by Ron Robertson-Swann which was commissioned as a centrepiece for the square was relocated to Batman Park in July 1981, in the late 1990s over half the square was sold for the development of the Westin Hotel. A long linear water feature by the glass artist Denise Sullivan, a cast bronze statue of a small dog created by Melbourne artist Pamela Irving and titled Larry La Trobe is located in the north-west corner. The statue became known after its theft in 1995 after installation in 1992. Following a long campaign, a revamped version of the statue was recast. In 2003 raised grassed areas were added to soften the space, with the substantial reduction of its area and the opening of the nearby Federation Square in 2002, the civic importance of the City Square was diminished. In October 2011 Mayor Robert Doyle ordered an eviction of about 100 Occupy Melbourne protestors from the City Square, the Struggle to Build a City Square
15.
Princes Gate Towers
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The Princes Gate Towers were a set of twin office tower blocks that were located at the intersection of Flinders Street and Swanston Street in the central business district of Melbourne, Australia. They were designed by architects Leslie M. Perrott and Partners and they were occupied by the Gas and Fuel Corporation of Victoria, leading to the buildings also being known as the Gas and Fuel Corporation Towers. They were demolished in 1997 to make way for Federation Square, the Jolimont Railway Yards that occupied the southern edge of the Hoddle grid were considered for redevelopment many times throughout the early to mid 20th century. In 1963 The Princes Gate development was announced by Victorian premier Henry Bolte, the development was named after the historical Princes Bridge located adjacent to the site. The ₤5 million project would cover part of the railway tracks, the new development would become the ‘gateway’ to the city. Leslie Perrot and Partners were chosen as architects and the development was funded by the Princes Gate Pty Ltd. Construction was completed in 1967 and the buildings were leased to the Victorian Employees Federation, housed in the East tower and the Gas and Fuel Corporation in the West tower. The buildings housed a total of 270,000 square feet of office space, the towers were designed in the International Style as a simple and functional set of extruded rectangles. The buildings sat on a three storey podium containing car parking along with retail spaces that faced onto Flinders Street. The site also featured a public plaza that occupied the important Flinders/Swanston intersection corner. The plaza was designed to allow an open vista to St Pauls Cathedral and also function as a square that was raised up from the noise. The towers were 17 stories high and reached 70m in height, the towers featured vertical strips of aluminium framed windows and were constructed with brown bricks from the East-Burwood brickworks. The office floors are punctuated by a grid of structural columns spaced 10 meters apart. The ground floor retail spaces of the Princes gate development housed a supermarket, ANZ bank, clothing stores, laundromat, the buildings were built over the still functioning Princes Bridge Railway Station, which functioned as the terminus of the Epping and Hurstbridge lines. The train station was merged with Flinders Street Station in 1980, the towers elicited mixed reactions from the general public when first unveiled. The towers were appreciated by some as modernist architectural icons, however, many Melbourne residents regarded the towers as eyesores and criticised their size and placement. The towers were considered to have cut the city off from the river and also detracted from Saint Pauls Cathedral, the towers were much larger than any of the surrounding buildings and were said to have dominated the surrounding context. In 1967, the modern twin towers of the princes gate complex raised their lean
16.
Princes Bridge railway station
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Princes Bridge was a Melbourne railway station built in 1859 and was the terminus for all Epping line and Hurstbridge line trains. The station was named after the adjacent Princes Bridge, which crosses the Yarra River, originally Princes Bridge station was isolated from Flinders Street Station, even though it was adjacent to it, sited just on the opposite side of Swanston Street. Some years later the tracks were extended under the street to join the two stations, and Princes Bridge slowly became amalgamated into the larger Flinders Street Station. Originally known as Princes Bridge, the station was opened as the city terminus of the Melbourne, extended to Prahran in 1859 and Windsor in 1860, it formed todays Sandringham line. A small engine shed was built east of the station in 1859 by the company, a locomotive depot later replaced it on a new site, built in 1888 and demolished for the Jolimont Workshops in 1917 as part of the electrification of the suburban network. The Hobsons Bay, Melbourne and St Kilda and Brighton railway companies merged in 1865 and it was not until 2 April 1879 when the Railways Department that it was reopened, to operate as the terminus of the newly opened Gippsland Railway. The City Morgue was located close to the entry on Swanston Street, until acquired by the railways. The direct connection between Princes Bridge and Clifton Hill station was not opened until October 1901, before this time trains from the north-eastern suburbs used the Inner Circle line via Fitzroy to reach Spencer Street Station. By 1910 the two stations were joined together, the three platforms at Princes Bridge, one was an extension of Flinders Street platform 1 while the other two were an island platform with tracks numbered 15 and 16. Track 15 was an end, but track 16 had a traverser between it and a parallel run around siding to allow steam locomotives to change ends. A footbridge provided access to the east end of the island platform. Further north-east of the lines to Jolimont was a locomotive siding and a coal stage. By 1957 the sidings had been rationalised, with the locomotive facilities, the sidings now formed part of Jolimont Yard. The site retained the name Princes Bridge Station until 29 June 1980, when it was integrated into Flinders Street Station as platforms 14,15 and 16. By 1975 the track had been simplified to only run into platform 14,15 and 16, the track layout remained the same in 1995. From 6 December 1981 until 23 August 1993, a service called City Circle originated at the station. This train ran in a circle around the City Loop, stopping at all stations and it was replaced by the City Circle Tram in mid-1994. The State Government announced the Federation Square project in 1996, with the Gas, piling works and crash walls for Federation Square were done by October 1998 with the deck was completed by mid-1999, with building works atop of it commencing in August 1999
17.
Yarra River
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The Yarra River or historically, the Yarra Yarra River, is a perennial river in east-central Victoria, Australia. The lower stretches of the river are where the city of Melbourne was established in 1835, the river was a major food source and meeting place for indigenous Australians from prehistoric times. Shortly after the arrival of European settlers land clearing forced the remaining Wurundjeri to neighbouring territories, originally called Birrarung by the Wurundjeri, the current name was mistranslated from another Wurundjeri term in the Boonwurrung language, Yarro-yarro, meaning ever-flowing. The river was utilised primarily for agriculture by early European settlers, the landscape of the river has changed dramatically since 1835. The course has been disrupted and the river widened in places. The first of many Crossings of the Yarra River to facilitate transport was built in Princes Bridge, beginning with the Victorian gold rush it was extensively mined, creating the Pound Bend Tunnel in Warrandyte, and the Big and Little Peninsula Tunnels above Warburton. Widening and dams, like the Upper Yarra Reservoir have helped protect Melbourne from major flooding, the catchments upper reaches are also affected by logging. Industrialisation ultimately led to the destruction of the marshlands at the confluence of the Yarra, today, the mouth and including Swanson and Appleton Docks are used for container shipping by the Port of Melbourne which is the busiest on the continent. The city reach which is inaccessible to larger watercraft, has increased use for both transport and recreational boating. In recent years however recreational use of the river is threatened by high levels of pollution in its lower stretches, the upper reaches remain relatively healthy. The annual Moomba festival celebrates the Yarra Rivers increasing cultural significance to Melbourne, the river was called Birrarung by the Wurundjeri people who occupied the Yarra Valley and much of Central Victoria prior to European settlement. It is thought that Birrarung is derived from Wurundjeri words meaning ever flowing, another common term was Birrarung Marr, thought to mean river of mist or river bank. However it is believed that Yarra means waterfall, flow, or refers to running or falling water, descriptive of any river or creek in the area, not just the Yarra. The name Yarra Yarra is said to mean ever flowing river, between 8000 BC and 6000 BC, the basin flooded forming Port Phillip Bay and moving the mouth of the Yarra over 50 km inland. A dry period combined with sand bar formation may have dried the bay out as recently as between 800 BC and 1000 AD extending the Yarra to Bass Strait during this period. The area surrounding the Yarra River and modern day Melbourne was originally inhabited by Natives of the Wurundjeri people of the Kulin nation and it is believed that the area was occupied by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years. The rivers resources were utilised sustainably by the Wurundjeri until the advent of early European settlement in the early-mid-19th century and he selected a site on the northern bank of the Yarra River, declaring that this will be the place for a village. The river was instrumental in the establishment of Melbourne along its banks from 1835 onwards, the new settlements main port was sited near Queensbridge, the place where saltwater met freshwater
18.
Jolimont Yard
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Jolimont Yard was an array of railway lines and carriage sidings on the edge of the central business district of Melbourne, Australia. The Princes Gate Towers were built over part of the yard in the 1960s, the rail sidings themselves were progressively removed from the 1980s to the 1990s with only running lines today, but the area continues to be referred to as the Jolimont railyards by Melburnians. The area of the Jolimont Yards had long been a site of railway development, Flinders Street Station was the terminal of the first railway in the city, running to Sandridge. It was later joined by the independent Princes Bridge Station on the side of Swanston Street. The two stations were not connected together until 1866, with Princes Bridge not reopening until 1879, freight traffic was based out of Melbourne Yard and most of the country carriage stock was serviced at the Dudley Street sidings, both adjacent to Spencer Street Station. The running lines were arranged into pairs with multiple sidings located between them, in 1917 the Princes Bridge locomotive depot was closed, and replaced by the Jolimont Workshops. Built as part of the electrification of the Melbourne suburban network, it was the storage, servicing. The workshops was erected to the south along Batman Avenues, with the storage sidings located between the running lines, a footbridge ran from Flinders Street across the entire yard to provide access for train drivers. An electrical substation was erected to the south of the yard. Additional sidings were provided in the triangle formed by the lines bound for Richmond. Located on the site of the East Melbourne Cricket Ground, the ground was acquired by the Victorian Railways, the next major change was construction of the Richmond Flyover beginning in early 1970s. Completed in February 1973, it permits a cross-platform interchange between City Loop and Flinders Street direct trains at Richmond on platforms 7/8 and 9/10. The flyover necessitated the reconstruction of a footbridge that linked Yarra Park to the Melbourne Cricket Ground, further changes occurred when the City Loop was built. The Metrol train control complex was constructed beside the yards on Batman Avenue. The building was redesigned to be lower and resulting in completion being delayed until early 1980, the Jolimont Workshops were the main maintenance and repair facility for the Victorian Railways electric fleet, both multiple units and locomotives. Located on the side of the yard, it was made up of a large brick carshed with tracks leading into if from both the east and west ends. In addition to the maintenance of the multiple unit fleet. Five signal boxes controlled traffic into Flinders Street Station, constructed of brick it was of traditional Victorian Railways design, and was demolished when the Federation Square Deck was built
19.
Premier of Victoria
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The Premier of Victoria is the leader of the government in the Australian state of Victoria. The Premier is appointed by the Governor of Victoria, and is the leader of the party able to secure a majority in the Legislative Assembly. Responsible government came to the colony of Victoria in 1855, between 1856 and 1892, the head of the government was commonly called the Premier or the Prime Minister, but neither title had any legal basis. The head of government always held another portfolio, usually Chief Secretary or Treasurer, the first head of government to hold the title of Premier without holding another portfolio was William Shiels in 1892. The incumbent Premier of Victoria since the 2014 election is Daniel Andrews of the Australian Labor Party, as of September 2016, six former premiers are alive, the oldest being John Cain. The most recent premier to die was Joan Kirner, on 1 June 2015, department of Premier and Cabinet, Victoria Deputy Premier of Victoria List of Premiers of Victoria by time in office ABC News - Premiers of Victoria
20.
Jeff Kennett
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Jeffrey Gibb Kennett AC is a former Australian politician who was the 43rd Premier of Victoria between 1992 and 1999 and a current media commentator. He was the President of Hawthorn Football Club from 2005 -2011 and he is the founding Chairman of beyondblue, a national organisation working to reduce the impact of depression and anxiety in the community. Kennett was born in Melbourne on 2 March 1948, and educated at Scotch College, Kennett was an unexceptional student academically, but did well in Scotchs Cadet Corps Unit. His failure to rise above the middle band academically almost led him to school in Fourth Form. His Fifth and Sixth Forms were an improvement, but he was described in school reports as confident. Sometimes works hard, and keen, pleasant, though sometimes erratic boy, after leaving school, Kennett was persuaded by his father Ken to attend the Australian National University in Canberra, but lost interest and left after one year of an economics degree. He returned to Melbourne and found work in the department of the retail giant Myer – kindling an interest for advertising that would one day earn him his living. Kennetts life in the workforce was cut short when, in 1968. Kennett was singled out as officer material early in his career and he was posted to Malaysia and Singapore as Second Lieutenant, commander of 1st Platoon, A Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment. This military career has been noted by biographers as an essential formative influence on the adult Kennetts character. His sense and regard for hierarchical loyalty, punctuality, and general intolerance of dissent or disobedience may be traced to this period, Kennett returned to civilian life in 1970, reentering a divided Australian society, split by the Vietnam War, of which Kennett was a firm supporter. Having returned to Myer, Kennett became impatient with his work, thereafter, in December 1972, Kennett married Felicity Kellar, an old friend whom he had first met on a Number 7 tram on the long trips to school. Their first son, Ed, was born in 1974, followed by a daughter Amy, interested in local politics since the early 1970s, Kennett was elected as a Liberal Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly for Burwood in 1976. His preselection for the seat reportedly irritated then Premier Dick Hamer, who disliked Kennetts campaigning style, entering Hamers government, Kennett was soon appointed Minister for Housing, Immigration and Ethnic Affairs in 1981. He retained this post when Hamer was replaced as Liberal leader and Premier by Lindsay Thompson in June of that year and he was an aggressive Leader of the Opposition, and was criticised for his bull-in-a-china-shop style and his anti-government rhetoric. Under his leadership, the Liberals were heavily defeated by Labor in Victorian state election,1985, soon afterward, he faced a challenge to his leadership of the party from Ian Smith. Kennett survived easily, but increasingly, he was seen as an erratic and he faced two more challenges to his leadership in 1986 and 1987 respectively. In 1987, in one notable incident Kennett referred to the Federal Liberal leader John Howard using colourful language in a telephone conversation with Howard rival Andrew Peacock
21.
Architectural design competition
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An architectural design competition is a type of competition in which an organization that intends on constructing a new building invites architects to submit design proposals. The winning design is chosen by an independent panel of design professionals. This procedure is used to generate new ideas for building design, to stimulate public debate, generate publicity for the project. Winning first prize in a competition is not a guarantee that the project will be constructed, the commissioning body often has the right to veto the winning design, and both requirements and finances may change, thwarting the original intention. Architecture competitions have a more than 2, 500-year-old history, the Acropolis in Athens was a result of an architectural competition in 448 B. C. as were several cathedrals in the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance, many initiated by the church have been decided through design competition. Examples are the Spanish Stairs in Rome or in 1419, a competition was held to design the dome of the Florence Cathedral, open competitions were held in the late 18th century in several countries including the United States, Great Britain, Ireland, France and Sweden. In 19th century England and Ireland there have been over 2,500 competitions in five decades, the Institute of British Architects drafted a first set of rules in 1839, and a set of formal regulations in 1872. The German Regulations were introduced in 1867, in the same period in the Netherlands an association for the advancement of architecture started organising conceptual competitions with the aim of stimulating architects creativity. Project competitions or ideas competitions, depending on the intention of building the project or generating new ideas, single-stage or two-stage competitions, dependending on the scale and complexity of the competition. Anonymous or cooperative procedures, anonymity supports greater objectivity during the evaluation, in cooperative procedures, the authors are invited to make in-person presentations to the jury in order to explain their design strategies and allow individual discussion. In France and Germany design competitions are compulsory for all public buildings exceeding a certain cost, most significant among architectural competitions are the ones which are internationally open, attract a large number of design submissions, and the winning design is built. Student competition Student competitions AB Student design competition Andersson E. Bloxham Zettersten, G. und Rönn, M. Architectural Competitions - Histories, stockholm, The Royal Institute of Technology and Rio Kulturkooperativ,2013
22.
Denton Corker Marshall
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Denton Corker Marshall is an international architecture practice established in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia in 1972. It was founded by architects John Denton, Bill Corker, while Melbourne remains the design base, the firm has additional practices in London, Manchester and Jakarta. The firms work in Australia has been frequently and variously described as modernist, minimalist, sculptural, the Australian Embassy in Beijing was the practices first China project, establishing the practices strong association with China over three decades. In recent years Denton Corker Marshall’s work has extended to more than 20 cities in Asia, in 2005, John Denton was appointed as the first State Architect for Victoria. The role aims to promote good design in the environment in Victoria. John Dentons 2-year term as Government Architect ended in 2008
23.
ARM Architecture (Ashton Raggatt McDougall)
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ARM Architecture or Ashton Raggatt McDougall is an architectural firm with offices in Melbourne and Perth, Australia. The firm was founded in 1988 and has completed internationally renowned design work, aRMs founding directors were Stephen Ashton, Howard Raggatt, Ian McDougall. Notable projects include the National Museum of Australia in Canberra, the Melbourne Recital Centre and Southbank Theatre in Melbourne, ARM is known for architectural outspokenness. ARM was also commissioned to prepare the masterplan for Melbourne Docklands, recent projects include the Perth Arena and Wanangkura Stadium in Port Hedland. A national survey of 600 architects conducted by the Architectural Review Australia found ARM to be considered the most influential office in Australia in the period 1982-2007. ARM is the only Australian firm to win the Australian Institute of Architects Premier State Award five times and their design work has been featured on two Australian postage stamps
24.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
25.
Australian dollar
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Within Australia, it is almost always abbreviated with the dollar sign, with A$ or AU$ sometimes used to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies. It is subdivided into 100 cents, in 2011, the Australian dollar was the fifth most traded currency in the world, accounting for 7. 6% of the worlds daily share. It trades in the foreign exchange markets behind the US dollar, the euro, the yen. The currency is referred to by foreign-exchange traders as the Aussie dollar. With pounds, shillings and pence to be replaced by decimal currency on 14 February 1966, in 1963, the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Menzies, a monarchist, wished to name the currency the royal. Other proposed names included more exotic suggestions such as the austral, the oz, the boomer, the roo, the kanga, the emu, the digger, the quid, the dinkum and the ming. Menzies influence resulted in the selection of the royal, and trial designs were prepared and printed by the Reserve Bank of Australia, the Treasurer, Harold Holt, announced the decision in Parliament on 5 June 1963. The royal would be subdivided into 100 cents, but the existing names shilling, florin, the name royal for the currency proved very unpopular, with Holt and his wife even receiving death threats. On 24 July Holt told the Cabinet the decision had been a terrible mistake, on 18 September Holt advised Parliament that the name was to be the dollar, of 100 cents. The Australian pound, introduced in 1910 and officially distinct in value from the pound sterling since devaluation in 1931, was replaced by the dollar on 14 February 1966. The rate of conversion for the new currency was two dollars per Australian pound, or ten Australian shillings per dollar. The exchange rate was pegged to the pound sterling at a rate of $1 =8 shillings, in 1967, Australia effectively left the sterling area, when the pound sterling was devalued against the US dollar and the Australian dollar did not follow. It maintained its peg to the US dollar at the rate of A$1 = US$1.12, on 27 September 2012, the Reserve Bank of Australia stated that they had ordered work on a project to upgrade the current banknotes. The upgraded banknotes will incorporate a number of new features so that they remain secure into the future, the first new banknotes were issued from the 1st of September 2016, with the remaining denominations to be issued in the coming years. In 1966, coins were introduced in denominations of 1,2,5,10,20 and 50 cents. The initial 50-cent coins contained high silver content and were withdrawn after a year after the value of the silver content was found to exceed the face value of the coins. One-dollar coins were introduced in 1984, followed by two-dollar coins in 1988, the one- and two-cent coins were discontinued in 1991 and withdrawn from circulation. In commemoration of the 40th anniversary of decimal currency, the 2006 mint proof and uncirculated sets included one-, in early 2013, Australias first triangular coin was introduced, to mark the 25th anniversary of the opening of Parliament House
26.
Special Broadcasting Service
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The Special Broadcasting Service is a hybrid-funded Australian public broadcasting radio, online, and television network. SBS operates four TV channels and five radio networks, SBS Online is home to SBS On Demand video streaming service. SBS is one of five main networks in Australia. These started broadcasting in June 1975, with pre-recorded messages in seven and eight foreign languages, the following year, the Federal Government formed the Consultative Committee on Ethnic Broadcasting. Following the recommendation of this and subsequent committees, the Broadcasting and this legislation came into force on 1 January 1978, with the new broadcaster taking responsibility for 2EA and 3EA. SBS TV began test transmissions in April 1979 when it showed various foreign language programs on ABV-2 Melbourne, full-time transmission began at 6,30 p. m. on 24 October 1980, as Channel 0/28. The first program shown was a documentary entitled Who Are We. which was hosted by veteran news man Peter Luck, at the time, SBS was broadcasting on UHF Channel 28 and VHF Channel 0, with a planned discontinuation of the latter at some time in the future. Bruce Gyngell, who introduced television to Australia back in 1956, was given the task of introducing the first batch of programs on the new station. On 14 October 1983, the service expanded into Canberra, Cooma and its new slogan was the long-running Bringing the World Back Home. The network changed its name to SBS on 18 February 1985, SBS expanded to Brisbane, Adelaide, Newcastle, Wollongong, and the Gold Coast in June of that year. On 5 January 1986, SBS ceased broadcasting on the VHF channel 0 frequency, in August 1986, the government proposed legislation that would merge SBS into the ABC. This was highly unpopular with ethnic-minority communities, leading Prime Minister Bob Hawke to announce in 1987 that the amalgamation would not proceed. The SBS Radio and Television Youth Orchestra was launched in 1988 with founding conductor Matthew Krel, plans to introduce limited commercial-program sponsorship, and the establishment of SBS as an independent corporation with its own Charter, were put in place in July 1989. Eat Carpet, showcasing local and international films, was also launched in 1989. The proclamation of the Special Broadcasting Service Act 1991 officially made SBS a corporation in 1991, throughout the early 1990s, SBS TV coverage was expanded further to include new areas such as the Latrobe Valley, Spencer Gulf, Darwin, northeast Tasmania, Cairns and Townsville. In 1992, SBSs radio and television facilities were moved to new headquarters in Artarmon, New South Wales, from their original studios at Bondi Junction. The new building was opened on the 10 November 1993 by Prime Minister Paul Keating. A national radio network was launched in January 1994, the new service initially covered Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth and Darwin, while original stations 2EA and 3EA were renamed Radio Sydney and Radio Melbourne, respectively
27.
National Gallery of Victoria
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The National Gallery of Victoria, popularly known as the NGV, is an art museum in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 1861, it is Australias oldest, largest and most visited art museum, the St Kilda Road building, designed by Sir Roy Grounds, opened in 1968, and was redeveloped by Mario Bellini before reopening in 2003. It houses the international art collection and is on the Victorian Heritage Register. Designed by Lab Architecture Studio, the Ian Potter Centre opened in 2002, further money was set aside in the early 1860s for the establishment of the first National Gallery. On 24 May 1874, the first purpose built gallery, known as the McArthur Gallery, was opened in the McArthur room of the State Library, the undressed box was only ever intended as a temporary home until the much grander vision was to be realised. However such an edifice did not eventuate and the complex was instead developed incrementally over several decades, the National Gallery of Victoria Art School, associated with the gallery, was founded in 1867 and remained the leading centre for academic art training in Australia until about 1910. The Schools graduates went on to some of Australias most significant artists. In 1887, the Buvelot Gallery was opened, along with the Painting School studios, in 1892, two more galleries were added, Stawell and La Trobe. The gallerys collection was built from both gifts of works of art and monetary donations, the most significant, the Felton Bequest, was established by the will of Alfred Felton and from 1904, has been used to purchase over 15,000 works of art. £3 million was put forward in February 1960 and Roy Grounds was announced as the architect, in 1962, Roy Grounds split from his partners Frederick Romberg and Robin Boyd, retained the commission, and designed the gallery at 180 St Kilda Road. By 1967, the new $14 million complex began to take shape, and the gallery was finally relocated to the new building in the summer of 1967-1968. The new bluestone clad building was opened on Tuesday 20 August 1968 by Victorian premier Henry Bolte. In 1999, redevelopment of the building was proposed, with Mario Bellini chosen as architect, the proposal was to leave the original architectural fabric intact including the exterior facade and Leonard French stained glass ceiling, but to significantly modernise the spaces. During the redevelopment, many works were moved to a temporary external annex known as NGV on Russell, at the State Library with its entrance on Russell Street. NGV on Russell closed on 30 June 2002 to make way for the opening of the new St Kilda Road gallery. The Ian Potter Centre, NGV Australia was designed by Lab Architecture Studio, the NGVs Australian art collection encompasses Indigenous art and artefacts, Australian colonial art, Australian Impressionist art, 20th century, modern and contemporary art. The NGV houses many of the most recognisable Australian paintings, including Frederick McCubbins The Pioneer, phillips Fox, John Glover, Eugene von Guerard, Hans Heysen, George W. A large number of works were donated by Dr. Joseph Brown in 2004 which form the Joseph Brown Collection, in 2011 the NGV celebrated its 150th birthday and acquired an important painting by Correggio
28.
University of Melbourne
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The University of Melbourne is a public research university located in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 1853, it is Australias second oldest university and the oldest in Victoria, Times Higher Education ranks Melbourne as 33rd in the world, while the Academic Ranking of World Universities places Melbourne 40th in the world. Melbournes main campus is located in Parkville, a suburb north of the Melbourne central business district. Melbourne is a university and a member of the Group of Eight, Universitas 21. Since 1872 various residential colleges have become affiliated with the university, there are 12 colleges located on the main campus and in nearby suburbs offering academic, sporting and cultural programs alongside accommodation for Melbourne students and faculty. Amongst Melbournes 15 graduate schools the Melbourne Business School, the Melbourne Law School, four Australian prime ministers and five governors-general have graduated from Melbourne. Nine Nobel laureates have been students or faculty, the most of any Australian university, the university was established by Act of Incorporation on 22 January 1853, with power to confer degrees in arts, medicine, laws and music. The act provided for an endowment of £9,000. The original buildings were opened by the Lieutenant Governor of the Colony of Victoria, Sir Charles Hotham. The first chancellor, Redmond Barry, held the position until his death in 1880, the inauguration of the university was made possible by the wealth resulting from Victorias gold rush. The institution was designed to be an influence at a time of rapid settlement. In 1881, the admission of women was a seen as victory over the conservative ruling council. The universitys 150th anniversary was celebrated in 2003, as of May 2009 the university suspended the Bachelor of Music Theatre and Puppetry courses at the college and there were fears they may not return under the new curriculum. New dean Sharman Pretty outlined drastic changes under the plan for the college in early April 2009. As a result, it is now being called into question whether the university have upheld that agreement, staff at the college responded to the changes, claiming the university did not value vocational arts training, and voicing fears over the future of quality training at the VCA. Melbourne University has 12 residential colleges in total, seven of which are located in an arc around the oval at the northern edge of the campus. The other five are located outside of university grounds, the residential colleges aim to provide accommodation and holistic education experience to university students. Several of the earliest campus buildings, such as the Old Quadrangle and Baldwin Spencer buildings, the new Wilson Hall replaced the original building which was destroyed by fire
29.
Government of Australia
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The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia is the government of the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 as a result of an agreement among six self-governing British colonies, the terms of this contract are embodied in the Australian Constitution, which was drawn up at a Constitutional Convention and ratified by the people of the colonies at referendums. Separation of powers is implied by the structure of the Constitution, the Australian system of government combines elements of the Westminster and Washington systems with unique Australian characteristics, and has been characterised as a Washminster mutation. Section 51 of the Constitution provides for the Commonwealth Governments legislative powers and allocates certain powers, all remaining responsibilities are retained by the six States. Further, each State has its own constitution, so that Australia has seven sovereign Parliaments, the High Court of Australia arbitrates on any disputes which arise between the Commonwealth and the States, or among the States, concerning their respective functions. The Commonwealth Parliament can propose changes to the Constitution, the Commonwealth Constitution also provides that the States can agree to refer any of their powers to the Commonwealth. This may be achieved by way of an amendment to the Constitution via referendum, more commonly powers may be transferred by passing other acts of legislation which authorise the transfer and such acts require the legislative agreement of all the state governments involved. This transfer legislation may have a clause, a legislative provision that nullifies the transfer of power after a specified period. In addition, Australia has several territories, two of which are self-governing, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory, Australian citizens in these territories are represented by members of both houses of the Commonwealth Parliament. The territory of Norfolk Island was self-governing from 1979 until 2016, the other territories that are regularly inhabited—Jervis Bay, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands—have never been self-governing. The federal nature of the Commonwealth and the structure of the Parliament of Australia were the subject of protracted negotiations among the colonies during the drafting of the Constitution, the House of Representatives is elected on a basis that reflects the differing populations of the States. Thus New South Wales has 48 members while Tasmania has only five, but the Senate is elected on a basis of equality among the States, all States elect 12 Senators, regardless of population. This was intended to allow the Senators of the smaller States to form a majority, the ACT and the NT each elect two Senators. The third level of government after Commonwealth and State/Territory is Local government, in the form of shires, towns, the Councils of these areas are composed of elected representatives, usually serving part-time. Their powers are devolved to them by the State or Territory in which they are located, with this act, Australian law was made unequivocally sovereign, and the High Court of Australia was confirmed as the highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed, the Legislature makes the laws, and supervises the activities of the other two arms with a view to changing the laws when appropriate. The Australian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the Queen of Australia, a 76-member Senate, twelve Senators from each state are elected for six-year terms, using proportional representation and the single transferable vote, with half elected every three years. In addition to the state Senators, two senators are elected by voters from the Northern Territory, while another two senators are elected by the voters of the Australian Capital Territory
30.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
31.
Daniel Andrews
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Daniel Michael Andrews is an Australian politician who is the 48th Premier of Victoria, a post he has held since 2014. He has been the leader of the Victorian branch of the Australian Labor Party since 2010, on 29 November 2014, he was elected Premier of Victoria after the ALP won the state election, defeating the incumbent Liberal government. Andrews was educated at the Marist Brothers Galen Catholic College, Wangaratta and he moved to Melbourne in 1990 to attend Monash University, where he was a resident of Mannix College and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in politics and classics in 1996. After graduating, Andrews became an officer for federal Labor MP Alan Griffin. He worked at the head office from 1999 to 2002, initially as an organiser. Following his election to parliament in the Legislative Assembly seat of Mulgrave at the 2002 election, following the 2006 election, Andrews was appointed to the Cabinet, becoming Minister for Gaming, Minister for Consumer Affairs and Minister Assisting the Premier on Multicultural Affairs. In 2007, Andrews became Minister for Health in the John Brumby Labor government, in 2008, Andrews voted in favour of abortion law reform in Victoria. Brumby resigned as leader of the Victorian Labor Party following the Labor defeat at the 2010 election, on 3 December 2010, Andrews was elected Victorian Labor Party leader, becoming Leader of the Opposition in Victoria, with Rob Hulls as deputy. Hulls resigned in early 2012 and was replaced as deputy by James Merlino, by the time the writs were issued for the 2014 state election, Labor had been ahead in most opinion polls for almost two years. Although Andrews consistently trailed Liberal premiers Ted Baillieu and Denis Napthine as preferred premier, Labor held 43 seats at dissolution, but notionally held 40 after the redistribution of electoral boundaries. It thus needed a swing to make Andrews premier. On election night, it won seven seats for a total of 47 and he was sworn in as premier on 4 December. On May 24,2016 Andrews made an apology in parliament for gay men in Victoria punished during the time homosexuality was a crime in the state. In September 2016, the Andrews Government privatized the Port of Melbourne for a term of 50 years in return for more than $9.7 billion, Andrews met his wife at university. They married in 1998 and live in Mulgrave with their three children, Noah, Grace and Joseph, Andrews is a self-described devout and practising Roman Catholic. As Health Minister during the passing of the Abortion Law Reform Act 2008, not intend to be a Catholic health minister. It was my intention to be a Victorian health minister, Victorian state election,2018 Parliamentary voting record of Daniel Andrews at Victorian Parliament Tracker
32.
Apple Store
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Apple Store is a chain of retail stores owned and operated by Apple Inc. dealing with computers and consumer electronics. The stores sell Macintosh personal computers, software, iPod, iPad, iPhone, Apple Watch, Apple TV, Apple Stores have a standardized appearance with light wood tables and a general minimal design. With global sales of US$16 billion in merchandise in 2011, Apple leads the United States retail market in terms of sales per unit area, Apple has 490 retail stores in 20 countries and an online store available in 39 countries. Many stores are located inside shopping malls, but Apple has built several stand-alone flagship stores in high-profile locations, every store is designed to suit the needs of the location and regulatory authorities. Apple has received architectural awards for its store designs, particularly its midtown Manhattan location on Fifth Avenue. Several stores feature glass staircases, which for multi-level stores was originally intended to attract customers to visit the upper floors, the New York Times wrote that these features were part of then-CEO Steve Jobs extensive attention to detail. Apple worked with architect Bohlin Cywinski Jackson and engineer Eckersley OCallaghan Structural Design in designing the staircase, the Apple Store in Regent Street, London was the first to open in Europe, in November 2004. The Regent Street store was surpassed in size by the nearby Apple Store in Covent Garden, on May 19,2006, an Apple Store was opened in New York’s Fifth Avenue. It features a distinctive 32-foot glass cube, and is open 24 hours a day,365 days a year, ron Johnson, Senior Vice President of Retail Operations until November 1,2011. After 2011, Apple transferred retail leadership to first John Browett, of the 43,000 Apple employees in the United States 30,000 work at Apple Stores. Due to the popularity of the applicants for jobs at Apple Stores are numerous with many young workers applying, pay is modest. The pace of work is due to the popularity of the iPhone. Employees typically work for only a few years as career prospects are limited with no path of advancement other than limited retail management slots, the retention rate for the technicians who man the Genius Bar is over 90%. Steve Jobs, the co-founder of Apple, returned as interim CEO in 1997, according to Jobs biographer Walter Isaacson, Jobs began a concerted campaign to help sales by improving the retail presentation of Macintosh computers. This provided a profit motive to convert customers interested in buying a Mac into the owners of a new, cheaply assembled. Tim Cook, who joined Apple in 1998 as Senior Vice President for Worldwide Operations, Jobs severed Apples ties of every big box retailer, including Sears, Best Buy, Circuit City, Computer City and Office Max to focus its retail efforts with CompUSA. Between 1997 and 2000, the number of Mac authorized resellers dropped from 20,000 to just 11,000, the majority of these were cuts made by Apple itself. Today, the Apple Store sells many different items, such as Phone cases, Jobs did a study for stand alone store within a store for 34 sites in Japan
33.
City block
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A city block, urban block or simply block is a central element of urban planning and urban design. A city block is the smallest area that is surrounded by streets, City blocks are the space for buildings within the street pattern of a city, and form the basic unit of a citys urban fabric. City blocks may be subdivided into any number of land lots usually in private ownership, though in some cases. City blocks are usually built-up to varying degrees and thus form the physical containers or streetwalls of public space, most cities are composed of a greater or lesser variety of sizes and shapes of urban block. This arrangement is intended to provide social interaction among people. Since the spacing of streets in grid plans varies so widely among cities, or even within cities, it is difficult to generalize about the size of a city block. However, as points, the standard square blocks of Portland, Houston, and Sacramento are 264 by 264 feet,330 by 330 feet. Oblong blocks range considerably in width and length, the standard block in Manhattan is about 264 by 900 feet, and in some U. S. cities standard blocks are as wide as 660 feet. The blocks in Edmonton, Canada are 330 by 560 feet, the blocks in central Melbourne, Australia, are 330 by 660 feet, formed by splitting the square blocks in an original grid with a narrow street down the middle. Many world cities have grown by accretion over time rather than being planned from the outset, for this reason, a regular pattern of even, square or rectangular city blocks is not so common among European cities, for example. An exception is represented by those cities that were founded as Roman military settlements, one notable example is Turin, Italy. Following the example of Philadelphia, New York City adopted the Commissioners Plan of 1811 for an extensive grid plan. In much of the United States and Canada, the addressing systems follow a block and lot number system, the concept of city block can be generalized as a superblock or sub-block. Superblocks were popular during the early and mid-20th century, arising from modernist ideas in architecture, planning in this era was based upon the distance and speed scales for the automobile and discounted the pedestrian and cyclist modes, as obsolete transportation vehicles. Superblocks are often found in suburbs or planned cities, or are the result of urban renewal of the mid-20th century, in a residential area of a suburb, the interior of the superblock is typically served by dead-ended or looped streets. In this way, superblocks cut up the city into isolated units, expanded automobile dominance, superblocks can also be found in central city areas, where they are more often associated with institutional, educational, recreational and corporate rather than residential uses. The traditional urban block diffused automobile traffic onto several narrower roads at slower speeds and this more finely connected network of narrower roads better allowed the pedestrian and cyclist realms to flourish. The superblock, at the only suitable for automobiles
34.
Russell Street, Melbourne
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Russell Street is a main street and thoroughfare in the central business district of Melbourne, Australia. It runs roughly north-south and was out as a core feature of the Hoddle Grid in 1837. Russell Street is named after John Russell, British Home Secretary, Russell himself was also a future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Russell Street runs roughly north-south and is located one block east of the central thoroughfare of Swanston Street. At its southern end, the street intersects with Flinders Street and Federation Square, while at its end it becomes Lygon Street. Russell Street is lined with established trees and is the home of public amenities. Constable Angela Taylor died and 21 others were injured in what was described as an attack on Melbourne police, perpetrated by Stanley Taylor. Russell street is serviced by Melbourne Bus routes 200 and 207. It also intersects with several streets which are serviced by Melbourne tramlines, including Victoria Street, La Trobe Street, Bourke Street, Collins Street and Flinders Street
35.
St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne
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St Pauls Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. The cathedral was built in stages and is one of the City of Melbournes major architectural landmarks, St Pauls Cathedral is in a prominent location at the centre of Melbourne, on the eastern corner of Swanston Street and Flinders Street. It is situated diagonally opposite Flinders Street Station, which was the hub of 19th-century Melbourne, immediately to the south of the cathedral, across Flinders Street, is the new public heart of Melbourne, Federation Square. Continuing south down Swanston Street is Princes Bridge which crosses the Yarra River, thus the cathedral has a commanding view of the southern approaches to the city. The location for the marks the place of the first Christian service held in Melbourne in 1835. Previous buildings on site include a corn market and St Pauls Parish Church. St Pauls Cathedral is built on the site where the first public Christian service in Melbourne was conducted in 1835, the area of the current site became a corn market until 1848, when it was made available for the construction of St Pauls Parish Church, a bluestone church. The Church of St Paul the Apostle, consecrated in 1852, a distinguished English architect, William Butterfield, designed the cathedral, in the architectural style of Gothic transitional. St Pauls replaced St James Old Cathedral which then stood on the corner of William Street, to fit the block, the cathedral edifice is orientated NNW. The erection of the began in 1926, to the design of John Barr of Sydney superseding Butterfields original design. The 1960s saw extensive work completed to the exterior of the cathedral, Lewis organ was restored in 1989 by a major National Trust appeal. Major restoration works were completed in 2009 with significant repairs to the spires, the building of the Moorhouse Tower Lantern and the new processional doors. Although there was no established church in colonial Victoria, most of the establishment were Anglicans. At the time of its construction St Pauls was the tallest building in central Melbourne, the growth of multi-storey buildings in central Melbourne during the 20th century robbed St Pauls of its commanding position and restricted views from many angles. The construction of Federation Square, which involved the demolition of a pair of adjacent highrise buildings, St Pauls is built in a revival of the style known as Gothic transitional, being partly Early English and partly Decorated. It was designed by the distinguished English architect William Butterfield, who was noted for his architectural works. The foundation stone was laid in 1880, Butterfield never saw the site and the building work was frequently delayed by disputes between Butterfield, who was in England, and the church authorities in Melbourne. Butterfield resigned in 1884 and the building was completed by a local architect, consequently, the design of the spires differs greatly from those originally planned
36.
Birrarung Marr
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Birrarung Marr is an inner-city park between the central business district in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia and the Yarra River. The name means river of mists and river bank in the Woiwurrung language of the Wurundjeri people, in 1856 the colonial government indicated that the marshy site of Birrarung Marr was intended for park or ornamental purposes. The first rail line crossed the area in 1859 and railways eventually occupied most of the parkland between Melbournes central business district and the Yarra River, in 1992 the new Victorian Government under Premier Jeff Kennett initiated a development program focused on central Melbourne. For the centrepiece of this program, the State and City of Melbourne jointly sponsored a design competition for Federation Square. These works enabled reclamation of land from the rail yards. Construction of Birrarung Marr began in 2000, the park was formally opened to the public on Australia Day,26 January 2002. However, the City emphasised a broader role as social venue supporting individual, from either viewpoint, Birrarung Marr was envisaged as an active, urban space, more like beachside promenades than the older public gardens in other parts of Melbourne, such as the Fitzroy Gardens. Birrarung Marr was therefore designed as a series of level open terraces, the lower terrace, next to the river, has a gravel surface. The middle terrace is on the east side of the park, adjacent to Batman Avenue, the upper grassed terrace on the north side of the park is at the same level as Flinders Street, about 10 metres above the river bank. The massive terraces were formed on the level railyard site using spoil generated by works on the rail lines, Federation Square. Basalt boulders from these excavations were also re-used in the park to form retaining walls, the layout of the park emphasises lines of sight to various Melbourne landmarks such as the spires of the Victorian Arts Centre and St Pauls Cathedral and the Rialto office tower. The parks open spaces are shielded from nearby traffic. The concept plan for Birrarung Marr was prepared by the City of Melbourne, with landscape architects Ronald Jones. Consultants engaged to undertake the design and documentation include Taylor Cullity Lethlean, Paul Thompson. A long ramping footbridge within the park, designed by architects Swaney Draper, for example, in 1916, an estimated 50,000 people came to protest against conscription. These activities had moved to the north bank of the Yarra River after construction of the Queen Victoria Monument at their earlier venue on the south bank. The site was one of the few spaces in Melbourne where large public assemblies and speeches were allowed without a prior permit. The mounds that speakers used to stand on to address these crowds can still be seen in this corner of Birrarung Marr, there are barbecue facilities, as well as public toilets near Speakers Corner
37.
Bluestone
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It is a convenience label rather than a geological term, since at least 20 different rock types are represented. It is a medium grained dark and heavy rock, harder than granite, Preseli bluestone tools, such as axes, have been discovered elsewhere within the British Isles. Many of them appear to have made in or near Stonehenge. The bluestones at Stonehenge were placed there during the phase of construction at Stonehenge around 2300 BC. It is assumed there were about 80 of them originally. The stones are estimated to weigh between 2 and 4 tons each, the majority of them are believed to have been brought from the Preseli Hills, about 250 kilometres away in Wales, either through glaciation or through humans organizing their transportation. If a glacier transported the stones, then it must have been the Irish Sea Glacier, in such event, one might expect to find other bluestones near the Stonehenge site, but no such bluestones have been found. The archaeological find of the Boscombe Bowmen has been cited in support of the human transport theory, a summary of the major aspects of the Stonehenge bluestone conundrum was published in 2008. Further research into the origin of the bluestones was published in 2012, there are two distinct building materials called bluestone in Australia. In Victoria, what is known as bluestone is a basalt or olivine basalt and it was one of the favoured building materials during the Victorian Gold Rush period of the 1850s. It is still quarried at a number of places around the state, Bluestone is very hard and therefore difficult to work, so it was predominantly used for warehouses, miscellaneous walls, and the foundations of buildings. Some examples of major structures that use bluestone include Princes Bridge, the adjacent Federation Wharf. Because of its qualities, post-modern Melbourne buildings have also made use of bluestone for nostalgic reasons. These include the Southgate complex and promenade in Southbank, Victoria, Bluestone was also used extensively as cobblestone, and for kerbs and gutters, many examples which still exist in some of Melbournes smaller city lanes and 19th Century inner suburban lanes. In South Australia, the bluestone is given to a form of slate which is much less durable than Victorian bluestone. The interior of the stone is usually grey or beige in colour. The slate is laid in masonry with the surfaces exposed. Bluestone was most popular from about the 1850s to the 1920s, quarried in the Adelaide Hills at Dry Creek, OHalloran Hill and Glen Osmond, Timaru bluestone is an attractive building material, used both historically and to the present
38.
Ochre
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Ochre (/ˈoʊkər/ OH-kər, from Greek, ὠχρός, ōkhrós, or ocher, is a natural earth pigment containing hydrated iron oxide, which ranges in color from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the produced by this pigment. A variant of ochre containing an amount of hematite, or dehydrated iron oxide, has a reddish tint known as red ochre. Ochre is a family of pigments, which includes yellow ochre, red ochre, purple ochre, sienna. The major ingredient of all the ochres is iron oxide-hydroxide, known as limonite, which gives them a yellow color. Yellow ochre, FeO·nH 2O, is a hydrated iron hydroxide also called gold ochre Red ochre, Fe 2O3, takes its color from the mineral hematite. Purple ochre, is identical to red ochre chemically but of a different hue caused by different light diffraction properties associated with an average particle size. Brown ochre, also FeO, is a hydrated iron oxide. Sienna contains both limonite and an amount of manganese oxide, which makes it darker than ochre. Umber pigments contain a proportion of manganese which make them a dark brown. When natural sienna and umber pigments are heated, they are dehydrated and some of the limonite is transformed into hematite, giving them more reddish colors, called burnt sienna and burnt umber. Ochres are non-toxic, and can be used to make an oil paint that dries quickly, modern ochre pigments often are made using synthetic iron oxide. Pigments which use natural ochre pigments indicate it with the name PY-43 on the label, pieces of ochre engraved with abstract designs have been found at the site of the Blombos Cave in South Africa, dated to around 75,000 years ago. In Wales, the paleolithic burial called the Red Lady of Paviland from its coating of red ochre has been dated to around 33,000 years before present. Paintings of animals made with red and yellow ochre pigments have been found in sites at Pech Merle in France. The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored with yellow estimated to be 17,300 years old. In Ancient Egypt, yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be eternal, the skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold. The Egyptians used yellow extensively in tomb painting, though occasionally they used orpiment
39.
Western Australia
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Western Australia is a state occupying the entire western third of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Great Australian Bight and Southern Ocean to the south, the state has about 2.6 million inhabitants, around 11% of the national total. 92% of the lives in the south-west corner of the state. The first European visitor to Western Australia was the Dutch explorer Dirk Hartog, the first European settlement of Western Australia occurred following the landing by Major Edmund Lockyer on 26 December 1826 of an expedition on behalf of the New South Wales colonial government. This was followed by the establishment of the Swan River Colony in 1829, including the site of the present-day capital, york was the first inland settlement in Western Australia. Situated 97 kilometres east of Perth, it was settled on 16 September 1831, Western Australia achieved responsible government in 1890, and federated with the other British colonies in Australia in 1901. Today its economy relies on mining, agriculture and tourism. The state produces 46% of Australias exports, Western Australia is the second-largest iron ore producer in the world. The International Hydrographic Organization designates the body of water south of the continent as part of the Indian Ocean, the total length of the states eastern border is 1,862 km. There are 20,781 km of coastline, including 7,892 km of island coastline, the total land area occupied by the state is 2.5 million km2. Most of the state is a low plateau with an elevation of about 400 metres, very low relief. This descends relatively sharply to the plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment. The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile, even soils derived from granitic bedrock contain an order of magnitude less available phosphorus and only half as much nitrogen as soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains or ironstone are even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and also deficient in zinc, copper, molybdenum, the infertility of most of the soils has required heavy application by farmers of chemical fertilisers, particularly superphosphate, insecticides and herbicides. These have resulted in damage to invertebrate and bacterial populations, the grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted in compaction of soils and great damage to the fragile soils. Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora, large areas of the states wheatbelt region have problems with dryland salinity and the loss of fresh water. The southwest coastal area has a Mediterranean climate and it was originally heavily forested, including large stands of karri, one of the tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, thanks to the offshore Leeuwin Current, the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerly coral reefs in the world
40.
Outback
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The Outback is the vast, remote interior of Australia. Culturally, the Outback is deeply ingrained in Australian heritage, history, early European exploration of inland Australia was sporadic. More focus was on the more accessible and fertile coastal areas, the first party to successfully cross the Blue Mountains just outside Sydney was led by Gregory Blaxland in 1813,25 years after the colony was established. This contrasts with the ill-fated Burke and Wills expedition in 1860–61 which was better funded. The Overland Telegraph line was constructed in the 1870s along the route identified by Stuart, mineral exploration continues as new mineral deposits are identified and developed. While the early explorers used horses to cross the outback, the first woman to make the riding a horse was Anna Hingley. The paucity of land use has led to the Outback being recognised globally as one of the largest remaining. The savanna of northern Australia are the largest, intact savanna regions in the world, in the south, the Great Western Woodlands, which occupy 16,000,000 hectares, an area larger than all of England, are the largest remaining temperate woodland left on Earth. Reflecting the wide climatic and geological variation, the Outback contains a wealth of distinctive, the Australian Outback is full of very important well-adapted wildlife, although much of it may not be immediately visible to the casual observer. Many animals, such as red kangaroos and dingoes, hide in bushes to rest, birdlife is prolific, most often seen at waterholes at dawn and dusk. Huge flocks of budgerigars, cockatoos, corellas and galahs are often sighted, on bare ground or roads during the winter, various species of snakes and lizards bask in the sun, but they are rarely seen during the summer months. Feral animals such as camels thrive in central Australia, brought to Australia by pastoralists and explorers, feral horses known as brumbies are station horses that have run wild. Feral pigs, foxes, cats and rabbits are other imported animals that also degrade the environment, so time, the Outback is home to a diverse set of animal species, such as the kangaroo, emu and dingo. The Dingo Fence was built to restrict dingo movements into agricultural areas towards the south east of the continent, the marginally fertile parts are primarily utilised as rangelands and have been traditionally used for sheep or cattle grazing, on cattle stations which are leased from the Federal Government. While small areas of the outback consist of soils the majority has exceedingly infertile palaeosols. Riversleigh, in Queensland, is one of Australias most renowned fossil sites and was recorded as a World Heritage site in 1994, the 100 km2 area contains fossil remains of ancient mammals, birds and reptiles of Oligocene and Miocene age. The largest industry across the Outback, in terms of the occupied, is pastoralism, in which cattle, sheep. Capitalizing on the lack of improvement and absence of fertiliser and pesticide use
41.
Eucalyptus
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Eucalyptus /ˌjuːkəˈlɪptəs/ LHeritier 1789 is a diverse genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Members of the genus dominate the flora of Australia. There are more than 700 species of eucalyptus and most are native to Australia, one species, Eucalyptus deglupta, ranges as far north as the Philippines. Of the 15 species found outside Australia, just nine are exclusively non-Australian, species of eucalyptus are cultivated widely in the tropical and temperate world, including the Americas, Europe, Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East, China, and the Indian subcontinent. However, the range over which many eucalypts can be planted in the zone is constrained by their limited cold tolerance. Australia is covered by 92,000,000 hectares of eucalypt forest, Eucalyptus is one of three similar genera that are commonly referred to as eucalypts, the others being Corymbia and Angophora. Many species, though by no means all, are known as gum trees because they exude copious kino from any break in the bark. The generic name is derived from the Greek words ευ well and καλύπτω to cover, Eucalyptus oil finds many uses like in aromatherapy, as a cure for joint pains. Eucalyptus trees show allelopathic effects, they release compounds which inhibit other plant species from growing nearby, on warm days, eucalyptus forests are sometimes shrouded in a smog-like mist of vaporised volatile organic compounds, the Australian Blue Mountains take their name from the haze. A mature eucalyptus may take the form of a low shrub or a large tree. The species can be divided into three main habits and four size categories, as a generalisation forest trees are single-stemmed and have a crown forming a minor proportion of the whole tree height. Woodland trees are single-stemmed, although they may branch at a distance above ground level. Many mallee trees may be so low-growing as to be considered a shrub, two other tree forms are notable in Western Australia and described using the native names mallet and marlock. The mallet is a small to medium-sized tree that does not produce lignotubers and has a long trunk. This is the habit of mature healthy specimens of Eucalyptus occidentalis, E. astringens, E. spathulata, E. gardneri, E. dielsii, E. forrestiana, E. salubris, E. clivicola. The smooth bark of mallets often has a satiny sheen and may be white, cream, grey, green, or copper. The term marlock has been used, in Forest Trees of Australia, it is defined as a small tree without lignotubers. They usually grow in more or less pure stands, clearly recognisable examples are stands of E. platypus, E. vesiculosa, and the unrelated E. stoatei
42.
Kevin Rudd
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Kevin Michael Rudd is an Australian former politician who was twice Prime Minister of Australia, from 2007 to 2010 and again in 2013. Having previously served as a diplomat, and then as an official for the Queensland Government and he was promoted to the Shadow Cabinet in 2001 as Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs. In December 2006, he successfully challenged Kim Beazley to become the Leader of the Labor Party, Labor won the 2007 election by a landslide, with a 23-seat swing in its favour, and Rudd was sworn in as the 26th Prime Minister of Australia on 3 December. The Rudd Governments first acts included signing the Kyoto Protocol and delivering an apology to Indigenous Australians for the Stolen Generations, the previous governments industrial relations legislation, WorkChoices, was largely dismantled, Australias remaining Iraq War combat personnel were withdrawn, and the Australia 2020 Summit was held. In response to the financial crisis, the government provided economic stimulus packages. With the next election drawing near, there was growing dissatisfaction with Rudds leadership within the Labor Party, eventually, Rudds deputy, Julia Gillard, announced on 23 June 2010 that she would challenge him for the leadership the following day. Knowing he would be defeated if he contested the leadership, on the morning of the ballot Rudd resigned as prime minister, after his resignation, he successfully re-contested his seat at the 2010 election, after which Labor formed a minority government. Rudd contested the leadership, but lost, following persistent tensions, Gillard announced another caucus ballot on the leadership on 26 June 2013, from which Rudd emerged victorious. He was sworn in as minister for a second time the following day, and formed his second Cabinet. He also became the first serving Australian prime minister to publicly support same-sex marriage, despite an initial rise in opinion polls following his return, Labor was defeated in the 2013 election. Rudd resigned as minister for a second time on 18 September. On 22 November, Rudd formally tendered his resignation to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, in September 2014, he became a Distinguished Fellow at the Paulson Institute, a think tank at the University of Chicago. He is also the inaugural President of the Asia Society Policy Institute, and chairs the Independent Commission on Multilateralism, in 2016, Rudd asked the Government of Australia to nominate him for Secretary-General of the United Nations. However, there remains dispute over what if any earlier assurances Turnbull may have given to Rudd, Rudd was born in Nambour, Queensland, to Albert and Margaret Rudd, the youngest son of four children, and grew up on a dairy farm in nearby Eumundi. At an early age, he contracted fever and spent a considerable time at home convalescing. It damaged his heart, in particular the valves, for which he has thus far had two aortic valve replacement surgeries, but this was discovered only some 12 years later. Farm life, which required the use of horses and guns, is where he developed his love of horse riding and shooting clay targets. When Rudd was 11, his father, a farmer and Country Party member
43.
Stolen Generations
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Documentary evidence, such as newspaper articles and reports to parliamentary committees, suggest a range of rationales. A minority of historians dispute that substantial numbers of mixed-blood Aboriginal children were taken from their families. They contend that some children were removed mainly to protect them from neglect, given their catastrophic population decline after white contact, whites assumed that the full-blood tribal Aboriginal population would be unable to sustain itself, and was doomed to extinction. The idea expressed by A. O. Euro-Australians believed that their civilisation was superior to that of Aborigines, the Northern Territory Chief Protector of Aborigines, Dr. Cecil Cook, argued that everything necessary to convert the half-caste into a white citizen. The Victorian Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 included the earliest legislation to authorise child removal from Aboriginal parents, the Central Board for the Protection of Aborigines had been advocating such powers since 1860. Passage of the Act gave the colony of Victoria a wide suite of powers over Aboriginal and half-caste persons, including the removal of children. As a result of legislation, states arranged widespread removal of mixed-race children from their Aboriginal mothers. In addition, appointed Aboriginal protectors in each state exercised wide-ranging guardianship powers over Aborigines up to the age of 16 or 21, often determining where they could live or work. Policemen or other agents of the state were given the power to locate and transfer babies and children of mixed descent from their mothers, families, the exact number of children removed is unknown. Estimates of numbers have been widely disputed, the Bringing Them Home report says that at least 100,000 children were removed from their parents. This figure was estimated by multiplying the Aboriginal population in 1994, the report stated that between one in three and one in ten children were separated from their families, not one in three persons in the total population. Given differing populations over a period of time, different policies at different times in different states. Australian historian Robert Manne suggests approximately 20,000 to 25,000 were removed between 1910 and 1970, based on the Australian Bureau of Statistics report of 1994, keith Windschuttle and other historians have argued for a much lower figure. In certain regions and in periods the figure was undoubtedly much greater than one in ten. In that time not one family has escaped the effects of forcible removal, most families have been affected, in one or more generations, by the forcible removal of one or more children. The report closely examined the distinctions between forcible removal, removal under threat or duress, official deception, uninformed voluntary release, Aboriginal Protection Officers often made the judgement to remove certain children. In some cases, families were required to sign documents to relinquish care to the state. In Western Australia, the Aborigines Act 1905 removed the legal guardianship of Aboriginal parents and it made all their children legal wards of the state, so the government did not require parental permission to relocate the mixed-race children to institutions
44.
AFL Grand Final
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The winning club of the grand final receives the AFLs premiership cup and the premiership flag. All players in the team receive a gold premiership medallion. Adelaide is the club to have never lost a grand final which it has contested. The concept of a grand final gradually evolved from experimentation by the Victorian Football League in the years of competition following its inception in 1897. During the 19th century, Australian football competition adopted the approach that the team on top of the ladder was declared the premiers. However, the fledgling VFL decided that a series played between the top four teams at the end of the season would generate more interest and gate money. For 1897, the VFL scheduled a round robin tournament whereby the top four played each other once, the winners of these semi finals then met in a final to decide the premiership. The first such final was contested in 1898 between the Essendon Football Club and Fitzroy Football Club at the St Kilda Cricket Ground, which Fitzroy won scoring 5.8 to Essendons 3.5. The new finals system caused problems in 1901 when Geelong finished on top of the ladder but was eliminated when defeated in the semi final. A right of challenge was introduced, giving the team finished on top at the end of the regular season the right to challenge if they lost the semi final or the final. This challenge match came to be called the grand final, the first four grand finals were scattered around various Melbourne venues, one at Albert Park, two at St Kildas Junction Oval and one at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground. The selection of the venue could depend on the portion of the demanded by the grounds landlords. The public remained ambivalent to the concept of football until the VFL pulled off a coup in 1902. Previously, the MCG was unavailable to football in the spring months as it was being prepared for the coming cricket season. The original Argus system had been instituted by the VFL in 1901 and this figure was beaten in the 1912 Grand Final when 54,463 saw Essendon defeat South Melbourne. The big finals crowds prompted the MCC to cut down the eleven fifty-year-old elm trees inside the ground and turn the stadium into a bowl, complete with extra stands. The record fell again in the last grand final before World War I, the war had a considerable effect on the impact of the grand final and attendances plummeted. One critic called for the Carlton team to receive the Iron Cross after they defeated Collingwood in the thrilling 1915 Grand Final, ironically dubbed a glorious contest by famous coach Jack Worrall
45.
2006 FIFA World Cup
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The 2006 FIFA World Cup was the 18th FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international football world championship tournament. It was held from 9 June to 9 July 2006 in Germany, teams representing 198 national football associations from all six populated continents participated in the qualification process which began in September 2003. Thirty-one teams qualified from this process, along with the host nation, Germany and it was the second time that Germany staged the competition, and the tenth time that it was held in Europe. Italy won the tournament, claiming their fourth World Cup title and they defeated France 5–3 in a penalty shootout in the final, after extra time had finished in a 1–1 draw. Germany defeated Portugal 3–1 to finish in third place, Angola, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Serbia and Montenegro, Trinidad and Tobago, and Togo made their first appearances in the finals. The 2006 World Cup stands as one of the most watched events in history, garnering an estimated 26.29 billion non-unique viewers. The final attracted an audience of 715.1 million people. The 2006 World Cup ranks fourth in non-unique viewers, behind the World Cup in 1994,2002, as the winner, Italy represented the World in the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. The vote to choose the hosts of the 2006 tournament was held in July 2000 in Zürich and it involved four bidding nations after Brazil had withdrawn three days earlier, Germany, South Africa, England and Morocco. Three rounds of voting were required, each round eliminating the nation with the least votes, the first two rounds were held on 6 July 2000, and the final round was held on 7 July 2000, which Germany won over South Africa. Accusations of bribery and corruption have marred the success of Germanys bid from the very beginning, on the very day of the vote, a hoax bribery affair was made public, leading to calls for a re-vote. Oceania delegate Charlie Dempsey, who had initially backed England, had then been instructed to support South Africa following Englands elimination and he abstained, citing intolerable pressure on the eve of the vote. Just a week before the vote, the German government under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder lifted their arms embargo on Saudi Arabia, daimlerChrysler invested several hundred million Euro in Hyundai, while one of the sons of the companys founders was a member of FIFAs executive committee. Both Volkswagen and Bayer announced investments in Thailand and South Korea, whose respective delegates Worawi Makudi, the sum of 6.7 million Euro was later demanded back by Dreyfus. In order to retrieve the money, the Organizing Committee paid an aquivalent sum to the FIFA, allegedly as a German share for the cost of a closing ceremony, the DFB announced they would consider seeking legal action against Der Spiegel. During a press conference on 22 October 2015, Nierbach repeated his stance, according to Niersbach, the payment had been agreed upon during a meeting between Franz Beckenbauer and FIFA president Blatter, with the money being provided by Dreyfus. On the same day, FIFA contradicted Niersbachs statement, saying, By our current state of knowledge, the following day, former DFB president Theo Zwanziger publicly accused Niersbach of lying, saying, It is evident that there was a slush fund for the German World Cup application. According to Zwanziger, the 6.7 million Euros went to Mohamed Bin Hammam, on 22 March 2016 it was announced that the FIFA Ethics Committee was opening proceedings into the bid
46.
Sandstone
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Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earths crust, like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure, usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, grain sizes in sands are defined within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages, first, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water or from air. Typically, sedimentation occurs by the settling out from suspension. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow, a predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red, with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones are seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a building material or as a facing stone. These physical properties allow the grains to survive multiple recycling events. Quartz grains evolve from rock, which are felsic in origin. Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in sandstones, Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions, alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope, below is a description of the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase feldspar is a group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone, commonly these minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone
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