1.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign
2.
Flag of Malaysia
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In blazon, the Malaysian flag is described as, A banner Gules, seven bars Argent, the canton Azure charged with decrescent and mullet of fourteen points Or. This means a red flag with seven white stripes, the upper-left quarter is blue with a yellow waning crescent. The flag of Malaysia, which was first raised on 16 September 1963, prior to the creation of the national flag, each state in Malaya had its own flag, many of which are unchanged in design to this day. When the Federation of Malaya replaced the short lived Malayan Union, three flags were forwarded to the public. The first flag had 11 white stars with two Malay kris in the middle against a blue backdrop, the second flag concentric circle of 11 stars around crossed keris on a blue field. The third had 11 alternate red and white stripes and a yellow crescent, the third design, by Mohamad Hamzah of the Public Works Department, was chosen as the winner through a public poll held by The Malay Mail. Since Malaya was fighting the communists during the Malayan Emergency, the star had an ironic resemblance to the communists symbols. Therefore, the star was modified to six more points. The Malayan flag was approved by King George VI on 19 May 1950 and was first raised in front of Istana Selangor on 26 May 1950, on 31 August 1957, it was raised upon independence at Merdeka Square in place of the British Union Flag. The Malayan flag was designed by Mohamed Hamzah, a 29-year-old architect working for the Public Works Department in Johor Baharu and he entered the Malayan flag design competition in 1947 with two designs that he completed within two weeks. The first design was a flag with blue kris in the middle. The second design, which was among the three finalists, was similar to the current flag but with a five-pointed star and it borrows major design elements from the East India Company flag, notably the red and white stripes. The competition attracted 373 entries and voting was made by the public via post. Malayan senior statesman Dato Onn Jaafar met with Mohamed Hamzah after he won the competition, Mohamed Hamzah died just short of his 75th birthday on 13 February 1993 in Jalan Stulang Baru, Kampung Melayu Majidee, Johor. Following the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963, the design of the Malayan flag was modified to reflect and honour the new states in the federation. When Kuala Lumpur was designated a Federal Territory on 1 February 1974, the additional stripe, during the National Day celebrations, everyone is encouraged to fly the Jalur Gemilang at their homes, office buildings, shops and corporate premises. If the flag is fixed at home, it is to be raised pointing towards the road. If the flag is put in a group of flags with state and private company flags, the flag anthem is written as dedication and pride of the Malaysian national flag
3.
Coat of arms of Malaysia
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The Coat of Arms of Malaysia is a coat of arms comprising a shield or escutcheon, two tigers for supporters, a crescent and fourteen point star for a crest and a motto). As the Malaysian emblem descended from the coat of arms of the Federated Malay States under British colonial rule, the Coat of Arms of Malaysia consists of a shield guarded by two supporters as rampant tigers. The shield is topped by a crest consisting of a crescent with a 14-pointed federal star. The yellow colour of the crest, a crescent and a 14-pointed federal star, the crescent also represents Islam as the official religion while the federal star represents the thirteen states and the Federal Territories of Malaysia. Originally, the star represented the original fourteen states of Malaysia. It was not changed when Singapore left the Federation in 1965, the escutcheon, represented by a shield, is primarily intended to serve as a representation of states unified under the Malaysian federation, and is subdivided into ten divisions. The upper portion or chief of the shield contains five krises on a red background, representing the five former Unfederated Malay States, Johore, Terengganu, Kelantan, Kedah and Perlis. The permutations of the red, black, white and yellow make up the colours of these states flags. Red, black and yellow are for Negeri Sembilan, black and white for Pahang, black, white and yellow for Perak, in the lower middle of the shield, there are three sections formerly representing the new states of Sabah, Singapore and Sarawak. Since 1965, Singapores section has been replaced by a depiction of the national flower, in the sinister section is the Malacca tree representing Malacca The two rampant tigers supporting the shield are traditional Malay symbols. They are retained from the armorial ensign of the Federation of Malaya. The motto of the arms, located below the shield, consists of a banner with the phrase Unity is Strength written in both romanised Malay and Jawi, the original English phrase was replaced by romanised Malay some time after independence. The origins of the Malaysian coat of arms can be traced to the formation of the Federated Malay States under the rule of the United Kingdom. The arms, like its successors, included a shield. The motto was originally written in Jawi as Dipelihara Allah flanked by two eight-pointed stars. Dipelihara Allah is today the Selangor state motto, the founding of the Federation of Malaya in 1948 led to a revision of the arms. Among the changes were a complete representation the 11 states of the federation on the shield, the replacement of the eastern crown with a yellow crescent. The original Jawi motto was replaced with Unity is Strength in both English and Jawi Malay
4.
Malay language
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Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It has a status in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia. As the Bahasa Kebangsaan or Bahasa Nasional of several states, Standard Malay has various official names, in Singapore and Brunei it is called Bahasa Melayu, in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia, and in Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia and is designated the Bahasa Persatuan/Pemersatu. However, in areas of central to southern Sumatra where the language is indigenous, Indonesians refer to it as Bahasa Melayu and consider it one of their regional languages. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages which are based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay, as well as Macassar Malay, Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods, Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Malacca Period, Late Modern Malay and it is not clear that Old Malay was actually the ancestor of Classical Malay, but this is thought to be quite possible. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit literary language of Classical India, Sanskrit loanwords can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. Batenburg on November 29,1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra, on the banks of the Tatang and it is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres. The earliest surviving manuscript in Malay is the Tanjong Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters and this 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text produced in the Adityawarman era of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who still live in the highlands of Sumatra. The Malay language came into use as the lingua franca of the Malacca Sultanate. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature, the development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Malayalam and Sanskrit vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay, however, there is no connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. One of the oldest surviving letters written in Malay is a letter from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, the letter is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão. The letters show sign of non-native usage, the Ternateans used the unrelated Ternate language, Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking, many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language
5.
Politics of Malaysia
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Executive power is exercised by the federal government and the 13 state governments. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament and the 13 state assemblies. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, though the executive maintains a level of influence in the appointment of judges to the courts. The Constitution of Malaysia is codified and the system of government is based on the Westminster system, whereas, the Parliament consists of the Dewan Negara and Dewan Rakyat. Malaysia has had a multi-party system since the first direct election of the Federal Legislative Council of the Malaya in 1955 on a first-past-the-post basis, the ruling party since then had always been the Alliance Party coalition and from 1973 onwards, its successor, the Barisan Nasional coalition. The Barisan Nasional coalition currently consists of the United Malays National Organisation, Malaysian Chinese Association, the opposition are made up of the newly formed pact, the Coalition of Hope, the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party, the Socialist Party of Malaysia and other smaller parties. Although Malaysian politics has been stable, critics allege that the government, ruling party. However, since the 8 March 2008 General Election, the coverage on the countrys politics has noticeably increased. Early organised political movements in Malaysia were organised along regional and ethnic groups and were not political parties in the modern sense and these in turn were primarily influenced by the Egyptian Islamic reform magazine, al-Manar published in Cairo by Rashid Rida from 1898 to 1936. While these publications were concerned with the Islamic religion, it also touched extensively on the social, political. One of the first such movements was the New Hope Society that was established in Johor Bahru in 1916, the Sultan Idris Training College for Malay teachers in Tanjung Malim was fertile ground for the exchange of ideas. This magazine allowed for the discussion of larger issues as well political issues. Eunos himself was a Justice of Peace, a member of the Muslim Advisory Board set up by the administration during World War I. In his capacity as the chairman of the KM, he became the first Malay member of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements, one of the first issues championed by the KM was the appeal for land to be set aside for a Malay settlement. The appeal was granted and a sum of $700,000 was set aside for the KM to purchase and this settlement has evolved and is now part of the Eunos neighbourhood in Singapore. The KM also became the catalyst for the establishment of similar organisations in the states of the British Malaya such as the Penang Malay Association. People associated with the KM included the first President of Singapore, the KM survived World War II and entered into a political coalition with the United Malays National Organisation and the Malayan Chinese Association to form the Singapore Alliance Party. It however eventually faded away with the defeats of the Alliance in the 1955 legislative elections in Singapore
6.
Yang di-Pertuan Agong
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The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the monarch and head of state of Malaysia. The office was established in 1957 when the Federation of Malaya gained independence from the United Kingdom, Malaysia is a constitutional monarchy with an elected monarch as head of state. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is one of the few elected monarchs in the world and his queen consort is called Raja Permaisuri Agong. The couple are styled in English as His Majesty and Her Majesty, in Malaysias constitutional monarchy, Yang di-Pertuan Agong has extensive powers within the constitution. The constitution specifies that the power of the Federal government is vested in the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and is exercised by him on the advice of the federal Council of Ministers. The latter is headed by the Prime Minister, appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong from among the members of Parliament. Among them, Yang di-Pertuan Agong has discretionary powers to choose who he wants as the Prime Minister and is not bound by the decision of the outgoing PM if no party has won a majority vote. It, however, does not afford him the right and authority to dismiss the PM and he also can dismiss or withhold consent to a request for the dissolution of Parliament. He may discontinue or dissolve Parliament but he can only dissolve Parliament at the request of the PM and he can reject any new laws or amendments to existing laws but if he still withholds permission, it will automatically become law after 30 days from the initial submission to him. The 15th and current Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Sultan Muhammad V of Kelantan and his reign began on 13 December 2016, after his election on 14 October 2016 at the 243rd Conference of Rulers. The ceremonial installation of the 15th Yang di-Pertuan Agong will be held on 24 April 2017, common English terms used in the media and by the general public include King, Paramount Ruler, Head of State, Head of the Federation, and Head of State of the Federation. In Malaysian passports prior to the 2010 redesign, the title The Supreme Head of Malaysia was used in the English version of the passport note, since the issuance of ICAO compliant e-passports in 2010, the untranslated title His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia is used. In August 1957, having rejected the title of Yang di-Pertuan Besar in favour of Yang di-Pertuan Agong. By seniority, the 84-year-old major general Ibrahim of Johor, Sultan of Johor since 1895, was first in line, but he declined due to old age. The next in line, Abu Bakar of Pahang, Sultan of Pahang since 1932, was rejected five times by his fellow electors, abdul Rahman of Negeri Sembilan, having been elected to his state throne in 1933, was elected by eight votes to one. After a ruler had served as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, he may not stand for election until all rulers of the states have also stood for election. In the event of a vacancy of the office, the Conference of Rulers elects a new Yang di-Pertuan Agong as if the term had expired. The new Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected for a full five-year term, after his term expires, the Conference holds a new election, in which the incumbent would not be re-elected
7.
Hisamuddin of Selangor
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He was the first son of Almarhum Sultan Alauddin Sulaiman Shah ibni Almarhum Raja Muda Musa by Cik Puan Hasnah binti Pilong, a commoner wife. Named Tengku Alam Shah at birth, he was not expected to succeed as he had two elder half-brothers, educated at the Malay College Kuala Kangsar, he was instrumental in the establishment of the Malay College Old Boys Association in 1929. In 1931, he was appointed Tengku Laksamana of Selangor, having served as Tengku Panglima Raja. Sultan Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah had many children, his first three sons in order being Tengku Musa Eddin, Tengku Badar Shah and Tengku Alam Shah. The first two sons were children by his consort, Tengku Ampuan Maharum binti Tengku Dhiauddin of the royal house of Kedah. In 1903, Tunku Musa Eddin had been made Tengku Mahkota and was promoted to Raja Muda or heir apparent in 1920, however, at the instigation of the British Resident, Theodore Samuel Adams, Tengku Musa Eddin was dismissed as Raja Muda in 1934 for alleged misbehaviour. Adams had accused Tengku Musa Eddin as a spendthrift and wastrel with a penchant for gambling, however, many Malays in Selangor believed the real reason for Tengku Musa Eddins dismissal was his refusal to follow Adams orders. Although Sultan Sulaiman pleaded for the case of Tengku Musa Eddin, the appointment occurred on 20 July 1936. Tengku Alam Shah was proclaimed Sultan on 4 April 1938, four days after the death of his father, on 26 January 1939, he was crowned at Istana Mahkota Puri in Klang. Tengku Musa Eddin, then Tengku Kelana Jaya Putera, presided over the ceremony, on 15 January 1942, Col. Fujiyama, the Japanese Military Governor of Selangor, invited Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah to Kings House in Kuala Lumpur. In an interview with Major-General Minaki the Sultan confessed that he had made speeches in support of the British war efforts but had been persuaded by the British resident to do so. Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah declined to work with the Japanese and from 1943, refused their allowance awarded to him, the return of the British finally brought Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah back to the throne, while ex-Sultan Musa was exiled to the Cocos Keeling Islands. Although he had signed the Malayan Union treaty, like all other Malay rulers, he later repudiated it, on 1 March 1946, Sultan Alam Shah officiated the First Malay Unity Congress at the Sultan Sulaiman Club in Kuala Lumpur which was instrumental in creating UMNO. The Congress was organised by the Selangor Malay Society which had as its president the scholar Zainal Abidin Ahmad, on 3 August 1957, by eight votes to one, Sultan Alam Shah was elected Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong of independent Malaya. Sultan Alam Shah was elected second Yang di-Pertuan Agong or federal Paramount Ruler of independent Malaya on the death of Tuanku Abdul Rahman and his term of office began on 14 April 1960. On 30 July 1960 he proclaimed the end of the Emergency in Malaya, Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah died from an unidentified illness at Istana Negara in Kuala Lumpur on 1 September 1960, aged 62, the day fixed for his installation. He was interred at the Royal Mausoleum near Sultan Sulaiman Mosque in Klang and he was succeeded by his son by Raja Jemaah, Tengku Abdul Aziz Shah, as Sultan of Selangor, taking the title of Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah. Sultan Salahuddin later became the 11th Yang di-Pertuan Agong and also died while in office like his father, Sekolah Alam Shah, first in Cheras and then in Putrajaya, was named after him
8.
Putra of Perlis
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Tuanku Syed Harun Putra ibni Almarhum Syed Hassan Jamalullail, KCMG was the third Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia of Federation of Malaya, and later of Malaysia, and sixth Raja of Perlis from. He was the son of Syed Hassan bin Syed Mahmud Jamalullail, sometime Bakal Raja or heir presumptive to the throne of Perlis, born in Arau, he was educated at the Arau Malay School and later at Penang Free School between 1937 and 1939. At the age of 18, he joined the Perlis administrative service, becoming a magistrate, the fourth Raja of Perlis, Syed Alwi ibni Almarhum Syed Safi Jamalullail was childless. However, he had several half-brothers who were competing for the role of heir presumptive, the succession to the Perlis throne was not automatic and an heir presumptive had to be confirmed in that post by the State Council comprising the Raja and several others. Syed Putras paternal grandfather Syed Mahmud, was the oldest son of Raja Syed Safi ibni Almarhum Syed Alwi Jamalullail and he was also a half brother of Raja Syed Alwi. He served as Raja Muda until 1912 when he was convicted and jailed in Alor Star, two years later, he died in Alor Star. On 6 December 1934, Syed Mahmuds son Syed Hassan was, however, Syed Hassan died on 18 October 1935. On 30 April 1938, again by a three to one vote, the State Council chose Syed Putra as the Bakal Raja, however, the British colonial rulers supported Syed Putra. On the outbreak of the World War II, Raja Syed Alwi retreated to Kuala Kangsar and he returned to Perlis on 28 December 1941 but was already very ill and state affairs were exercised by Syed Hamzah. Syed Putra was at the serving in the judiciary in Kuala Kumpur and had been advised by Sultan Musa Ghiatuddin Riayat Shah of Selangor to remain there. In May 1942, Syed Hamzah persuaded Raja Syed Alwi to withdraw Syed Putras appointment as Bakal Raja, Syed Putra and his family stayed in Klang until 15 May 1942 when he returned to Perlis. He lived in a hut near the Arau railway station and received a $90 a month allowance from Raja Syed Alwi, on 29 March 1945 he left for Kelantan, the home state of his consort Tengku Budriah, where he sold cakes and sundry goods for a living. The British Military Administration under Lord Louis Mountbatten refused to recognise Syed Hamzah as Raja, on 18 September 1945, Syed Hamzah abdicated. He went into exile in Thailand and died in Arau on 20 February 1958, on 4 December 1945 the British proclaimed Syed Putra as sixth Raja of Perlis. He returned to Perlis from Kelantan, via Padang Besar and he was installed on 12 March 1949. Raja Syed Putra objected to the Malayan Union treaty on the grounds that it contravened the 1930 British-Perlis Treaty giving governing power to the Raja-in-council, however, his protests that he signed under duress was rejected by the British. Subsequently, like all other Malay rulers, Raja Syed Putra repudiated the Malayan Union treaty, Raja Syed Putra was elected Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong by the Malay rulers and served in that office from 14 April 1960 until the death of Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah on 1 September 1960. Raja Syed Putra was elected third Yang di-Pertuan Agong of independent Malaya and he was installed at Istana Negara on 4 January 1961
9.
Hari Merdeka
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Hari Merdeka, also known as Hari Kebangsaan, refers to the day when the Federation of Malayas independence from the British Empire was officially declared. To commemorate the event, Hari Merdeka was declared a holiday in Malaysia. Once it became clear that the Communist threat posed during the Malayan Emergency was petering out, agreement was reached on 8 February 1956, the announcement of the day was set months earlier by the Tunku in a Melaka meeting of the Alliance. On the night of 30 August 1957, crowds gathered at the Dataran merdeka Padang in Kuala Lumpur to witness the handover of power from the British. Prime Minister-designate Tunku Abdul Rahman arrived at 11,58 p. m. on the stroke of midnight, the lights were switched back on, and the Union Flag in the square was lowered. The new Flag of Malaya was raised as the national anthem Negaraku was played and this was followed by seven chants of Merdeka by the crowd. Tunku Abdul Rahman later gave a speech hailing the ceremony as the greatest moment in the life of the Malayan people. Before giving the address to the crowd, he was given a necklace by representatives of the Alliance Party youth in honour of this occasion in history. The event ended at one in the morning the next day, on the morning of 31 August 1957, the festivities moved to the newly completed Merdeka Stadium. More than 20,000 people witnessed the ceremony, which began at 9,30 a. m and those in attendance included rulers of the Malay states, foreign dignitaries, members of the federal cabinet, and citizens. The Queens representative, the Duke of Gloucester presented Tunku Abdul Rahman with the instrument of independence, Tunku then proceeded to read the Proclamation of Independence, which culminated in the chanting of Merdeka. Seven times with the crowd joining in, sports events and other events marked the birth of the new nation. However, it was postponed to 16 September 1963, mainly due to Indonesian, nevertheless, North Borneo and Singapore declared sovereignty on 31 August 1963. Indonesian opposition later escalated to a military conflict, indonesia considered Malaysia as a new form of colonisation on the provinces of Sarawak and North Borneo in the island of Borneo. However, they did not lay claim upon the two territories, unlike Philippines claim on the part of Sabah. Their eventual findings which indicated substantial support for Malaysia among the peoples of Sabah and Sarawak, the formation of the Federation of Malaysia was then announced on 16 September 1963, as Malaysia Day. The nationwide Independence Day celebration is held on 31 August. However, this has caused minor discontent among East Malaysians in particular since it has been argued that celebrating the national day on 31 August is too Malaya-centric
10.
Malaysia Agreement
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Singapore later ceased to be a part of Malaysia, becoming an independent state on 9 August 1965. It came into being in 1946, through a series of agreements between the United Kingdom and Malayan Union, the Malayan Union was superseded by the Federation of Malaya on 1 February 1948, and achieved independence within the Commonwealth of Nations on 31 August 1957. The committee is also a successor to the former Committee on Information from Non-Self-Governing Territories and it stated that all people have a right to self-determination and proclaimed that colonialism should be brought to a speedy and unconditional end. Under the Malaysia Agreement signed between Great Britain and the Federation of Malaya, Britain would enact an Act to relinquish control over Singapore, Sarawak. The issue of self-determination with respect to the peoples of North Borneo, Sarawak and it has accordingly been decided to set up a Commission to carry out this task and to make recommendations. The five-man team, which comprised two Malayans and three British representatives, was headed by Lord Cobbold. In Singapore, the Peoples Action Party sought merger with Malaysia on the basis of the mandate it obtained during the general elections of 1959 when it won 43 of the 51 seats. However, this mandate became questionable when dissension within the Party led to a split, in July 1961, following a debate on a vote of confidence in the government,13 PAP Assemblymen were expelled from the PAP for abstaining. They went on to form a new party, the Barisan Sosialis. More defections occurred until the PAP had a majority of just one seat in the Assembly, given this situation, it would have been impossible to rely on the mandate achieved in 1959 to move forth with merger. A new mandate was necessary, especially since the Barisan argued that the terms of merger offered were detrimental to the Singapore people. While Brunei sent a delegation to the signing of the Malaysia Agreement, United Nations General Assembly 18th Session - the Question of Malaysia Malaysia Timeline by the BBC News Channel. Allen, J. de V. Stockwell, Anthony J. Wright, a collection of treaties and other documents affecting the states of Malaysia 1761-1963
11.
Geography of Malaysia
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The geography of Malaysia deals with the physical and human geography of Malaysia, a Southeast Asian country. There are two parts to this country, Peninsular Malaysia to the west and East Malaysia to the east. Located near the equator, Malaysias climate is categorised as equatorial, being hot, the average rainfall is 250 centimetres a year and the average temperature is 27 °C. The climates of the Peninsula and the East differ, as the climate on the peninsula is directly affected by wind from the mainland, Malaysia is exposed to the El Niño effect, which reduces rainfall in the dry season. Climate change is likely to have a significant effect on Malaysia, increasing sea levels and rainfall, increasing flooding risks, Malaysia faces two monsoon winds seasons, the Southwest Monsoon from late May to September, and the Northeast Monsoon from October to March. The Northeast Monsoon brings in more rainfall compared to the Southwest Monsoon, originating in China, the southwest monsoon originates from the deserts of Australia. March and October form transitions between the two monsoons, local climates are affected by the presence of mountain ranges throughout Malaysia, and climate can be divided into that of the highlands, the lowlands, and coastal regions. The coasts have a climate, with temperatures ranging between 23 and 32 °C, and rainfall ranging from 10 to 30 centimetres a month. The lowlands have a temperature, but follow a more distinctive rainfall pattern. The highlands are cooler and wetter, and display a greater temperature variation, a large amount of cloud cover is present over the highlands, which have humidity levels that do not fall below 75%. The highest temperature was recorded at Chuping, Perlis on 9 April 1998 at 40.1 °C, the lowest temperature was recorded at Cameron Highlands on 1 February 1978 at 7.8 °C. The unofficial lowest temperature is −4 °C in December recorded in Gunung Kinabalu, the highest rainfall recorded in a day was 608 mm in Kota Bharu, Kelantan on 6 January 1967. The highest rainfall recorded in a year was 5,687 mm at Sandakan, meanwhile, the lowest rainfall recorded in a year was 1,151 mm at Tawau, Sabah in 1997. The wettest place in Malaysia is Kuching, Sarawak with a rainfall of 4,159 mm with 279 days of rain a year. The driest place in Malaysia is in Sitiawan, Perak with average rainfall of only 1,787 mm a year, Malaysia is located on the Sunda shelf, and is tectonically inactive. The oldest rocks in the date from 540 million years ago. The most common form of rock is limestone, formed during the Paleozoic Era, limestone laid down in East Malaysia during the Tertiary period has since eroded, and such erosion forms basins of sedimentary rocks rich in oil and natural gas. The mountain ranges in Malaysia were formed through orogenesis beginning in the Mesozoic era, the total land area of Malaysia is 329,613 square kilometres, the 66th largest country in the world in terms of area
12.
Malaya and British Borneo dollar
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The currency was issued by the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Malaya and British Borneo. Prior to 1952, the board was known as the Board of Commissioners of Currency, the Malaya and British Borneo dollar was used in Malaya after independence in 1957, and in Malaysia after its formation in 1963, as well as in Singapore after its independence in 1965. After 1967, the two countries and Brunei ended the common currency arrangement and began issuing their own currencies, however, the Malaya and British Borneo dollar continued to be legal tender until 16 January 1969. The currency was also being used in the Riau Archipelago in Indonesia prior to 1963. The Currency Ordinance No.44 of 1952 of the Crown Colony of Singapore, No.33 of 1951 of the Federation of Malaya, No.10 of 1951 of North Borneo and this agreement became effective on 1 January 1952. On 12 June 1967, the union came to an end and Malaysia, Singapore. The currencies of the three countries were interchangeable at par value under the Interchangeability Agreement until 8 May 1973 when the Malaysian government decided to terminate it, Brunei and Singapore continue with the Agreement until the present day. The Board of Commissioners of Currency Malaya and British Borneo was officially wound up on 30 November 1979. Coins were issued in bronze 1 cent square shaped coins issued between 1953 and 1961, and circular coins of similar composition from 1962, and cupro-nickel 5,10,20, and 50 cents. These all shared a basic design depicting Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse. However, the Queen was replaced with two daggers on the smaller round cent of 1962, the older coins also continued to circulate alongside these bearing the new title. All notes bear the date 21 March 1953, and signed by W. C, taylor, the Chairman of the Board of Commissioner of Currency. As a safeguard against forgery, a security thread and the watermark of a lions head were incorporated in the paper before printing. British North Borneo dollar Malayan dollar Sarawak dollar Straits dollar Coins of Malaya and British Borneo Global Financial Data currency histories table Tables of modern monetary history, Asia
13.
Malayan Union
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The Malayan Union was a union of the Malay states and the Straits Settlements of Penang and Malacca. It was the successor to British Malaya and was conceived to unify the Malay Peninsula under a government to simplify administration. Following opposition by the ethnic Malays, the union was reorganized as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, the capital of the Union was Kuala Lumpur. The former Strait Settlement of Singapore was administered as a crown colony. The idea of the Union was first expressed by the British on October 1945 in the aftermath of the Second World War by the British Military Administration, Sir Harold MacMichael was assigned the task of gathering the Malay state rulers approval for the Malayan Union in the same month. In a short period of time, he managed to obtain all the Malay rulers’ approval, hence the approval was given, though it was with utmost reluctance. When it was unveiled, the Malayan Union gave equal rights to people who wished to apply for citizenship, however, the citizenship proposal was never actually implemented. Due to opposition to the proposal, it was postponed then modified. The Sultans, the rulers of the Malay states, conceded all their powers to the British Crown except in religious matters. The Malayan Union was placed under the jurisdiction of a British Governor, State Councils became an extended hand of the Federal government that had to do its bidding. Also, British Residents replacing the Sultans as the head of the State Councils meant that the status of the Sultans were greatly reduced. A Supreme Court was established in 1946 of which Harold Curwen Willan was the only Chief Justice, the Malays generally opposed the creation of the Union. The opposition was due to the methods Sir Harold MacMichael used to acquire the Sultans approval, the reduction of the Sultans powers, and easy granting of citizenship to immigrants. The United Malays National Organisation or UMNO, a Malay political association formed by Dato Onn bin Jaafar on 1 March 1946, Malays also wore white bands around their heads, signifying their mourning for the loss of the Sultans political rights. They also encouraged Malay opposition to the Malayan Union, after the inauguration of the Malayan Union, the Malays, under UMNO continued opposing the Malayan Union. They utilised civil disobedience as a means of protest by refusing to attend the ceremonies of the British governors. They had also refused to participate in the meetings of the Advisory Councils, hence Malay participation in the government bureaucracy, the British had recognised this problem and took measures to consider the opinions of the major races in Malaya before making amendments to the constitution. The Malayan Union was dissolved and replaced by the Federation of Malaya on 1 February 1948, odyssey, Perspectives on Southeast Asia – Malaysia and Singapore 1870–1971
14.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
15.
History of Malaysia
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Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country located on strategic sea-lane that exposes it to global trade and foreign culture. Although Muslims had passed through the Malay Peninsula as early as the 10th century, the adoption of Islam in the 14th century saw the rise of a number of sultanates, the most prominent of which was the Sultanate of Malacca. Islam had a influence on the Malay people, but has also been influenced by them. The Portuguese were the first European colonial powers to themselves on the Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511. However, it was the British who, after initially establishing bases at Jesselton, Kuching, Penang and Singapore, the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies. A fourth phase of influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula. Japanese invasion during World War II ended British domination in Malaysia, the subsequent occupation of Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak from 1942 to 1945 unleashed nationalism. In the Peninsula, the Malayan Communist Party took up arms against the British, a tough military response was needed to end the insurgency and bring about the establishment of an independent, multi-racial Federation of Malaya on 31 August 1957. On 31 August 1963, the British territories in North Borneo and Singapore were granted independence, approximately two years later, the Malaysian parliament passed a bill without the consent of signatory of Malaysia Agreement 1963 to separate Singapore from the Federation. A confrontation with Indonesia occurred in the early-1960s, race riots in 1969 led to the imposition of emergency rule, and a curtailment of political life and civil liberties which has never been fully reversed. Since 1970 the National Front coalition headed by United Malays National Organisation has governed Malaysia, Economic growth dramatically increased living standards by the 1990s. This growing prosperity helped minimise political discontent, stone hand-axes from early hominoids, probably Homo erectus, have been unearthed in Lenggong. They date back 1.83 million years, the oldest evidence of habitation in Southeast Asia. The earliest evidence of human habitation in Malaysia is the 40, 000-year-old skull excavated from the Niah Caves in todays Sarawak. It was excavated from a trench uncovered by Barbara and Tom Harrisson in 1958. This is also the oldest modern human skull in Southeast Asia, the skull probably belongs to a 16-to 17-year-old adolescent girl. The first foragers visited the West Mouth of Niah Caves 40,000 years ago when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia, the landscape around the Niah Caves was drier and more exposed than it is now. Prehistorically, the Niah Caves were surrounded by a combination of closed forests with bush, parkland, swamps, the foragers were able to survive in the rainforest through hunting, fishing, and gathering molluscs and edible plants
16.
Prehistoric Malaysia
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The earliest anatomically modern humans skeleton in Peninsular Malaysia, Perak Man, dates back 11,000 years and Perak Woman dating back 8,000 years, were both discovered in Lenggong. The site has a stone tool production area, created using equipment such as anvils. The Tambun Cave paintings are situated in Perak. From East Malaysia, Sarawaks Niah Caves, there is evidence of the oldest human remains in Malaysia, Niah Caves in Sarawak is an important prehistoric site where human remains dating to ca.40,000 years ago have been found. Archeologists have claimed a much earlier date for stone tools found in the Mansuli valley, near Lahad Datu in Sabah, archaeological finds from the Lenggong valley in Perak show that people were making stone tools and using jewellery. The archaeological data from this come from cave and rock shelter sites. It is believed that Neolithic farmers made their entrance in this region between 3–4000 years ago, more people arrived, including new tribes and seafarers. The Malay Peninsula became the crossroads in maritime trades of the ancient age, seafarers who came to Malaysias shores included Indians, Egyptians, peoples of the Middle East, Javanese and Chinese. Ptolemy named the Malay Peninsula the Golden Chersonese, the population migrations were most likely to have been driven by climate change – the effects of the drowning of an ancient continent. A2009 genetic study published by the 2009 Human Genome Organization Pan-Asian SNP Consortium found that Asia was originally settled by humans via a southern route. The migration came from Africa via India, into Southeast Asia and what are now islands in the Pacific, genetic similarities were found between populations throughout Asia and an increase in genetic diversity from northern to southern latitudes. Oppenheimer locates the origin of the Austronesians in Sundaland and its upper regions. The theory of the Proto Malay people originating from Yunnan is supported by R. H Geldern, J. H. C Kern, J. R Foster, J. R Logen, Slametmuljana and Asmah Haji Omar. The Proto Malay who first arrived had agricultural skills while the second wave Deutero Malay who arrived around 1500 BC to dwell along the coastlines had advanced fishery skills. During the migration, both groups intermarried with peoples of the islands, such as those from Java, and also with aboriginal peoples of Australoid, Negrito. Other evidences that support this include, Stone tools found in the Malay archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools. Similarities between Malay customs and Assamese customs, the Malay language and the Cambodian language are kindred languages because the ancestral home of Cambodians was near the source of the Mekong River. According to Kedah Annals, Kadaram was founded by Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron, Persia around 630 CE, the other Malay literature, Sejarah Melayu too alleged that they were the descendants of Alexander The Great
17.
Gangga Negara
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Researchers believe that the kingdom was centred at Beruas and it collapsed after an attack by King Rajendra Chola I of Coromandel, South India, between 1025 and 1026. Gangga Negara means a city on the Ganges in Sanskrit, the derived from Ganganagar in northwest India where the Kambuja peoples inhabited. The Kambujas are an Indo-Iranian clan of the Indo-European family, originally localised in Pamirs, historians found the Kambuja traders travelled from Gujarat to Sri Lanka and then to Ligor of the northern Malay peninsular, overland to Thailand and Cambodia. The first research into the Beruas kingdom was conducted by Colonel James Low in 1849, according to the Museum and Antiquities Department, both researchers agreed that the Gangga Negara kingdom existed between 100 ce -1000 but could not ascertain the exact site. For years, villagers had unearthed artefacts believed to be from the ancient kingdoms, artefacts on display include a 128 kg cannon, swords, kris, coins, tin ingots, pottery from the Ming Dynasty and various eras, and large jars. They can be dated back to the 5th and 6th century, through these artefacts, it has been postulated that Pengkalan, Kinta Valley, Tanjung Rambutan, Bidor and Sungai Siput were part of the kingdom. Artifacts also suggest that the centre might have shifted several times. Gangga Negara was renamed to Beruas after the establishment of Islam there, history of Pasai did mentioned a Malik ul Salih who was the first local Hindu Malay king to convert to Islam in 1267. Today the beruas trees have become extinct but can still be found in the villages of Pengkalan Baru
18.
Langkasuka
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Langkasuka was an ancient Hindu-Buddhist Malay kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. The name is Sanskrit in origin, it is thought to be a combination of langkha for resplendent land -sukkha for bliss, the kingdom, along with Old Kedah, is probably among the earliest kingdoms founded on the Malay Peninsula. The exact location of the kingdom is of some debate, but archaeological discoveries at Yarang near Pattani, the kingdom is believed to have been founded in the 2nd century. According to the legend given in the Kedah Annals, the kingdom was founded and named by Merong Mahawangsa, Chinese historical sources provided some information on the kingdom and recorded a king Bhagadatta who sent envoys to the Chinese court. The earliest and most detailed description of the kingdom comes from the Chinese Liang Dynasty record Liangshu, according to Liangshu, Lang-ya-xiu or Langkasuka was thirty days journey from east to west, and twenty from north to south,24,000 li in distance from Guangzhou. It mentions that Aloeswood and camphor were abundant in the kingdom, women of high status wrapped themselves in cloth and wore jeweled girdles. It gives further information on some of its kings and also relates a story on a succession and he is accompanied by banners, fly-whisks, flags and drums and he is shaded with a white parasol. The soldiers of his guard are well-appointed, the inhabitants of the country say that their state was founded more than four hundred years ago. Subsequently the descendants became weaker, but in the household there was a man of virtue to whom the populace turned. When the king heard of this he imprisoned this man, the king took him for a supernatural being and, not daring to injure him, exiled him from the country, whereupon he fled to India. The king of India gave him his eldest daughter in marriage, not long afterwards, when the king of Lang-ya died, the chief ministers welcomed back the exile and made him king. This king then ruled for more than 20 years and he was succeeded by his son, King Bhagadatta, who sent the first ambassadorial mission to China in 515. The transcription of the name in Chinese records changed over time. In the late century, the Buddhist monk Yi Jing mentioned encountering three Chinese monks who lived in a place named Lang-jia-shu. A Song Dynasty work Zhu fan zhi gives a description of the country of Ling-ya-si-jia and it also says that the country paid tribute to a country named Sanfoqi which is often interpreted to be Srivijaya. Langkasuka was known as Long-ya-xi-jiao in Daoyi Zhilüe from the Yuan Dynasty, Daoyi Zhilüe mentions that the native of Langkasuka make salt from seawater and ferment rice wine, and produced hornbill casques, lakawood, honey and gharuwood. The people wore cotton from the Phillipines and printed cloth from India, the country was named Langkasuka in the Malay text Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, and was referred to as Lengkasuka in the Javanese poem Nagarakretagama. Tamil sources name Ilangasoka as one of Rajendra Cholas conquests in his expedition against the Srivijaya empire and it was described as a kingdom that was undaunted in fierce battles
19.
Chi Tu
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Chi Tu is an ancient kingdom mentioned in the history of China. The Sui Dynasty annals describe an advanced kingdom called Chi Tu in 607, the location of Chi Tu was disputed to be around Kelantan or Pahang state in Malay Peninsula, or in Songkhla and Pattani Province of southern Thailand. The inscribed Buddhagupta Stone found in Kedah mentioned a Raktamrttika, meaning red earth land, the Chi Tu kingdom is believed to have existed from 100 BC to the 7th century. The royal familys name is Chu-dan and the king is Li-fo-duo-se, according to Chinese records, Chi Tu was built by kit mow peoples who sailed from the coast of Funan. Centuries later, the inhabitants, replaced Funan peoples. Chi Tu is a nation of Funan, located in within the southern sea, sailing hundred days to reach. East bordering Po-Lo-La, West bordering Po-Lo-So, South bordering Ho Lo Tan, the king has three wives and the kingdom embraced Buddhism. Chi Tu kingdom along with Langkasuka, Kedah and others were important trade centers. During this period, ships coming from China and Funan stop at the coast of Malay Peninsula and they get the local porters to transport the goods, using rafts, elephants and manpower along the Early transpeninsular routeway and part of the ancient Spice Route. Scholars do not agree on the location of Raktamaritika, while some consider it in the area of Phatthalung / Songkhla area, or Kelantan. The ruins around the Songkhla lake such as Bang Kaeo in Phatthalung or Sathing Phra in Songkhla then might be one of the cities of Raktamaritika, J. L. Meons believed that early Srivijaya was located in Kelantan and K. A. The founding of Sri Wijaya Mala was 667 BC with its capital called Valai and it was until 570 BC that the kingdom changed its name to Sri Wijaya. The inscription of the Buddhagupta Stone found in Kedah mentioned a Raktamaritika, the old name of Songkhla is Singgora, which coincides with the fact that according to the Chinese chronicles the capital of Chitu was Sing-Ha and also the nearby Singhanakhon district. This name may also be related to Tambralinga because there is Tam in this name as same as Raktamaritika, and this state has appeared in 642, the same area of the central Malay peninsula after Chitu has already faded away from the history
20.
History of Kedah
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Early west-coast trade centres are few in number as they were overshadowed by Kedah. Early sea traders from the west, upon reaching the coast, engaged porters to transport goods by raft, elephant, the Sungai Muda in particular favoured the development of Kedah. After the 7th century, Srivijaya subjugated Kedah, but due to her fame, Indian sources continue to depict Kedah. Early Kedah also supplied its own tin, and jungle products such as rattan, resin, honey, beeswax, elephants, ivory, areca nuts, sepang wood and black woods, the early history of Kedah can be traced from various sources. Austronesians began migrating to the Malay Archipelago approximately 3,500 years before present and it is now accepted that Taiwan is the cradle of Austronesian languages. Some 4,000 years ago, Austronesian began to migrate to the Philippines, later on, some of their descendants started to migrate southwards to what is now Indonesia and eastwards to the Pacific islands. Austronesians were great seafarers, colonising as far as New Zealand, Hawaii, in some regions they intermarried with the local inhabitants, becoming the Deutero-Malays. Possibly as early as the 4th century BCE, Austronesians started to sail westwards in search of new markets for their products and they reached the eastern coast of southern India, initiating trade. Gradually, rulers from western Indonesia began to adopt Tamil-Indian cultural and political models, however, the earliest evidence of such models found so far have been dated to only the early 5th century. Some Greco-Roman merchants in the 1st century CE described huge non-Indian ships coming from the east with rich cargoes and this would indicate that the Malay participated actively in Indian Ocean trade, and likely handled much of the traffic between Southeast Asia and India. Early in the Medieval era, Kedah became part of Srivijaya and this led to rivalries with the Indian states, especially the Chola Empire from the 9th to 13th centuries CE. The Cholas had a merchant and naval fleet in the Indian Ocean. In the early 11th century, Tamil Chola King Rajendra Chola I sent an expedition to attack Kedah on behalf of one of its rulers who sought his assistance to gain the throne, dr. Wales investigated no fewer than thirty sites round about Kedah. The results show this site was in occupation for centuries, by people who under strong South Indian, Buddhist. It is inscribed on three faces in Pallava script, or Vatteluttu rounded writing of the 6th century CE, possibly earlier, one of the early inscription stones discovered by James Low, at Bukit Meriam and in Muda River, mention of Raktamrrtika. The word Raktamrrtika means ‘Red Earth’, inscriptions, both in Tamil and Sanskrit, relate to the activities of the people and rulers of the Tamil country of South India. The Tamil inscriptions are at least four centuries posterior to the Sanskrit inscriptions, in Kedah, an inscription in Sanskrit dated 1086 CE has been found. This was left by Kulothunga Chola I and this too shows the commercial contacts the Chola Empire had with Malaya
21.
Melayu Kingdom
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The Melayu Kingdom was a classical Southeast Asian kingdom. The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of studies among historians, one theory is that the kingdom was established around present-day Jambi on Sumatra, Indonesia, approximately 300 km north of Palembang. According to this theory, it was founded by groups in the Batanghari river area. The theory is disputed as the location of Jambi contradicts the descriptions by Yijing. The origins of the word Melayu are disputed, one theory suggests that it is derived from the Javanese terms melayu or mlayu, to describe the strong current of a river in Sumatra that today bore the name Sungai Melayu. The name was possibly adopted by the Melayu Kingdom, as it is common for people in the region to be known by the name of the river on which they settled. Another theory hold that it originates from the Tamil words Malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, an early literary appearance was in Vayu Purana where the word Malaya Dvipa was mentioned, referring to the mountainous terrain of Malay Peninsula. In 7th century, the first use of the term for a nation or a kingdom was recorded by Yijing, among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the written source of monk Xuanzang), and Wu-lai-yu. In response to the Sukhothais move, a Chinese envoy arrived at the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial order, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. This nation of Ma-li-yu-er that appeared in the Chinese record possibly a similar nation that was mentioned by the famous Venetian traveller Marco Polo who lived during the same period, in Travels of Marco Polo, he made a reference to a kingdom named Malauir in the Malay peninsula. The Khmer recorded the nation of Melayu, however, its progeny Srivijaya, was also called Melayu, on the Amoghapasa inscription, dated 1347 CE, the word Malayapura was proclaimed by Adityawarman, again referring to Dharmasraya. The word Melayu is also mentioned in the Malay annals referring to a river in Sumatra. Here now is the story of a city called Palembang in the land of Andelas. It was ruled by Demang Lebar Daun, a descendant of Raja Shulan, in the upper reaches of the Muara Tatang was a river called Melayu, and on that river was a hill called Si-Guntang Mahameru. On his route via Maritime Southeast Asia, Yijing visited Srivijaya twice where he stayed from 688 to 695, Srivijaya appears to have been flourishing around the time of Yijings visit, which he initially called Bogha during his first visit. At its greatest extent, the kingdom extended to Malayu, which seems to have been annexed or to have come spontaneously under the realm of Bogha prince, the whole country as well as the capital received the name Sribogha or Srivijaya. The following extract from Yijings work, A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea, further describes his route via Bogha and Malayu, Wu Hing came to Bogha after a months sail. The king received him very favourably and respected him as a guest from the land of the son of heaven of the Great Tang and he went on board the kings ship to the country of Malayu and arrived there after fifteen days sail. Thence he went to Ka Cha, again after fifteen days, at the end of winter he changed ship and sailed to the west
22.
Srivijaya
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Srivijaya was a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 8th to the 12th century, Srivijaya was the first unified kingdom to dominate much of Malay archipelago. In Sanskrit, śrī means fortunate, prosperous, or happy, the earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 CE for six months, the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682 CE. Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia and it was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Java, Kambuja and Champa. Srivijayas main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty, Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century by various factors, including the expansion of the rival Javanese Singhasari, after Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of École française dExtrême-Orient, little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia, Cœdès noted that the Chinese references to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijings account is important on describing Srivijaya. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka island are also vital primary historical sources, also, regional accounts that some might be almost tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Javaka and the Khmer King also provides a glimpse of the kingdom. Besides, some Indian and Arabic accounts also describes vaguely about the riches, Srivijaya had become a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Javas Majapahit in the east. Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples, the Chinese called it Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che, and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. Sanskrit and Pali texts referred to it as Yavades and Javadeh, the Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa or Malayu and this is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult. While some of names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java. According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka, Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of todays Palembang and it mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion, the Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin
23.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
24.
Kedah Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Kedah may be the earliest sultanate on the Malay Peninsula and is supposedly one of the oldest Sultanates in the world, allegedly founded in 1136. The information regarding the formation of this sultanate and the history before, the Kedah Annals were written in the eighteenth century, over a millennium after the formation of the Kedah Kingdom. It describes the first king of Kedah as arriving on the shores of Kedah as a result of an attack by a gigantic beast. It states that the nation was founded by the offspring of Alexander the Great, the Kedah Annals also provide us with very unreliable information regarding the sultans of Kedah. This claim also contradicts the fact that the Buddhist Srivijaya kingdom was in direct control of Kedah at the time that Sultan Mudzafar Shah I allegedly converted the region to a sultanate. Kedah Kingdom was founded by Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron around 630 CE, around 170 CE a group of native refugees of Hindu faith arrived at Kedah, joining them soon were peoples from nearby islands and from the northern Mon-Khmer region. Ancient Kedah covered the areas of Kuala Bahang, Kuala Bara, Kuala Pila and Merpah, and the inhabitants of Kedah appointed Tun Derma Dewa and Tun Perkasa as their village chiefs. In 630 CE, Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron in Persia was defeated in battle and escaped to Sri Lanka, the inhabitants of Kedah found him to be a valiant and intelligent person, and they made him the king of Kedah. In 634 CE, a new kingdom was formed in Kedah consisting of Persian royalty and native Malay of Hindu faith and he ruled the northern region of Malay Peninsula from 1136 to 1179. According to the Kedah Annals, the first king of Kedah was Maharaja Derbar Raja I, according to tradition, the founding of the Kedah kingdom occurred around 630 CE, replacing the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka. It is said to have founded by Durbaraja I, a Hindu who originated from Gemeron in Persia. The Hindu dynasty ended when the ninth king Durbaraja II, styled Phra Ong Mahawangsa by the Siamese, the following is a list of kings of Kadaram, nine in total. Each used the Hindu title of maharaja, the exact dates of each kings reign are not known. The beginning of the use of the sultan in Kedah is attributed to a visit by a Muslim scholar from Yemen, Sheikh Abdullah bin Jaafar Quamiri. The audience resulted in the conversion to Islam. He adopted the name Mudzafar Shah and established the sultanate of Kedah, source for the list of sultans is the Kedah State Public Library. The Nobat musical instruments of Nagara and Nepiri were introduced to Kedah by Maharaja Derbar Raja, the instrument is also called semambu. The band is led by the king, and it consists of drums, a gong, a flute, today, Nobat is a Royal orchestra, played only during royal ceremonies such as inaugurations, weddings, and funerals
25.
Bruneian Empire
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The Bruneian Empire or Empire of Brunei /bruːˈnaɪ/, also known as Sultanate of Brunei, was a Malay sultanate, centred in Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo island in Southeast Asia. The kingdom was founded in the early 7th century, started as a small seafaring trading kingdom ruled by a pagan or Hindu king known by the Chinese as Po-Li or Po-Ni. Understanding the history of the Bruneian Empire is quite difficult since it is mentioned in contemporary sources of its time. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for any of this, as a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei. Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Borneo as a whole, while Poli 婆利, the earliest diplomatic relations between Boni and China are recorded in the Taiping Huanyu Ji. In 1225, a Chinese official, Zhao Rugua, reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, in the 14th century, Brunei seems to be subjected to Java. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the state of Majapahit. In 1369, the Sulus attacked Po-ni, looting it of treasure, a fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Po-ni was left weaker after the attack. A Chinese report from 1371 described Po-ni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit, after the death of its emperor, Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit entered the state of decline and was unable to control its overseas possessions. This opened the opportunity for Bruneian kings to expand their influence, Chinese Ming emperor Yongle, after ascending to throne in 1403, immediately dispatched envoys to various countries inviting them to pay tribute to Chinese court. Brunei immediately got involved in the tributary system with China. It controlled most of northern Borneo, and it became an important hub for the East, the Bruneian kings seems to cultivated alliance with regional seafaring peoples of Orang Laut and Bajau that formed their naval armada. The Dayaks, native tribes of interior Borneo however, were not under their control, the earliest recorded documentation by the West about Brunei was by an Italian known as Ludovico di Varthema. Ludovico was at the time on a route to the Maluku Islands when he landed in Borneo, the record of his documentation dates back to 1550. We arrived at the island of Bornei, which is distant from the Maluch about two hundred miles, and we found that it was larger than the aforesaid and much lower. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill and their colour is whiter than that of the other sort. in this island justice is well administered. During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth Sultan, the empire controlled over coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached Seludong, Ma-i, in the 16th century, the Brunei empires influence also extended as far as Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and Sultanate of Sulu in Southern Philippines in particular has developed relations with the royal house of Brunei
26.
Malacca Sultanate
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The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay sultanate centred in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c.1400 as the year of the sultanate by a renegade Malay Raja of Singapura, Parameswara who was also known as Iskandar Shah. As a bustling trading port, Malacca emerged as a centre for Islamic learning and dissemination. The legacy of the political and cultural legacy remains to this day. For centuries, Malacca has been held up as an exemplar of Malay-Muslim civilisation, the series of raids launched by the Chola Empire in the 11th century had weakened the once glorious empire of Srivijaya. By the end of the 13th century, the already fragmented Srivijaya caught the attention of the expansionist Javanese King, in 1275, he decreed the Pamalayu expedition to overrun Sumatra. By 1288, Singhasari naval expeditionary forces successfully sacked Jambi and Palembang, the complete destruction of Srivijaya caused the diaspora of the Srivijayan princes and nobles. Rebellions against the Javanese rule ensued and attempts were made by the fleeing Malay princes to revive the empire, the Orang Laut, famous for their loyal services to Srivijaya, eventually made him king of a new kingdom called Singapura. In the 14th century, Singapura developed concurrently with the Pax Mongolica era and its wealth and success however, alarmed two regional powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. As a result, the fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398. The fifth and last king, Parameswara fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam river. Legend has it that the king saw a mouse deer outwit his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this boded well, remarking, this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable, tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the deer is part of modern Malaccas coat of arms. The name Malacca itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Melaka tree scientifically termed as Phyllanthus emblica, following establishment of his new city in Malacca, Parameswara initiated the development of the place and laid the foundation of a trade port. The indigenous inhabitants of the straits, the Orang Laut, were employed to patrol the adjacent sea areas, to repel other petty pirates, within years, news about Malacca becoming a centre of trade and commerce began to spread all over the eastern part of the world. In 1405, Yongle Emperor of Ming Dynasty sent his envoy headed by Yin Qing to Malacca in 1403, Yin Qings visit opened the way for the establishment of friendly relations between Malacca and China. Two years later, the legendary Admiral Zheng He made his first of six visits to Malacca, Chinese merchants began calling at the port and pioneering foreign trading bases in Malacca
27.
Sultanate of Sulu
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The Sultanate of Sulu was a Muslim state that ruled the islands in the Sulu Archipelago, parts of Mindanao, certain portions of Palawan and north-eastern Borneo. The sultanate was founded on 17 November 1405, by a Johore-born explorer and religious scholar Sharif ul-Hashim. Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim became his full regnal name, after the marriage of Abu Bakr and a local dayang-dayang Paramisuli, he founded the sultanate. The Sultanate gained its independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578, at its peak, it stretched over the islands that bordered the western peninsula of Mindanao in the east to Palawan in the north. It also covers the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay, while another source stated the area stretching from Kimanis Bay which also overlaps with the boundaries of the Bruneian Sultanate. In 1962, Philippine Government under the leadership of President Diosdado Macapagal officially recognised the existence of the Sultanate of Sulu. On 24 May 1974, Sultan Mohammad Mahakuttah Kiram, was the last officially recognized Sulu Sultan in the Philippines, the present area of the Sultanate of Sulu was once under the influence of the Bruneian Empire before it gained its own independence in 1578. Later, the earliest known settlement in this soon to be occupied by the sultanate who was in Maimbung. During these times, Sulu was called Lupah Sug, the Principality of Maimbung, populated by Buranun people, was first ruled by a certain rajah who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title rajah sipad originated from the Hindu sri pada, the Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger, during the reign of Sipad the Younger, a mystic named Tuan Mashā′ikha arrived in Jolo in 1280 AD. Other reports, however, insisted that Tuan Mashā′ikha together with his parents, Jamiyun Kulisa, however, Saleeby dismisses this claim by concluding that Jamiyun Kulisa and Indra Suga were mythical names. According to tarsila, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the people of Maimbung worshipped tombs, after he preached Islam in the area, he married Sipad the Youngers daughter, Idda Indira Suga and bore three children, Tuan Hakim, Tuan Pam and Aisha. Tuan Hakim, in turn, begot five children, from the genealogy of Tuan Mashā′ikha, another titular system of aristocracy called tuanship started in Sulu. Apart from the Idda Indira Suga, Tuan Mashā′ikha also married into another unidentified woman, Tuan Mashā′ikha died in 710 A. H. and was buried in Bud Dato near Jolo, with an inscription of Tuan Maqbālū. A descendant of Tuan Mashā′ikha named Tuan May also begot a son named Datu Tka, the descendants of Tuan May did not assume the title tuan, instead, they started to use datu. It is the first time datu was used as a political institution, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the Tagimaha people coming from Basilan and several places in Mindanao, also arrived and settled in Buansa. After the Tagimaha came the Baklaya people, believed to be originated from Sulawesi, after these came the Bajau people from Johor
28.
Aceh Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Aceh, officially the Kingdom of Aceh Darussalam, was a Sultanate centred in the modern-day Indonesian province of Aceh. It was a regional power in the 16th and 17th centuries. Its capital was Kutaraja, the present-day Banda Aceh, in addition to its considerable military strength, the court of Aceh became a noted centre of Islamic scholarship and trade. Acehs early history is unclear, but in one version it was founded by the Cham people, the Acehnese language is one of the 10 languages of the Aceh-Chamic language group. The ruler of Aceh converted to Islam in the mid-15th century, the Sultanate was founded by Ali Mughayat Syah, who began campaigns to extend his control over northern Sumatra in 1520. His conquests included Deli, Pedir, and Pasai, and he attacked Aru, the Ottoman Empire sent a relief force of 15 Xebecs commanded by Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis. On 21 June 1599 a Dutch captain, Cornelius Houtman arrived at Acheen aboard the Lioness as the first of three planned voyages to the East Indies, the crew stayed for three months acquiring pepper and other spices. British crew member John Davis claims the party was attacked by the local warlord with the loss of 68 dead. After they arrived, they were permitted by the Sultan to purchase pepper The same year and he returned in 1602 bearing a letter from English Queen Elizabeth I. The Sultan from 1589 to 1604 was Alauddin Riayat Shah ibn Firman Shah, internal dissension in the Sultanate prevented another powerful Sultan from appearing until 1607, when Iskandar Muda came to the position. He extended the Sultanates control over most of Sumatra and he also conquered Pahang, a tin-producing region of the Malayan Peninsula, and was able to force the Sultans of Johor to recognise his overlordship, if temporarily. During his reign he created a code of laws known as Adat Meukuta Alam, Acehs forces were not destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same year and taking many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultans son in law, Iskandar Thani, former prince of Pahang later became his successor, during his reign Aceh focused on internal consolidation and religious unity. After the reign of Sultan Iskandar Thani, Aceh was ruled by a series of female Sultana, Acehs previous policy of taking hostage from conquered kingdoms population made them eager to seek independence, the results were Acehs control weakened while regional rulers gained effective power. The Sultan ultimately became a symbolic title. Aceh saw itself as heir to Pasai, the first Islamic state in Southeast Asia and it was called the porch of Mecca, and became a centre of Islamic scholarship, where the Quran and other Islamic texts were translated into Malay. Its notable scholars included Hamzah Pansuri, Syamsuddin of Pasai, Abdurrauf of Singkil, Aceh gained wealth from its export of pepper, nutmeg, cloves, betel nuts, and, once it conquered Pahang in 1617, tin. Low interest rates and the use of gold currency strengthened its economy and it was always somewhat fragile economically, however, because of the difficulty in providing enough surplus food to support the military and commercial adventures of the state
29.
Pattani Kingdom
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Pattani or the Sultanate of Patani was a Malay sultanate in the historical Patani Region. It covered approximately the area of the modern Thai provinces of Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat, the 6–7th century Hindu state of Pan Pan may or may not have been related. The kingdom drew trade from Chinese, Indian, and local traders as a place for ships bound for, or just arrived from. Langkasuka reached its greatest economic success in the 6th and 7th centuries, political circumstances suggest that by the 11th century Chola invasion, Langkasuka was no longer a major port visited by merchants. However, much of the decline may be due to the silting up of its harbour, Patani became part of the Hindu-Buddhist Empire of Srivijaya, a maritime confederation based in Palembang. Srivijaya dominated trade in the South China Sea and exacted tolls on all traffic through the Straits of Malacca, Malay culture had substantial influence on the Khmer Empire, and the ancient city of Nakhon Pathom. However, some think it was the country known to the Chinese as Pan Pan. An alternative theory is that the Patani kingdom was founded in the 14th century, local stories tell of a fisherman named Pak Tani, who was sent by a king from the interior to survey the coast, to find a place for an appropriate settlement. After he established a fishing outpost, other people moved to join him. The town soon grew into a trading center that continued to bear his name. The authors of the 17th–18th century Hikayat Patani chronicle claim this story is untrue, in the 14th century CE, King Ram Khamhaeng the Great of Sukhothai, occupied Nakhon Si Thammarat and its vassal states – including Patani. The Thai Ayutthaya kingdom conquered the isthmus during the 14th century CE, bringing it into a unified state, with Ayutthaya as a capital. This consisted of a system in which the vassal states and tributary provinces owed allegiance to the king of Ayutthaya. All of the officials also agreed to convert. However, there is evidence that some local people had begun to convert to Islam prior to this. The existence of a diasporic Pasai community near Patani shows the locals had regular contact with Muslims, during much of the 15th century Ayutthayas energies were directed toward the Malay Peninsula, especially the trading port of Malacca, which fell under the rule of the Malacca Sultanate. Ayutthayas sovereignty extended over Malacca and the Malay states south of Tambralinga, Ayutthaya helped develop and stabilise the region, opening the way for lucrative trade on the isthmus. This attracted Chinese merchants seeking speciality goods for the Chinese market, the 16th century witnessed the rise of Burma, which under an aggressive dynasty had overrun Chiang Mai and Laos and made war on Ayutthaya
30.
Johor Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Johor was founded by Malaccan Sultan Mahmud Shahs son, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II in 1528. Johor was part of the Malaccan Sultanate before the Portuguese conquered Malaccas capital in 1511, during the colonial era, the mainland part was administered by the British, and the insular part by the Dutch, thus breaking up the sultanate into Johor and Riau. In 1946, the British section became part of the Malayan Union, two years later, it joined the Federation of Malaya and subsequently, the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. In 1949, the Dutch section became part of Indonesia, in 1511, Malacca fell to the Portuguese and Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca. The sultan made several attempts to retake the capital but his efforts were fruitless, the Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the sailed to Bintan and established a new capital there. With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organised several attacks and blockades against the Portuguese position. Based at Pekan Tua, Sungai Telur, Johor, the Johor Sultanate was founded by Raja Ali Ibni Sultan Mahmud Melaka, known as Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah, with his Queen Tun Fatimah in 1528. Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship and it helped to convince the Portuguese to destroy the exiled sultans forces, a number of attempts were made to suppress the Malay but it was not until 1526 that the Portuguese finally razed Bintan to the ground. The sultan then retreated to Kampar in Sumatra and died two years later and he left behind two sons named Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II. Muzaffar Shah continued on to establish Perak while Alauddin Riayat Shah became the first sultan of Johor, the new sultan established a new capital by the Johor River and, from there, continued to harass the Portuguese in the north. He consistently worked together with his brother in Perak and the Sultan of Pahang to retake Malacca, on the northern part of Sumatra around the same period, Aceh Sultanate was beginning to gain substantial influence over the Straits of Malacca. With the fall of Malacca to Christian hands, Muslim traders often skipped Malacca in favour of Aceh or also of Johors capital Batu Sawar, therefore, Malacca and Aceh became direct competitors. With the Portuguese and Johor frequently locking horns, Aceh launched multiple raids against both sides to tighten its grip over the straits, the rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a truce and divert their attention to Aceh. The truce, however, was short-lived and with Aceh severely weakened, Johor, during the rule of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615. In the early 17th century, the Dutch reached Southeast Asia, at that time the Dutch were at war with the Portuguese and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed by Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge on behalf of the Dutch Estates General and Raja Bongsu of Johor in May, finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese. As per the agreement with Johor struck in May 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca, finally in January 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces, defeated the Portuguese at Malacca
31.
House of Jamalullail (Perlis)
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The House of Jamalullail is the current ruling house of the state of Perlis in Malaysia. The hereditary ruler of Perlis is also the head of its royal household, unlike most of the other Malaysian states with its own hereditary rulers which are accorded with the title of Sultan, the hereditary rulers of Perlis are accorded with the title of Raja. As with other rulers from other states in Malaysia, the Raja of Perlis participate in the election of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and is qualified to serve a term as the Agong if elected. The Jamalullail clan was of Hadhrami Arab origin and founded as an offshoot from the greater Alawi lineage in the 15th century and he settled in Chana village, which was on the border of Siam and Kedah at that time. He earned his living as a trader and was reportedly a well-respected figure in the state, Sayyid Ahmads son with Sharifah Aminah, Sayyid Harun followed his fathers footsteps as a trader, in addition to being a well-known religious scholar. He was later admitted into the Kedah royal court and became an aide of the Sultan of Kedah. He later married a princess from the Kedah royal family, Tengku Safiah, when the Thai army invaded and occupied Kedah between 1821 and 1842, local Arab families supported the Sultans efforts to lead resistance efforts against Thai rule. The Thais later agreed to restore the Sultan of Kedah to his throne in 1842, the following year, Sayyid Hussein Jamal Al-Layl from Chana was installed by the Thais as the first Raja of Perlis, after the Sultan of Kedah gave his endorsement for the formation of Perlis. In 1933, the fourth Raja of Perlis, Syed Alwi Jamalullail looked to the State Council to elect an heir presumptive to the throne of Perlis. The State Council chose Syed Hassan among several possible contenders as the heir-presumptive, Syed Hassan was a nephew by his older half-brother Syed Mahmud. An illness struck Syed Hassan the following year, he died shortly after that, the State Council held another vote, and elected Syed Hassans son, Syed Putra as the new heir presumptive. Following the demise of Syed Alwi in 1943, Syed Hamzah was installed as the Raja of Perlis, when the British returned in 1945, Syed Hamzah abdicated under pressure from the British and moved in to install Syed Putra as the Raja of Perlis. In 1960, Syed Putra became the third Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, reference Division, Commonwealth survey, Published for the Central Office of Information by H. M. S. O
32.
Portuguese Malacca
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Portuguese Malacca was the territory of Malacca that, for 130 years, was a Portuguese colony. The Airlele river was said to originate from Buquet China, eredia cited that the city was founded by Permicuri the first King of Malacca in 1411. The first European to reach Malacca and Southeast Asia, Sequeira arrived in Malacca in 1509, although he was initially well received by Sultan Mahmud Shah, trouble however quickly ensued. The general feeling of rivalry between Islam and Christianity was invoked by a group of Goa Muslims in the court after the Portuguese had captured Goa. The international Muslim trading community convinced Mahmud that the Portuguese were a grave threat, Mahmud subsequently captured several of his men, killed others and attempted to attack the four Portuguese ships, although they escaped. As the Portuguese had found in India, conquest would be the way they could establish themselves in Malacca. In April 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque set sail from Goa to Malacca with a force of some 1200 men and seventeen or eighteen ships, the Viceroy made a number of demands—one of which was for permission to build a fortress as a Portuguese trading post near the city. The Sultan refused all the demands, conflict was unavoidable, and after 40 days of fighting, Malacca fell to the Portuguese on 24 August. A bitter dispute between Sultan Mahmud and his son Sultan Ahmad also weighed down the Malaccan side. A fortress was designed and constructed encompassing a hill, lining the edge of the sea shore, on the south east of the river mouth, Albuquerque remained in Malacca until November 1511 preparing its defences against any Malay counterattack. Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca, as the first base of European Christian trading kingdom in Southeast Asia, it was surrounded by numerous emerging native Muslim states. Also, with hostile initial contact with the local Malay policy and they endured years of battles started by Malay sultans who wanted to get rid of the Portuguese and reclaim their land. The Sultan made several attempts to retake the capital and he rallied the support from his ally the Sultanate of Demak in Java who, in 1511, agreed to send naval forces to assist. Led by Pati Unus, the Sultan of Demak, the combined Malay–Java efforts failed and were fruitless, the Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the sailed to Bintan Island and established a new capital there. With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organized several attacks, frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship. In 1521 the second Demak campaign to assist the Malay Sultan to retake Malacca was launched and he was later remembered as Pangeran Sabrang Lor or the Prince who crossed to North. The raids helped convince the Portuguese that the sultans forces must be silenced
33.
Dutch Malacca
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Dutch Malacca was the longest period that Malacca was under foreign control. The Dutch ruled for almost 183 years with intermittent British occupation during the Napoleonic Wars and this era saw relative peace with little serious interruption from the Malay kingdoms due to the understanding earlier on forged between the Dutch and the Sultanate of Johor in 1606. This time also marked the decline of the importance of Malacca, in the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company began the campaign to destroy Portuguese power in the East. At that time, the Portuguese had transformed Malacca into a fortress, controlling access to the sea lanes of the Straits of Malacca. The Dutch started by launching small incursions and skirmishes against the Portuguese, the Dutch with their local allies assaulted and wrested Malacca from the Portuguese in January 1641. This combined Dutch-Johor effort effectively destroyed the last bastion of Portuguese power, as per the agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with the Malay kingdoms. Malacca was controlled as a colony of the VOC, all the chief administrators of Malacca were Dutch governors except for the brief period that the city was under British Residents during the Wars of Napoleon. The governors and residents list is as follows, The Dutch improved and expanded the Portuguese fortress and built walls to protect the harbour, during their rule the famous city hall or Stadthuys was also constructed, which still stands today. History of the Dutch in Malaysia
34.
Siamese invasion of Kedah
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The Siamese invasion of Kedah was a military operation mounted by the Kingdom of Siam against the Sultanate of Kedah in November 1821, in the area of what is now northern Malaysia. In return the Sultanate received payment, and some form of assurances of help against the expansionist ambitions of the Siamese kingdom. In 1772 a Company mission came to Kedah under Edward Monckton, the Burmese–Siamese War had required of the Sultanate measures taken purely for expediency, including acknowledgement of Burmese overlordship, as well as the traditional Siamese overlordship. The Burmese had been campaigning in particular in Petani to the north of Kedah, the Companys commitment to defensive arrangements appeared shallow to the Sultanate, and an attempt was made in 1791 to repossess the Island, which was successfully resisted by Light. From a position of strength Light, who was not authorised by the Company to guarantee the defence of Kedah, the Siamese forces of King Rama II achieved a rapid victory against those of Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah II. The campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control, the Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control. By 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion, the Burney Treaty of 1826 allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail
35.
Straits Settlements
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The Straits Settlements were a group of British territories located in Southeast Asia. Originally established in 1826 as part of the controlled by the British East India Company. The colony was dissolved in 1946 as part of the British reorganisation of its Southeast Asian dependencies following the end of the Second World War, the Straits Settlements originally consisted of the four individual settlements of Malacca, Dinding, Penang and Singapore. The Penang territory included Penang Island, formerly known as Prince of Wales Island, christmas Island and the Cocos Islands were also included. The island of Labuan, off the coast of Borneo, was incorporated into the colony with effect from 1 January 1907. Most of the territories now form part of Malaysia, from which Singapore separated in 1965, the Cocos Islands were transferred to Australian control in 1955. Christmas Island was transferred in 1958 and their administration was combined in 1996 to form the Australian Indian Ocean Territories. This resulted in the exchange of the British settlement of Bencoolen for the Dutch colony of Malacca, the Settlements were largely Chinese in population, with a tiny but important European minority. Their capital was moved from Penang to Singapore in 1832 and their scattered nature proved to be difficult and, after the company lost its monopoly in the china trade in 1833, expensive to administer. During their control by the East India Company, the Settlements were used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners, the years 1852 and 1853 saw minor uprisings by convicts in Singapore and Penang. As there was little or no vernacular press in the Settlements, such an act seemed irrelevant, earlier, on 4 February 1867, Letters Patent had granted the Settlements a colonial constitution. Penang and Malacca were administered, directly under the governor, by resident councillors, the Dindings, which included Pangkor Island as well as the towns of Lumut, and Sitiawan, were ceded by Perak to the British government under the Pangkor Treaty of 1874. Province Wellesley, on the mainland opposite the island of Penang, was ceded to Great Britain in 1800 by the Sultan of Kedah, on its northern and eastern border, the boundary with Kedah was rectified by treaty with Siam in 1867. It was administered by an officer, with some assistants. About a tenth of the area was covered by low hills with thick jungle. Large quantities of rice were grown by the Malay inhabitants, the governor of the Straits Settlements was also High Commissioner for the Federated Malay States on the peninsula, for British North Borneo, the sultanate of Brunei and Sarawak in Borneo. Since the administration of the colony of Labuan, which for a period was vested in the British North Borneo Company, was resumed by the British government he was governor of Labuan. During World War II, the Japanese invaded Malaya and the Straits Settlements by landing on Kelantan on 8 December 1941, on 16 December Penang became the first Straits Settlement to fall into Japanese hands
Malaysia
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