1.
Kazakhs
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The Kazakhs are a Turkic people who mainly inhabit the southern part of Eastern Europe Ural mountains and northern parts of Central Asia, the region also known as Eurasian sub-continent. Kazakhs were one of the nations most severely affected by the Soviet famine of 1932–33, the Kazakhs probably began using this name during either the 15th or 16th centuries. There are many theories on the origin of the word Kazakh or Qazaq, some speculate that it comes from the Turkish verb qaz, because the Kazakhs were wandering steppemen, or that it derives from the Proto-Turkic word khasaq. Another theory on the origin of the word Kazakh is that it comes from the ancient Turkic word qazğaq, according to the notable Turkic linguist Vasily Radlov and the orientalist Veniamin Yudin, the noun qazğaq derives from the same root as the verb qazğan. Therefore, qazğaq defines a type of person who seeks profit, Kazakh was a common term throughout medieval Central Asia, generally with regard to individuals or groups who had taken or achieved independence from a figure of authority. Timur described his own youth without directory authority as his Qazaqliq, at the time of the Uzbek nomads Conquest of Central Asia, the Uzbek Abul-Khayr Khan had differences with the Chinggisid chiefs Giray/Kirey and Janibeg/Janibek, descendants of Urus Khan. These differences probably resulted from the defeat of Abul-Khayr Khan at the hands of the Qalmaqs. It is not explicitly explained that this is why the later Kazakhs took the name permanently, the group under Kirey and Janibek are called in various sources Qazaqs and Uzbek-Qazaqs. Later Russian language sources incorrectly termed them Kirghiz and Kirghiz-Kaisak, in the 17th century, Russian convention seeking to distinguish the Qazaqs of the steppes from the Cossacks of the Russian Imperial military transforms the ending of the word to kh instead of q or k. Kazakh – Казах Cossack – Казак The Russian term Cossack probably comes from the same Kypchak etymological root, wanderer, brigand, due to their nomadic pastoral lifestyle, Kazakhs kept an epic tradition of oral history. The nation, which amalgamated nomadic tribes of various Kazakh origins and it was important for a Kazakh to know his or her genealogical tree for no less than seven generations back. In modern Kazakhstan, tribalism is fading away in business and government life, still it is common for a Kazakh man or woman to ask another one which tribe he or she belongs to when getting acquainted with each other. Nowadays, it is more of a tradition than necessity, there is no hostility between tribes. Kazakhs, regardless of their origin, consider themselves one nation. Their age is unknown so far in extant historical texts, with the earliest mentions in the 17th century, Kazakh belongs to the Kipchak group of the Turkic language family. Kazakh, like most of the Turkic language family lacks phonemic vowel length, Kazakh was written with the Arabic script during the 19th century, when a number of poets, educated in Islamic schools, incited revolt against Russia. Russias response was to set up schools and devise a way of writing Kazakh with the Cyrillic alphabet. By 1917, the Arabic script was reintroduced, even in schools, in 1927, a Kazakh nationalist movement sprang up but was soon suppressed
2.
Yurt
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A traditional yurt or ger is a portable, round tent covered with skins or felt and used as a dwelling by nomads in the steppes of Central Asia. The structure comprises an assembly or latticework of pieces of wood or bamboo for walls, a door frame, ribs. The roof structure is often self-supporting, but large yurts may have interior posts supporting the crown, the top of the wall of self-supporting yurts is prevented from spreading by means of a tension band which opposes the force of the roof ribs. Yurt - originally from a Turkic word referring to the imprint left in the ground by a moved yurt, the term came to be used in reference to the physical tent-like dwellings only in other languages. In modern Turkish the word yurt is used as the synonym of homeland or a dormitory, in Russian the structure is called yurta, whence the word came into English. гэр - in Mongolian simply means home, тирмә is the Bashkir term for yurt. киіз үй - the Kazakh word, and means felt house, боз үй - the Kyrgyz term is meaning grey house, because of the color of the felt. Ak öý and gara öý - In Turkmen the term is literally white house and black house, depending on its luxury and elegance. Qara uy or otaw - in Qaraqalpaq the first term means black house, while the second means a newborn family and is used only to name a young familys yurt. Kheymah is the word for a yurt or a tent like dwelling in Pakistan, from the Urdu, خیمه In Persian yurt is called chador, in Tajik the names are yurt, khona-i siyoh, өг is the Tuvan word for yurt. Yurts have been a feature of life in Central Asia for at least three thousand years. The first written description of a used as a dwelling was recorded by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus. He described yurt-like tents as the place of the Scythians. Traditional yurts consist of a wooden circular frame carrying a felt cover. The felt is made from the wool of the flocks of sheep that accompany the pastoralists, the timber to make the external structure is not to be found on the treeless steppes, and must be obtained by trade in the valleys below. The frame consists of one or more expanding lattice wall-sections, a door-frame, bent roof poles, the Mongolian Ger has one or more columns to support the crown and straight roof poles. The wood frame is covered with pieces of felt, depending on availability, felt is additionally covered with canvas and/or sun-covers. The frame is held together with one or more ropes or ribbons, the structure is kept under compression by the weight of the covers, sometimes supplemented by a heavy weight hung from the center of the roof
3.
Robe
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A robe is a loose-fitting outer garment. Unlike garments described as capes or cloaks, robes usually have sleeves, the English word robe derives from Middle English robe, borrowed from Old French robe, itself taken from the Frankish word *rouba, and is related to the word rob. A gown worn as part of the attire of a judge or barrister, a wide variety of long, flowing religious dress including pulpit robes and the robes worn by various types of monks. A gown worn as part of the dress of a peer or royalty. Any of several womens fashions of French origin, as robe à langlaise, a gown worn in fantasy literature and role-playing games by wizards and other magical characters. A bathrobe worn mostly after bathing or swimming, any long flowing garment, for example, a cassock is sometimes called a robe, although a cassock is close-fitting
4.
Bakhtiari people
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The Bakhtiari are a southwestern Iranian tribe, and a subgroup of the Lurs. They speak the Bakhtiari dialect, a southwestern Iranian dialect, belonging to the Lurish language, Bakhtiaris primarily inhabit Chahar Mahaal and Bakhtiari and eastern Khuzestan, Lorestan, Bushehr, and Isfahan. In Khuzestan, Bakhtiari tribes are concentrated primarily in the part of the province. A small percentage of Bakhtiari are still nomadic pastoralists, migrating between summer quarters and winter quarters, numerical estimates of their total population vary widely. In Iranian mythology, the Bakhtiaris are considered to be descendants of Fereydun and they are also considered to be directly descended from Cyrus the Great. The Southwest Eurasian haplogroups F, G, and T1a also reach substantial frequency among Bakhtiaris. The term bakhtiari can be best translated as companion of chance or bearer of good luck The term has deep Persian roots and is the result of two smaller words bakht and yar complied together. Bakht is the Persian word for chance and yar, iar, the latter designation largely relates to the nature of the tribes annual migration. This has to do with the nature of Bakhtiari life. In this sense, Bakhtiaris view themselves as a tribe, facing numerous obstacles everyday. Nevertheless, the origins of Bakhtiaris are ancient and it may have well been the case that the tribe underwent a series of name changes throughout its history. However It is mostly claimed that the designation Bakhtiari came largely into use some time in antiquity, Constitutional Revolution, In Irans contemporary history, the Bakhtiari have played a significant role, particularly during the advent of the countrys Constitutional Revolution. This event was largely secured through the Bakhtari campaign, which eventually deposed Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar. The Bakhtiari tribesmen, under the leadership of the Haft Lang khans Sardar Assad and his brother Najaf Qoli Khan Bakhtiari- Saad ad-Daula, captured Tehran and, as a result and these events eventually led to the abdication of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar in 1909 and his exile to Russia. This incident secured Saad ad-Daula the position of Prime Minister in the period followed the abdication of the Qajar Shah. Nonetheless, with Russian backing, the Shah would soon return in 1911 by landing with a coalition of forces at Astarabad, however, his efforts to reclaim his throne would bear no fruit. In this sense, the Bakhtiaris played a role in saving the revolution from the Qajar forces. Pahlavi Period, With the expansion of Bakhtiari influence, urban elites began to worry in regards to a potential Bakhtiari takeover of Persias affairs, prior to this point, the Bakhtiari had largely remained within their own territorial boundaries
5.
Shepherd
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A shepherd /ˈʃɛpərd/ or sheepherder is a person who tends, herds, feeds, or guards herds of sheep. Shepherd derives from Old English sceaphierde, shepherding is among the oldest occupations, beginning some 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor. Sheep were kept for their milk, meat and especially their wool, over the next thousand years, sheep and shepherding spread throughout Eurasia. Some sheep were integrated in the farm along with other animals such as chickens. To maintain a large flock, the sheep must be able to move from pasture to pasture and this required the development of an occupation separate from that of the farmer. The duty of shepherds was to keep their flock intact, protect it from predators, in ancient times, shepherds also commonly milked their sheep, and made cheese from this milk, few shepherds still do this today. In many societies, shepherds were an important part of the economy, unlike farmers, shepherds were often wage earners, being paid to watch the sheep of others. Shepherds also lived apart from society, being largely nomadic and it was mainly a job of solitary males without children, and new shepherds thus needed to be recruited externally. Shepherds were most often the sons of farming peasants who did not inherit any land. Shepherds would normally work in groups either looking after one large flock, or each bringing their own and they would live in small cabins, often shared with their sheep, and would buy food from local communities. Less often shepherds lived in covered wagons that traveled with their flocks, shepherding developed only in certain areas. In the lowlands and river valleys, it was far more efficient to grow grain and cereals than to allow sheep to graze, thus the raising of sheep was confined to rugged and mountainous areas. In pre-modern times shepherding was thus centered on such as the Middle East, Greece, the Pyrenees, the Carpathian Mountains. The shepherds crook is a strong multi-purpose stick or staff, often fashioned with a hooked end, in modern times, shepherding has changed dramatically. The abolition of common lands in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth century moved shepherding from independent nomads to employees of massive estates. Some families in Africa and Asia have their wealth in sheep, in the USA, many sheep herds are flocked over public BLM lands. Wages are higher than was the case in the past, keeping a shepherd in constant attendance can be costly. Also, the eradication of sheep predators in parts of the world have lessened the need for shepherds, in places like Britain, hardy breeds of sheep are frequently left alone without a shepherd for long periods of time
6.
Textile
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
7.
Fibers
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Fiber or fibre is a natural or synthetic substance that is significantly longer than it is wide. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials, the strongest engineering materials often incorporate fibers, for example carbon fiber and ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene. Natural fibers develop or occur in the shape, and include those produced by plants, animals. Plant fibers are employed in the manufacture of paper and textile, wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable fiber, is from tree sources. Forms include groundwood, lacebark, thermomechanical pulp, and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps, animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are silkworm silk, spider silk, sinew, catgut, wool, sea silk and hair such as wool, mohair and angora, fur such as sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox, beaver. Mineral fibers include the asbestos group, asbestos is the only naturally occurring long mineral fiber. Six minerals have been classified as asbestos including chrysotile of the serpentine class, short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite and palygorskite. Instances are collagen family of proteins, tendon, muscle proteins like actin, cell proteins like microtubules and many others, spider silk, sinew, man-made or chemical fibers are fibers whose chemical composition, structure, and properties are significantly modified during the manufacturing process. Man-made fibers consist of regenerated fibers and synthetic fibers, the earliest semi-synthetic fiber is the cellulose regenerated fiber, rayon. Most semi-synthetic fibers are cellulose regenerated fibers, cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from natural cellulose. The cellulose comes from sources, rayon from tree wood fiber, Modal from beech trees, bamboo fiber from bamboo, seacell from seaweed. In the production of fibers, the cellulose is reduced to a fairly pure form as a viscous mass. Therefore, the process leaves few characteristics distinctive of the natural source material in the finished products. Some examples are, rayon bamboo fiber Lyocell, a brand of rayon Modal, historically, cellulose diacetate and -triacetate were classified under the term rayon, but are now considered distinct materials. Synthetic come entirely from materials such as petrochemicals, unlike those man-made fibers derived from such natural substances as cellulose or protein. Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel, carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and via pyrolysis carbonized polymers like PAN, but the end product is almost pure carbon. Silicon carbide fibers, where the polymers are not hydrocarbons but polymers
8.
Wool
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Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals, including cashmere and mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids. Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur, it is crimped, Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the layer of the skin called the epidermis. Follicles can be classed as primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber, Kemp, medullated fibers and true wool fibers, secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp, Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out. Wools scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a specific heat coefficient, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation, felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers, a fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while coarser wool like karakul may have as few as one or two. In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, on sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow, Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water. Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics and it is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes. Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers, Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, Wool is considered by the medical profession to be allergenic. Sheep shearing is the process by which the fleece of a sheep is cut off. After shearing, the wool is separated into four categories, fleece, broken, bellies. In Australia before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield, staple length, staple strength, the sheep is given a dip in antiseptic solution after shearing, so as to cure the wounds caused during shearing
9.
Synthetic fibers
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Synthetic fibers is the result of extensive research by scientists to improve on naturally occurring animal and plant fibres. In general, synthetic fibers are created by extruding fiber forming materials through spinnerets into air and water, before synthetic fibres were developed, artificially manufactured fibres were made from polymers obtained from petrochemicals. These fibres are called synthetic or artificial fibres, some fibres are manufactured from plant-derived cellulose. Joseph Swan invented the first synthetic fiber in the early 1880s and his fiber was drawn from a cellulose liquid, formed by chemically modifying the fiber contained in tree bark. In 1885, he unveiled fabrics he had manufactured from his material at the International Inventions Exhibition in London. The next step was taken by Hilaire de Chardonnet, a French engineer and industrialist, who invented the first artificial silk, in the late 1870s, Chardonnet was working with Louis Pasteur on a remedy to the epidemic that was destroying French silkworms. Failure to clean up a spill in the darkroom resulted in Chardonnets discovery of nitrocellulose as a replacement for real silk. Realizing the value of such a discovery, Chardonnet began to develop his new product, unfortunately, Chardonnets material was extremely flammable, and was subsequently replaced with other, more stable materials. The first successful process was developed in 1894 by English chemist Charles Frederick Cross and they named the fiber viscose, because the reaction product of carbon disulfide and cellulose in basic conditions gave a highly viscous solution of xanthate. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company Courtaulds Fibers in 1905, the name rayon was adopted in 1924, with viscose being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane. A similar product known as cellulose acetate was discovered in 1865, rayon and acetate are both artificial fibers, but not truly synthetic, being made from wood. Nylon, the first synthetic fiber, was developed by Wallace Carothers and it soon made its debut in the United States as a replacement for silk, just in time for the introduction of rationing during World War II. Its novel use as a material for womens stockings overshadowed more practical uses, such as a replacement for the silk in parachutes, the first polyester fiber was introduced by John Rex Whinfield and James Tennant Dickson, British chemists working at the Calico Printers Association, in 1941. They produced and patented the first polyester fibre which they named Terylene, also known as Dacron, equal to or surpassing nylon in toughness, ICI and DuPont went on to produce their own versions of the fibre. The world production of fibers was 55.2 million tonnes in 2014. Synthetic fibers are made from synthesized polymers or small molecules, the compounds that are used to make these fibers come from raw materials such as petroleum based chemicals or petrochemicals. These materials are polymerized into a long, linear chemical that bond two adjacent carbon atoms, differing chemical compounds will be used to produce different types of fibers. Synthetic fibers account for half of all fiber usage, with applications in every field of fiber
10.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
11.
Acrylic fiber
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Acrylic fibers are synthetic fibers made from a polymer with an average molecular weight of ~100,000, about 1900 monomer units. For a fiber to be called acrylic in the US, the polymer must contain at least 85% acrylonitrile monomer, typical comonomers are vinyl acetate or methyl acrylate. DuPont created the first acrylic fibers in 1941 and trademarked them under the name Orlon and it was first developed in the mid-1940s but was not produced in large quantities until the 1950s. Strong and warm, acrylic fiber is used for sweaters and tracksuits and as linings for boots and gloves, as well as in furnishing fabrics. It is manufactured as a filament, then cut into short staple lengths similar to wool hairs, modacrylic is a modified acrylic fiber that contains at least 35% and at most 85% acrylonitrile monomer. The comonomers vinyl chloride, vinylidene chloride or vinyl bromide used in modacrylic give the fiber flame retardant properties, end-uses of modacrylic include faux fur, wigs, hair extensions and protective clothing. The polymer is formed by free-radical polymerization in aqueous suspension, washing, stretching, drying and crimping complete the processing. Acrylic fibers are produced in a range of deniers, typically from 0.9 to 15, end uses include sweaters, hats, hand-knitting yarns, socks, rugs, awnings, boat covers, and upholstery, the fiber is also used as PAN precursor for carbon fiber. Production of acrylic fibers is centered in the Far East, Turkey, India, Mexico, US producers have ended production, though acrylic tow and staple are still spun into yarns in the USA. Former U. S. brands of acrylic included Acrilan, other brand names that are still in use include Dralon and Drytex. Acrylic is lightweight, soft, and warm, with a wool-like feel and it can also be made to mimic other fibers, such as cotton, when spun on short staple equipment. Some acrylic is extruded in colored or pigmented form, other is extruded in ecru, otherwise known as natural, raw white and its fibers are very resilient compared to both other synthetics and natural fibers. Some acrylic is used in clothing as an expensive alternative to cashmere. Some acrylic fabrics may fuzz or pill easily, though there are low-pilling variants, acrylic takes color well, is washable, and is generally hypoallergenic. End-uses include socks, hats, gloves, scarves, sweaters, home furnishing fabrics, acrylic can also be used to make fake fur and to make many different knitted clothes. As acrylic is a fiber, the larvae of clothes moths are unable to digest it. However, acrylic fibers that are blended with wool or soiled may be eaten as a consequence of having blended fibers, the fiber requires heat to relax or set the shape of the finished garment, and it isnt as warm when wet as alternatives like wool. Some hand-knitters also complain that the fiber squeaks when knitted, or that it is painful to knit with because of a lack of give or stretch in the yarn, on the other hand, it is machine-washable and extremely color-fast
12.
Acrylonitrile
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Acrylonitrile is an organic compound with the formula CH2CHCN. It is a volatile liquid, although commercial samples can be yellow due to impurities. In terms of its structure, it consists of a vinyl group linked to a nitrile. It is an important monomer for the manufacture of plastics such as polyacrylonitrile. It is reactive and toxic at low doses, Acrylonitrile was first synthesized by the French chemist Charles Moureu in 1893. Acrylonitrile is produced by ammoxidation of propylene, also known as the SOHIO process. In 2002, world production capacity was estimated at 5 million tonnes per year, acetonitrile and hydrogen cyanide are significant byproducts that are recovered for sale. In fact, the 2008–2009 acetonitrile shortage was caused by a decrease in demand for acrylonitrile. 2CH3-CH=CH2 + 2NH3 + 3O2 → 2CH2=CH-C≡N + 6H2O In the SOHIO process, propylene, ammonia, the reactants pass through the reactor only once, before being quenched in aqueous sulfuric acid. Excess propylene, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and dinitrogen that do not dissolve are vented directly to the atmosphere, the aqueous solution consists of acrylonitrile, acetonitrile, hydrocyanic acid, and ammonium sulfate. A recovery column removes bulk water, and acrylonitrile and acetonitrile are separated by distillation, historically, one of the first successful catalysts was bismuth phosphomolybdate supported on silica as a heterogeneous catalyst. Further improvements have since been made, various green chemistry routes are being developed for the synthesis of acrylonitrile from renewable feedstocks, such as lignocellulosic biomass, glycerol, or glutamic acid. The lignocellulosic route involves fermentation of the biomass to propionic acid, the glycerol route begins with pyrolysis to acrolein, which undergoes ammoxidation to give acrylonitrile. The glutamic route employs oxidative decarboxylation to 3-cyanopropanoic, followed by a decarbonylation-elimination to acrylonitrile, of these the glycerol route is broadly considered to be the most viable, although current methods are still unable to compete with the SOHIO process in terms of cost. Dimerization of acrylonitrile affords adiponitrile, used in the synthesis of certain polyamides, small amounts are also used as a fumigant. Acrylonitrile and derivatives, such as 2-chloro-acrylonitrile, are dienophiles in Diels-Alder reactions, Acrylonitrile is also a precursor in the industrial manufacture of acrylamide and acrylic acid. Acrylonitrile is highly flammable and toxic at low doses, the burning material releases fumes of hydrogen cyanide and oxides of nitrogen. It evaporates quickly at room temperature to reach dangerous concentrations, skin irritation, respiratory irritation, Acrylonitrile increases cancer in high dose tests in male and female rats and mice
13.
Wood pulp
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Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibres from wood, fiber crops or waste paper. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are 45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, many kinds of paper are made from wood with nothing else mixed into them. This includes newspaper, magazines and even toilet paper, Pulp is one of the most abundant raw materials worldwide. Using wood to make paper is a recent innovation. The ancient Egyptians were the first to make paper from reeds, papermaking using cotton and linen fibers spread to Europe in the 13th century, and the increasing use of fabric brought more rag paper, which was a factor in the development of printing. By the 1800s, fibre crops such as flax, which provided linen fibres, were still the material source. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roths use of acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghmans U. S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca2. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built and it used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, the competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879, the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the boiler, by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals, global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons. In the previous year,63 million tons of market pulp was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, chemical pulp made up 93 percent of market pulp. The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood, wood pulp comes from softwood trees such as spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. A pulp mill is a facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fiberboard which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods, the finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three components, cellulose fibers, lignin and hemicelluloses. The aim of pulping is to break down the structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts. The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood and refiner mechanical pulping, much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres
14.
Rayon
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Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. It is made from purified cellulose, primarily from wood pulp and it is then dissolved and forced through a spinneret to produce filaments which are chemically solidified, resulting in synthetic fibers of nearly pure cellulose. Because rayon is manufactured from naturally occurring polymers, it is considered a semi-synthetic fiber, specific types of rayon include viscose, modal and lyocell, each of which differs in manufacturing process and properties of the finished product. The solubility of nitrocellulose in organic solvents such as ether and acetone was the basis for the first artificial silk by Georges Audemars in about 1855, commercial production started in 1891, but the result was flammable and more expensive than cellulose acetate or cuprammonium rayon. Because of this expense, production ceased early in the 1900s, nitrocellulose was briefly known as mother-in-law silk. Nathan Rosenstein invented the process by which he turned rayon from a hard fiber to a fabric. This allowed rayon to become a popular raw material in textiles, paul Schützenberger discovered that cellulose reacts with acetic anhydride to form cellulose acetate. The triacetate is soluble only in making the method expensive. The discovery that hydrolyzed cellulose acetate is soluble in polar solvents, like acetone, made production of cellulose acetate fibers cheap. The Swiss chemist Matthias Eduard Schweizer discovered that dissolved in tetraaminecopper dihydroxide. Max Fremery and Johann Urban developed a method to produce carbon fibers for use in light bulbs in 1897, Production of cuprammonium rayon for textiles started in 1899 in the Vereinigte Glanzstoff Fabriken AG in Oberbruch near Aachen. Improvement by the J. P. Bemberg AG in 1904 made the artificial silk a product comparable to real silk, in 1894, English chemist Charles Frederick Cross, and his collaborators Edward John Bevan, and Clayton Beadle patented their artificial silk. They named their material viscose, because its production involved the intermediacy of a viscous solution. The process built on the reaction of cellulose with a strong base, the xanthate is then converted back to a cellulose fiber in a subsequent step. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the U. K. company Courtaulds Fibres in 1905, Courtaulds formed an American division, American Viscose, to produce their formulation in the United States in 1910. The name rayon was adopted in 1924, with viscose being used for the organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane. In Europe, though, the fabric itself became known as viscose, the viscose method can use wood as a source of cellulose, whereas other routes to rayon require lignin-free cellulose as starting material. The use of sources of cellulose makes viscose cheaper, so it was used on a larger scale than the other methods
15.
Sumer
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Living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, Sumerian farmers were able to grow an abundance of grain and other crops, the surplus of which enabled them to settle in one place. Proto-writing in the dates back to c.3000 BC. The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC, modern historians have suggested that Sumer was first permanently settled between c.5500 and 4000 BC by a West Asian people who spoke the Sumerian language, an agglutinative language isolate. These conjectured, prehistoric people are now called proto-Euphrateans or Ubaidians, some scholars contest the idea of a Proto-Euphratean language or one substrate language. Reliable historical records begin much later, there are none in Sumer of any kind that have dated before Enmebaragesi. Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians lived along the coast of Eastern Arabia, todays Persian Gulf region, Sumerian civilization took form in the Uruk period, continuing into the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic periods. During the 3rd millennium BC, a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a scale, to syntactic, morphological. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the 3rd millennium BC as a Sprachbund, Sumer was conquered by the Semitic-speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC, but Sumerian continued as a sacred language. Native Sumerian rule re-emerged for about a century in the Neo-Sumerian Empire or Third Dynasty of Ur approximately 2100-2000 BC, the term Sumerian is the common name given to the ancient non-Semitic-speaking inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Sumer, by the East Semitic-speaking Akkadians. The Sumerians referred to themselves as ùĝ saĝ gíg ga, phonetically /uŋ saŋ gi ga/, literally meaning the black-headed people, the Akkadian word Shumer may represent the geographical name in dialect, but the phonological development leading to the Akkadian term šumerû is uncertain. Hebrew Shinar, Egyptian Sngr, and Hittite Šanhar, all referring to southern Mesopotamia, in the late 4th millennium BC, Sumer was divided into many independent city-states, which were divided by canals and boundary stones. Each was centered on a dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city. The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods, classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, the Amorite dynasty of Isin persisted until c.1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian population, 2500–2334 BC Akkadian Empire period, c. 2218–2047 BC Ur III period, c, 2047–1940 BC The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia and it is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture
16.
Lagash
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Lagash/ˈleɪɡæʃ/ is an ancient city located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about 22 kilometres east of the modern town of Ash Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash was one of the oldest cities of the Ancient Near East, the ancient site of Nina is around 10 km away and marks the southern limit of the state. Nearby Girsu, about 25 km northwest of Lagash, was the center of the Lagash state. Lagashs main temple was the E-Ninnu, dedicated to the god Ningirsu, from inscriptions found at Girsu such as the Gudea cylinders, it appears that Lagash was an important Sumerian city in the late 3rd millennium BC. It was at that time ruled by independent kings, Ur-Nanshe and his successors, who were engaged in contests with the Elamites on the east and the kings of Kienĝir and Kish on the north. After the collapse of Sargons state, Lagash again thrived under its independent kings, Ur-Bau and Gudea and his was especially the era of artistic development. We even have a good idea of what Gudea looked like. At the time of Gudea, the capital of Lagash was actually in Girsu, the kingdom covered an area of approximately 1,600 square kilometres. It contained 17 larger cities, eight district capitals, and numerous villages, according to one estimate, Lagash was the largest city in the world from ca.2075 to 2030 BC. Soon after the time of Gudea, Lagash was absorbed into the Ur III state as one of its prime provinces, there is some information about the area during the Old Babylonian period. In ca.2450 BC, Lagash and the city of Umma fell out with each other after a border dispute. As described in Stele of the Vultures the current king of Lagash, Eannatum, inspired by the god of his city, Ningirsu. Initial details of the battle are unclear, but the Stele is able to portray a few details about the event. According to the Steles engravings, when the two met each other in the field, Eannatum dismounted from his chariot and proceeded to lead his men on foot. After lowing their spears, the Lagash army advanced upon the army from Umma in a dense Phalanx, after a brief clash, Eannatum and his army had gained victory over the army of Umma. Despite having been struck in the eye by an arrow, the king of Lagash lived on to enjoy his armys victory and this battle is one of the earliest organised battles known to scholars and historians. These dynasties are not found on the Sumerian King List, although one extremely fragmentary supplement has been found in Sumerian, at the end of the list is the statement Written in the school, suggesting this was a scribal school production. A few of the names from the Lagash rulers listed below may be out, including Ur-Nanshe, Ane-tum, En-entar-zid, Ur-Ningirsu, Ur-Bau
17.
Clement of Metz
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Saint Clement of Metz is venerated as the first Bishop of Metz. According to tradition, he was sent by Saint Peter to Metz during the 1st century, with two disciples, Celestius and Felix, who are listed as his successors in that see. However, this legend may have been constructed much later to lend more antiquity to the episcopal see, elaboration of this legend states that Clement was the uncle of Pope Clement I. Clement may have arrived at Metz at the end of the 3rd century, though the first fully authenticated bishop, however, is Sperus or Hesperus. Clement of Metz, like many other saints, is the hero of a legend in which he is the vanquisher of a local dragon, in the legend of Saint Clement it is called the Graoully or Graouilly. The legend states that the Graoully, along with other snakes. The snakes’ breath had so poisoned the area that the inhabitants of the town were effectively trapped in the town and they immediately were tamed by this. Clement led the Graoully to the edge of the Seille, orius did not convert to Christianity after Clement tamed the dragon. However, when the daughter died, Clement brought her back from the dead. The Graoully quickly became a symbol of the town of Metz and can be see in numerous demonstrations of the city, in the Middle Ages, a large effigy of the Graoully was carried during processions in the town. The Graoully was a large canvas figure stuffed with hay and twelve feet high, poet Paul Verlaine was also frightened as a child by the cardboard monster during the processions in his hometown. Authors from Metz tend to present the legend of the Graoully as a symbol of Christianitys victory over paganism, today, the Graoully remains one of the major symbols of Metz. A representation of the Graoully from the 16th century may be seen in the crypt in the cathedral, also, a semi-permanent sculpture of the Graoully is also suspended in mid-air on Taison street, near the cathedral. Moreover, the Graoully is shown on the emblems of Metzs football club. Violist, composer Alain Celo, from the National Orchestra of Lorraine, has written a piece for ensemble entitled The Graoully, the piece is a musical story with narration depicting the epic fight between Saint Clement and the legendary dragon in the Roman amphitheater. The celebration of Saint Clement of Metz is the November,23, also, the major abbey in Metz, now home to the Lorraine parliament, was named after him
18.
Saint Christopher
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Saint Christopher is venerated by several Christian denominations as a martyr killed in the reign of the 3rd-century Roman Emperor Decius or alternatively under the Roman Emperor Maximinus II Dacian. There appears to be due to the similarity in names Decius. He may be the figure as Saint Menas. Therefore, he is the saint of travelers, and small images of him are often worn around the neck, on a bracelet, carried in a pocket. There are several associated with the life and death of Saint Christopher which first appeared in Greece and had spread to France by the 9th century. The 11th-century bishop and poet, Walter of Speyer, gave one version, according to the legendary account of his life Christopher was initially called Reprobus. He was a Canaanite,5 cubits tall and with a fearsome face, while serving the king of Canaan, he took it into his head to go and serve the greatest king there was. He went to the king who was reputed to be the greatest, on thus learning that the king feared the devil, he departed to look for the devil. He came across a band of marauders, one of whom declared himself to be the devil, but when he saw his new master avoid a wayside cross and found out that the devil feared Christ, he left him and enquired from people where to find Christ. He met a hermit who instructed him in the Christian faith, Christopher asked him how he could serve Christ. When the hermit suggested fasting and prayer, Christopher replied that he was unable to perform that service, the hermit then suggested that because of his size and strength Christopher could serve Christ by assisting people to cross a dangerous river, where they were perishing in the attempt. The hermit promised that service would be pleasing to Christ. After Christopher had performed this service for time, a little child asked him to take him across the river. During the crossing, the river became swollen and the child seemed as heavy as lead, so much that Christopher could scarcely carry him, when he finally reached the other side, he said to the child, You have put me in the greatest danger. I do not think the world could have been as heavy on my shoulders as you were. The child replied, You had on your shoulders not only the whole world, I am Christ your king, whom you are serving by this work. Christopher later visited Lycia and there comforted the Christians who were being martyred, brought before the local king, he refused to sacrifice to the pagan gods. The king tried to win him by riches and by sending two beautiful women to tempt him, Christopher converted the women to Christianity, as he had already converted thousands in the city
19.
Nomadic people
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A nomad is a member of a community of people who live in different locations, moving from one place to another. Among the various ways nomads relate to their environment, one can distinguish the hunter-gatherer, as of 1995, there were an estimated 30–40 million nomads in the world. Nomadic hunting and gathering, following seasonally available wild plants and game, is by far the oldest human subsistence method, pastoralists raise herds, driving them, or moving with them, in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Nomadism is also a lifestyle adapted to regions such as steppe, tundra, or ice and sand. For example, many groups in the tundra are reindeer herders and are semi-nomadic and these nomads sometimes adapt the use of high technology such as solar photovoltaics to reduce their dependence on diesel fuel. These groups are known as peripatetic nomads, a nomad is a person with no settled home, moving from place to place as a way of obtaining food, finding pasture for livestock, or otherwise making a living. The word Nomad comes from a Greek word that one who wanders for pasture. Most nomadic groups follow an annual or seasonal pattern of movements and settlements. Nomadic peoples traditionally travel by animal or canoe or on foot, today, some nomads travel by motor vehicle. Most nomads live in tents or other portable shelters, Nomads keep moving for different reasons. Nomadic foragers move in search of game, edible plants, the Australian Aborigines, Negritos of Southeast Asia, and San of Africa, for example, traditionally move from camp to camp to hunt and to gather wild plants. Some tribes of the Americas followed this way of life, Pastoral nomads make their living raising livestock, such as camels, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, or yaks. These nomads travel to find more camels, goats, and sheep through the deserts of Arabia, the Fulani and their cattle travel through the grasslands of Niger in western Africa. Some nomadic peoples, especially herders, may move to raid settled communities or avoid enemies. Nomadic craftworkers and merchants travel to find and serve customers and they include the Lohar blacksmiths of India, the Romani traders, and the Irish Travellers. Most nomads travel in groups of families called bands or tribes and these groups are based on kinship and marriage ties or on formal agreements of cooperation. A council of adult males makes most of the decisions, though some tribes have chiefs, in the case of Mongolian nomads, a family moves twice a year. These two movements would generally occur during the summer and winter, the winter location is usually located near mountains in a valley and most families already have their fixed winter locations
20.
Mongols
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The Mongols are an East-Central Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia and Chinas Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. They also live as minorities in other regions of China, as well as in Russia, Mongolian people belonging to the Buryat and Kalmyk subgroups live predominantly in the Russian federal subjects of Buryatia and Kalmykia. The Mongols are bound together by a heritage and ethnic identity. Their indigenous dialects are known as the Mongolian language. The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols, broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper, Buryats, Oirats, the Kalmyk people and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohans, Baarins, Gorlos Mongols, Jalaids, Jaruud, Khishigten, Khuuchid, Muumyangan, the designation Mongol briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe a tribe of Shiwei. It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan-ruled Liao dynasty, after the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau. However, their wars with the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them, in the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan. In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians, the Magog, based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria. The identity of the Xiongnu is still debated today, although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes. It has been suggested that the language of the Huns was related to the Hünnü, the Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the Shanrong. Mentions in the Yi Zhou Shu and the Classic of Mountains, the Xianbei chieftain was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Xiong Yi. These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture in the Ordos Desert, where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people, the Zhukaigou Xianbei had trade relations with the Shang. In the late 2nd century, the Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian wrote in his commentary Jixie that Shanrong, againm in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture where the Donghu confederation was centered. After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu, the Xianbei, tadun Khan of the Wuhuan was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi. The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the New Book of Tang says that in 209 BCE, the Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, the Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state. Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories, the Rouran, the Khitan people, besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the Murong, Duan and Tuoba
21.
Turkic people
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The Turkic peoples are a collection of ethnic groups that live in central, eastern, northern, and western Asia as well as parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family and they share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. The first known mention of the term Turk applied to a Turkic group was in reference to the Göktürks in the 6th century, a letter by Ishbara Qaghan to Emperor Wen of Sui in 585 described him as the Great Turk Khan. The Orhun inscriptions use the terms Turk and Turuk and this includes Chinese records Spring and Autumn Annals referring to a neighbouring people as Beidi. During the first century CE, Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the north of the Sea of Azov. There are references to certain groups in antiquity whose names could be the form of Türk/Türük such as Togarma, Turukha/Turuška, Turukku. But the information gap is so substantial that we cannot firmly connect these ancient people to the modern Turks, turkologist András Róna-Tas posits that the term Turk could be rooted in the East Iranian Saka language or in Turkic. This etymological concept is related to Old Turkic word stems tür, türi-, törü. The earliest Turkic-speaking peoples identifiable in Chinese sources are the Dingling, Gekun, the Chinese Book of Zhou presents an etymology of the name Turk as derived from helmet, explaining that taken this name refers to the shape of the Altai Mountains. During the Middle Ages, various Turkic peoples of the Eurasian steppe were subsumed under the identity of the Scythians, between 400 CE and the 16th century, Byzantine sources use the name Σκύθαι in reference to twelve different Turkic peoples. However, the usage of the term is based on the linguistic classification in order to avoid any political sense. In short, the term Türki can be used for Türk or vice versa and it is generally agreed that the first Turkic people lived in a region extending from Central Asia to Siberia, with the majority of them living in China historically. Historically they were established after the 6th century BCE, the earliest separate Turkic peoples appeared on the peripheries of the late Xiongnu confederation about 200 BCE. Turkic people may be related to the Xiongnu, Dingling and Tiele people, according to the Book of Wei, the Tiele people were the remnants of the Chidi, the red Di people competing with the Jin in the Spring and Autumn period. Turkic tribes such as the Khazars and Pechenegs probably lived as nomads for many years before establishing the Turkic Khaganate or Göktürk Empire in the 6th century and these were herdsmen and nobles who were searching for new pastures and wealth. The first mention of Turks was in a Chinese text that mentioned trade between Turk tribes and the Sogdians along the Silk Road, the first recorded use of Turk as a political name appears as a 6th-century reference to the word pronounced in Modern Chinese as Tujue. The Ashina clan migrated from Li-jien to the Juan Juan seeking inclusion in their confederacy, the tribe were famed metalsmiths and were granted land near a mountain quarry which looked like a helmet, from which they were said to have gotten their name 突厥. A century later their power had increased such that they conquered the Juan Juan, Turkic peoples originally used their own alphabets, like Orkhon and Yenisey runiforms, and later the Uyghur alphabet
22.
Central Asia
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Central Asia stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east and from Afghanistan in the south to Russia in the north. It is also referred to as the -stans as the five countries generally considered to be within the region all have names ending with the Persian suffix -stan. Central Asias five former Soviet republics are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its nomadic peoples and the Silk Road. It has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, the Silk Road connected Muslim lands with the people of Europe, India, and China. This crossroads position has intensified the conflict between tribalism and traditionalism and modernization, in pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was predominantly Iranian, peopled by Eastern Iranian-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians and Chorasmians and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Parthians. Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan, the idea of Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was introduced in 1843 by the geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions, historically built political geography and geoculture are two significant parameters widely used in the scholarly literature about the definitions of the Central Asia. The most limited definition was the one of the Soviet Union. This definition was also used outside the USSR during this period. However, the Russian culture has two terms, Средняя Азия and Центральная Азия. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia, the UNESCO general history of Central Asia, written just before the collapse of the USSR, defines the region based on climate and uses far larger borders. An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity and these areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia, the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan. Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan, the Tibetans and Ladakhi are also included. Insofar, most of the peoples are considered the indigenous peoples of the vast region. Central Asia is a large region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains, vast deserts. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of Eastern Europe as a geographical zone known as the Eurasian Steppe. Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming, the Gobi desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs, 77° E, to the Great Khingan Mountains, 116°–118° E. Central Asia has the following geographic extremes, The worlds northernmost desert, at Buurug Deliin Els, Mongolia, the Northern Hemispheres southernmost permafrost, at Erdenetsogt sum, Mongolia, 46°17′ N
23.
Carpet
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A carpet is a textile floor covering typically consisting of an upper layer of pile attached to a backing. The pile was made from wool, but, since the 20th century, synthetic fibers such as polypropylene, nylon or polyester are often used. The pile usually consists of twisted tufts which are typically heat-treated to maintain their structure, Carpets can be made in any colour by using differently dyed fibers. Carpets can have different types of patterns and motifs used to decorate the surface. In the 2000s, carpets are used in industrial and commercial establishments such as stores and hotels. Carpet is commonly made in widths of 12 feet and 15 feet in the USA,4 m and 5 m in Europe. Wall-to-wall carpet is distinguished from rugs or mats, which are loose-laid floor coverings, as wall-to-wall carpet is fixed to the floor, child labour has often been used in Asia for hand knotting rugs. The term carpet comes from Old French carpite, one derivation of the term states that the French term came from the Old Italian carpita, from the verb carpire meaning to pluck. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the carpet was first used in English in the late 13th century, with the meaning coarse cloth. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the term comes, the meaning of the term carpet shifted in the 15th century to refer to floor coverings. The term carpet is used interchangeably with the term rug. Some sources define a carpet as stretching from wall to wall, another definition treats rugs as of lower quality or of smaller size, with carpets quite often having finished ends. A third common definition is that a carpet is fixed in place while a rug is simply laid out on the floor. Historically, the carpet was also applied to table and wall coverings. The term rug was first used in English in the 1550s, the term is of. Scandinavian origin, compare Norwegian dialectal rugga coarse coverlet, from Old Norse rogg shaggy tuft, from Proto-Germanic *rawwa-, perhaps related to rag and rough. The meaning of rug. evolved to coverlet, wrap, then mat for the floor, the carpet is produced on a loom quite similar to woven fabric. The pile can be plush or Berber, plush carpet is a cut pile and Berber carpet is a loop pile. There are new styles of carpet combining the two styles called cut and loop carpeting, normally many colored yarns are used and this process is capable of producing intricate patterns from predetermined designs
24.
Tent
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A tent pronunciation is a shelter consisting of sheets of fabric or other material draped over, attached to a frame of poles or attached to a supporting rope. While smaller tents may be free-standing or attached to the ground, first used as portable homes by nomadic peoples, tents are now more often used for recreational camping and temporary shelters. Tents range in size from bivouac structures, just big enough for one person to sleep in, the bulk of this article is concerned with tents used for recreational camping which have sleeping space for one to ten people. Larger tents are discussed in a section below. Tents for recreational camping fall into two categories, Tents intended to be carried by backpackers are the smallest and lightest type. Small tents may be light that they can be carried for long distances on a touring bicycle. The second type are larger, heavier tents which are carried in a car or other vehicle. Depending on tent size and the experience of the person or people involved, Some very specialised tents have spring-loaded poles and can be pitched in seconds, but take somewhat longer to strike. Tents were used at least as far back as the early Iron Age and they are mentioned in the Bible, for example, in the Genesis 4,20 Jabal is described as the first to live in tents and raise sheep and goats. The Roman Army used leather tents, copies of which have been used successfully by modern reenactors, various styles developed over time, some derived from traditional nomadic tents, such as the yurt. Most military tents throughout history were of a ridge design. The major technological advance was the use of linen or hemp canvas for the canopy versus leather for the Romans, the primary use of tents was still to provide portable shelter for a small number of men in the field. By World War I larger designs were being deployed in areas to provide shelter for support activities and supplies. Tents are used as habitation by nomads, recreational campers, Tents are typically used as overhead shelter for festivals, weddings, backyard parties, and major corporate events. They are also used for covers, industrial shelters. Tents have traditionally used by nomadic people all over the world, such as Native Americans, Mongolian, Turkic and Tibetan Nomads. Armies all over the world have long used tents as part of their working life, Tents are preferred by the military for their relatively quick setup and take down times, compared to more traditional shelters. One of the worlds largest users of tents is the U. S. Department of Defense, the U. S. Department of Defense has strict rules on tent quality and tent specifications
25.
Clothing
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Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
26.
Contemporary art
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Contemporary art is the art of today, produced by artists who are living in the twenty-first century. Contemporary art provides an opportunity to reflect on contemporary society and the relevant to ourselves. Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and their art is a dynamic combination of materials, methods, concepts, and subjects that challenge traditional boundaries and defy easy definition. In vernacular English, modern and contemporary are synonyms, resulting in some conflation of the modern art. Some define contemporary art as art produced within our lifetime, recognizing that lifetimes, however, there is a recognition that this generic definition is subject to specialized limitations. The classification of art as a special type of art, rather than a general adjectival phrase. In London, the Contemporary Art Society was founded in 1910 by the critic Roger Fry and others, as a private society for buying works of art to place in public museums. A number of other institutions using the term were founded in the 1930s, such as in 1938 the Contemporary Art Society of Adelaide, Australia, particular points that have been seen as marking a change in art styles include the end of World War II and the 1960s. There has perhaps been a lack of natural break points since the 1960s, and definitions of what contemporary art in the 2010s vary. Art from the past 20 years is likely to be included, and definitions often include art going back to about 1970, the art of the late 20th and early 21st century. Many use the formulation Modern and Contemporary Art, which avoids this problem, smaller commercial galleries, magazines and other sources may use stricter definitions, perhaps restricting the contemporary to work from 2000 onwards. One of the many people have in approaching contemporary artwork is its diversity - diversity of material, form, subject matter. It is distinguished by the lack of a uniform organizing principle, ideology, or -ism that we so often see in other. Broadly speaking, we see Modernism as looking at modernist principals - the focus of the work is self-referential, likewise, Impressionism looks at our perception of a moment through light and color as opposed to attempts at stark realism. Contemporary art, on the hand, does not have one. Its view, instead, is refracted, prismatic, and multi-faceted, reflecting the diversity of the world today, in all of its complexities, contemporary art reflects life as we know it. It can be, therefore, contradictory, confusing, and open-ended, there are, however, a number of common themes that have appeared in contemporary works. Post-modern, post-structuralist, feminist, and Marxist theory have played important roles in the development of theories of art
27.
Fulling
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Fulling, also known as tucking or walking, is a step in woollen clothmaking which involves the cleansing of cloth to eliminate oils, dirt, and other impurities, and making it thicker. The worker who does the job is a fuller, tucker, or walker, the Welsh word for a fulling mill is pandy, which appears in many place-names, for example Tonypandy. Fulling involves two processes, scouring and milling, originally, fulling was carried out by pounding the woollen cloth with the fullers feet, or hands, or a club. In Scottish Gaelic tradition, this process was accompanied by waulking songs, from the medieval period, however, fulling was often carried out in a water mill. These processes are followed by stretching the cloth on great frames known as tenters and it is from this process that the phrase being on tenterhooks is derived, as meaning to be held in suspense. The area where the tenters were erected was known as a tenterground, in Roman times, fulling was conducted by slaves working the cloth while ankle deep in tubs of human urine. Urine was so important to the business that it was taxed. Stale urine, known as wash, was a source of ammonium salts, by the medieval period, fullers earth had been introduced for use in the process. This is a soft clay-like material occurring naturally as an impure hydrous aluminium silicate and it was used in conjunction with wash. More recently, soap has been used, the second function of fulling was to thicken cloth by matting the fibres together to give it strength and increase waterproofing. This was vital in the case of woollens, made from carding wool, after this stage, water was used to rinse out the foul-smelling liquor used during cleansing. Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation because the barbs on the surface of wool fibres hook together. From the medieval period, the fulling of cloth often was undertaken in a mill, known as a fulling mill, a walk mill, or a tuck mill, and in Wales. In these, the cloth was beaten with wooden hammers, known as fulling stocks or fulling hammers, Fulling stocks were of two kinds, falling stocks that were used only for scouring, and driving or hanging stocks. In both cases the machinery was operated by cams on the shaft of a waterwheel or on a tappet wheel, driving stocks were pivoted so that the foot struck the cloth almost horizontally. The stock had a tub holding the liquor and cloth and this was somewhat rounded on the side away from the hammer, so that the cloth gradually turned, ensuring that all parts of it were milled evenly. However, the cloth was taken out every two hours to undo plaits and wrinkles. The foot was approximately triangular in shape, with notches to assist the turning of the cloth, there are several Biblical references to fulling
28.
Alpaca
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An alpaca is a domesticated species of South American camelid. It resembles a small llama in appearance, there are two breeds of alpaca, the Suri alpaca and the Huacaya alpaca. Alpacas are considerably smaller than llamas, and unlike llamas, they were not bred to be beasts of burden, Alpaca fiber is used for making knitted and woven items, similar to wool. These items include blankets, sweaters, hats, gloves, scarves, a variety of textiles and ponchos in South America. The fiber comes in more than 52 natural colors as classified in Peru,12 as classified in Australia and 16 as classified in the United States, in trade, distinctions are made between alpacas and the several styles of mohair and luster. An adult alpaca generally is between 81–99 centimetres in height at the shoulders, alpacas have been domesticated for thousands of years. The Moche people of northern Peru often used images in their art. There are no known wild alpacas, and its closest living relative, the alpaca is larger than the vicuña, but smaller than the other camelid species. Along with camels and llamas, alpacas are classified as camelids, alpacas are too small to be used as pack animals. Instead, they are bred exclusively for their fiber and meat, Alpaca meat was once considered a delicacy by Andean inhabitants. Because of the high price commanded by alpaca on the growing North American alpaca market, in 2014, a company was formed claiming to be the first to export US-derived alpaca products to China. Alpacas and llamas can successfully cross-breed, the resulting offspring are called huarizo, which are valued for their unique fleece and gentle dispositions. Alpacas are social animals that live in family groups consisting of a territorial alpha male, females. Alpacas warn the herd about intruders by making sharp, noisy inhalations that sound like a high-pitched bray, the herd may attack smaller predators with their front feet, and can spit and kick. Their aggression towards members of the family is exploited when alpacas are used as guard llamas for guarding sheep. Not all alpacas spit, but all are capable of doing so, spit is somewhat euphemistic, occasionally the projectile contains only air and a little saliva, although alpacas commonly bring up acidic stomach contents and project it onto their chosen targets. Spitting is mostly reserved for other alpacas, but an alpaca will occasionally spit at a human, for alpacas, spitting results in what is called sour mouth. Sour mouth is characterized by a lower lip and a gaping mouth
29.
Merino sheep
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The Merino or jackson sheep is an economically influential breed of sheep prized for its wool. The breed originated in Spain, but the modern Merino was domesticated in New Zealand, today, Merinos are still regarded as having some of the finest and softest wool of any sheep. Poll Merinos have no horns, and horned Merino rams have long, two suggested origins for the Spanish word merino are, It may be an adaptation to the sheep of the name of a Leonese official inspector over a merindad, who may have also inspected sheep pastures. This word is from the medieval Latin maiorinus, a steward or head official of a village, from maior and it also may be from the name of an Imazighen tribe, the Marini, who intervened in the Iberian peninsula during the 12th and 13th centuries. The Merino is an excellent forager and very adaptable and it is bred predominantly for its wool, and its carcass size is generally smaller than that of sheep bred for meat. South African Meat Merino, American Rambouillet and German Merinofleischschaf have been bred to balance wool production, Merino need to be shorn at least once a year because their wool does not stop growing. If the coat is allowed to grow, it can cause stress, mobility issues. Merino wool is finely crimped and soft, staples are commonly 65–100 mm long. A Saxon Merino produces 3–6 kg of wool a year. Merino wool is generally less than 24 micron in diameter, basic Merino types include, strong wool, medium wool, fine, superfine and ultra fine. Ultra fine wool is suitable for blending with other such as silk. New Zealand produces lightweight knits made from Merino wool and possum fur, the term merino is widely used in the textile industries, but it cannot be taken to mean the fabric in question is actually 100% merino wool from a Merino strain bred specifically for its wool. The wool of any Merino sheep, whether reared in Spain or elsewhere, is merino wool, however, not all merino sheep produce wool suitable for clothing, and especially for clothing worn next to the skin. This depends on the strain of the breed. Merino sheep bred for meat do not produce a fleece with a fine enough staple for this purpose, most of the flocks were owned by nobility or the church, the sheep grazed the Spanish southern plains in winter and the northern highlands in summer. The Mesta was an organisation of privileged sheep owners who developed the breed and controlled the migrations along cañadas reales suitable for grazing, the three Merino strains that founded most of the worlds Merino flocks were the Royal Escurial flocks, the Negretti and the Paula. The Infantado, Montarcos and Aguires studs had an influence on the Vermont bloodlines, before the 18th century, the export of Merinos from Spain was a crime punishable by death. In the 18th century, small exportation of Merinos from Spain, in 1723, some were exported to Sweden, but the first major consignment of Escurials was sent by Charles III of Spain to his cousin, Prince Xavier the Elector of Saxony, in 1765
30.
Mohair
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Mohair /ˈmoʊhɛər/ is usually a silk-like fabric or yarn made from the hair of the Angora goat. Mohair is warm in winter as it has excellent insulating properties and it is durable, naturally elastic, flame resistant and crease resistant. It is considered to be a luxury fiber, like cashmere, angora and silk, Mohair is composed mostly of keratin, a protein found in the hair, wool, horns and skin of all mammals. While it has scales like wool, the scales are not fully developed, thus, mohair does not felt as wool does. Mohair fiber is approximately 25–45 microns in diameter and it increases in diameter with the age of the goat, growing along with the animal. Fine hair from animals is used for finer applications such as clothing. The term mohair is used to describe a type of material used for the folding roof on convertible cars. In this instance, mohair refers to a form of denim-like canvas, Mohair should not be confused with the fur from the angora rabbit, which is called angora wool. Shearing is done twice a year, in the spring and in the fall, one goat will produce 11 to 17 pounds of mohair a year. Shearing is done on a cleanly swept floor and extra care is taken to keep the hair clean, the hair is then processed to remove natural grease, dirt and vegetable matter. Angora is a breed, and unlike pygora or cashmere, there is no need to dehair a mohair fleece to separate the coarse hair from the down hair. South Africa is the worlds largest mohair producer, producing around 50% of the world production. Mohair is one of the oldest textile fibers in use, the Angora goat is thought to originate from the mountains of Tibet, reaching Turkey in the 16th century. However, fabric made of mohair was known in England as early as the 8th century, the word mohair was adopted into English sometime before 1570 from the Arabic, مخير mukhayyar, a type of haircloth, literally choice, from khayyara, he chose. In about 1820, raw mohair was first exported from Turkey to England, the Yorkshire mills spun yarn that was exported to Russia, Germany, Austria, etc. as well as woven directly in Yorkshire. Until 1849, the Turkish province of Ankara was the producer of Angora goats. Charles V is believed to be the first to bring Angora goats to Europe, due to the great demand for mohair fiber, throughout the 1800s there was a great deal of crossbreeding between Angora goats and common goats. In 1849, Angora goats made their way to America as a gift from Turkey, during the 1960s, a blend of mohair and wool suiting fabric known as Tonik or Tonic was developed in England
31.
Angora rabbit
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The Angora rabbit is a variety of domestic rabbit bred for its long, soft wool. The Angora is one of the oldest types of rabbit, originating in Ankara, present day Turkey, along with the Angora cat. The rabbits were popular pets with French royalty in the mid-18th century and they first appeared in the United States in the early 20th century. They are bred largely for their long Angora wool, which may be removed by shearing, combing, there are many individual breeds of Angora rabbits, four of which are recognized by American Rabbit Breeders Association, they are English, French, Giant, and Satin. Other breeds include German, Chinese, Swiss, Finnish, Korean, Angoras are bred mainly for their wool, which is silky and soft. At only 11 microns in diameter it is finer and softer than cashmere, most Angora rabbits are calm and docile, but should be handled carefully. Grooming is necessary to prevent the fiber from matting and felting on the rabbit, a condition, wool block, is common in Angora rabbits, and should be treated quickly. These rabbits are shorn every three to four months throughout the year, as with all rabbits, abundant and unlimited hay should be provided. The fiber the rabbit gains from the hay helps prevent wool block and it is also recommended particularly for Angora and other long-haired rabbit species that any pellet diets have at least 13% fiber. Fiber content can be found in the analysis on the food bag. Additionally fecal impaction can be caused by dehydration, which can be prevented by providing unlimited water as well as a salt lick to encourage drinking water. Since rabbits ingest their wool when they themselves, clipping their wool at least once every 90 days is considered a must to prevent wool block from occurring. A dietary supplement of papaya in their diet helps wool to break down in their digestive tract, another helpful tip for loose wool control includes giving the rabbit a pine cone to play with. They nibble them, throw them around, and they turn into a good wool catcher in their cage, when the pine cone is all nibbled or full of wool, replace it. Rabbits do not possess the same allergy-causing qualities as many other animals, the average rabbit can live for about 7–12 years when kept indoors and well-cared for. However, many outdoor rabbits have a shorter lifespan, the Satin Angora has a much lower guard hair count and their wool becomes easily tangled. Regardless of breed, all Angoras must be monitored to prevent wool block, proper diet is also crucial in lowering their susceptibility to the block. There are four different breeds recognized by the American Rabbit Breeders Association, English, French, Giant, the German Angora is also common, but is not recognized by the ARBA, it has its own association, the IAGARB
32.
Beavers
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The beaver is a large, primarily nocturnal, semiaquatic rodent. Castor includes two extant species, the North American beaver and Eurasian beaver, Beavers are known for building dams, canals, and lodges. They are the second-largest rodent in the world and their colonies create one or more dams to provide still, deep water to protect against predators, and to float food and building material. The North American beaver population was more than 60 million. Beavers, along with pocket gophers and kangaroo rats, are castorimorph rodents, Beavers are known for their natural trait of building dams on rivers and streams, and building their homes in the resulting pond. Beavers also build canals to float building materials that are difficult to haul over land and they use powerful front teeth to cut trees and other plants that they use both for building and for food. In the absence of existing ponds, beavers must construct dams before building their lodges, first they place vertical poles, then fill between the poles with a crisscross of horizontally placed branches. They fill in the gaps between the branches with a combination of weeds and mud until the dam impounds sufficient water to surround the lodge and this serves as a warning to beavers in the area. Once a beaver has sounded the alarm, nearby beavers will dive, Beavers are slow on land, but are good swimmers, and can stay under water for as long as 15 minutes. Beavers are herbivores, and prefer the wood of quaking aspen, cottonwood, willow, alder, birch, maple and they also eat sedges, pondweed, and water lilies. Beavers do not hibernate, but store sticks and logs in a pile in their ponds, some of the pile is generally above water and accumulates snow in the winter. This insulation of snow often keeps the water freezing in and around the food pile. Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and a broad, scaly tail and they have poor eyesight, but keen senses of hearing, smell, and touch. A beavers teeth grow continuously so that they not be worn down by chewing on wood. Their four incisors are composed of hard orange enamel on the front, the chisel-like ends of incisors are maintained by their self-sharpening wear pattern. The enamel in a beavers incisors contains iron and is resistant to acid than enamel in the teeth of other mammals. Beavers continue to grow throughout their lives, adult specimens weighing over 25 kg are not uncommon. Females are as large as or larger than males of the same age, Beavers live up to 24 years of age in the wild
33.
Muskrats
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The muskrat is found in wetlands over a wide range of climates and habitats. It has important effects on the ecology of wetlands, and is a resource of food, the muskrat is the largest species in the subfamily Arvicolinae, which includes 142 other species of rodents, mostly voles and lemmings. Muskrats are referred to as rats in a sense because they are medium-sized rodents with an adaptable lifestyle. They are not, however, members of the genus Rattus, the muskrats name probably comes from a word of Algonquian origin, muscascus, or from the Abenaki native word mòskwas, as seen in the archaic English name for the animal, musquash. Similarly, its specific name zibethicus means ‘musky’, being the adjective of zibethus ‘civet musk, the genus name comes from the Huron word for the animal, ondathra, and entered New Latin as Ondatra via French. An adult muskrat is about 40–70 cm long, half of that is the tail, Muskrats are much smaller than beavers, with which they often share their habitat. Muskrats are covered with short, thick fur which is medium to dark brown or black in color, with the belly a bit lighter, as the age increases, the fur has two layers, which helps protect them from the cold water. They have long tails covered with rather than hair, and to aid them in swimming, are slightly flattened vertically. When they walk on land, their tails drag on the ground, Muskrats spend much of their time in the water and are well suited for their semiaquatic life. They can swim under water for 12 to 17 minutes and their bodies, like those of seals and whales, are less sensitive to the buildup of carbon dioxide than those of most other mammals. They can close off their ears to keep the water out and their hind feet are semiwebbed, although in swimming, their tails are their main means of propulsion. Muskrats are found over most of Canada and the United States and they were introduced to Europe in the beginning of the 20th century and have become an invasive species in northwestern Europe. They mostly inhabit wetlands, areas in or near saline and freshwater wetlands, rivers, lakes and they are not found in Florida, where the round-tailed muskrat, or Florida water rat, fills their niche. Their populations naturally cycle, in areas where they become abundant and they are thought to play a major role in determining the vegetation of prairie wetlands in particular. They also selectively remove preferred plant species, thereby changing the abundance of plant species in many kinds of wetlands, species commonly eaten include cattail and yellow water lily. Alligators are thought to be an important natural predator, and the absence of muskrats from Florida may in part be the result of alligator predation and they are able to live alongside streams which contain the sulfurous water that drains away from coal mines. Fish and frogs perish in such streams, yet muskrats may thrive, Muskrats also benefit from human persecution of some of their predators. The muskrat is classed as a new organism under New Zealands Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996
34.
Mercury (element)
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Mercury is a chemical element with symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum, Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar. The red pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide, likewise, mechanical pressure gauges and electronic strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury sphygmomanometers. Mercury remains in use in research applications and in amalgam for dental restoration in some locales. It is used in fluorescent lighting, electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making visible light. Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury, Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white liquid metal. Compared to other metals, it is a conductor of heat. It has a point of −38.83 °C and a boiling point of 356.73 °C. Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3. 59%, the coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10−6 at 0 °C,181.71 × 10−6 at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10−6 at 100 °C. Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife, because this configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gases, which form weak bonds and hence melt at low temperatures. The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell, an f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus. Like silver, mercury reacts with hydrogen sulfide. Mercury reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury, Mercury dissolves many other metals such as gold and silver to form amalgams. Iron is an exception, and iron flasks have traditionally used to trade mercury. Several other first row transition metals with the exception of manganese, copper, other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum. Sodium amalgam is a reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact, since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth, even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft, Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement
35.
Mercuric nitrate
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Mercury nitrate is a toxic colorless or white soluble crystalline mercury salt of nitric acid. It was also used to treat fur to make felt in a process called carroting, the phrase mad as a hatter is associated with psychological illness brought on by excessive exposure to mercury nitrate. The practice continued in the United States until it was banned in December 1941 by the United States Public Health Service, although this sounds beneficial to health, the ban actually freed mercurynitrate to be used in the manufacture of detonators in the then ongoing war. Mercury nitrate is made by reacting hot concentrated nitric acid with metal, under these conditions. Dilute nitric acid would produce mercury nitrate, mercuric nitrate is used in mercuration reactions. In particular, it is used in reactions involving ketones, one of the chemicals which it is most effective with is acetone. This reaction uses mercuric nitrate, mercuric oxide, and calcium sulfate to change acetone, acetone is a compound for which most other methods of mercuration prove ineffective. The mercuric nitrate compound works because it is an oxidizing agent. In addition, when mercury is dissolved in nitric acid the form of mercuric nitrate is formed. The acidic form is capable of inverting molecules of sucrose, Mercury nitrate tends to impact the body as Hg2+, which is considered a form of inorganic mercury. Forms of inorganic mercury can be found in various contexts including in skin lightening cream, if the inorganic mercury is ingested it can change the structure of important proteins within the body. If it gets into the soil it can then be absorbed and those suffering from poisoning tend to experience vomiting and diarrhea as their earliest symptoms. Although mercuric nitrate is not flammable it can speed up flames since it acts as an oxidizer, in addition, it can form explosive compounds when combined with alcohols. The Hatter Mercury poisoning Gilding ATSDR - Toxic Substances Portal - Mercury ATSDR - Public Health Statement, Mercury ATSDR - ALERT. google. com/books. id=7igDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT14
36.
Blocking (textile arts)
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In knitting, crochet and other textile arts, blocking is a final stage of handmade textile production that adjusts the shape of the finished piece. Not all pieces need blocking, however, blocking is standard for lace work and is not uncommon in sweaters, socks, through heat and moisture, blocking sets the stitches and standardizes the final dimensions, and may enhance the drape. Hand manufacture places natural stresses on fabrics that may result in deviations from its intended shape, Blocking is only effective on natural fibres but a technique called killing may be used on synthetic fibres to achieve an effect similar to blocking. The degree of malleability is determined by the type of yarn used, for projects that are produced in sections, blocking is normally done prior to final assembly. Blocking can be done in different ways. Depending on the method, the crafter may use rustproof pins, blocking wires, a stable flat surface and towels are standard. Fibres that tolerate water well may be wet blocked, shaping moist fabric into the desired shape, cold blocking uses no heat and less water to achieve the same result by spraying water upon the material instead of immersing the fabric. Steam blocking uses a steamer or steam iron, but without applying pressure to the item. Wet blocking is done by saturating a garment in warm water, some items are stretched while wet with the use of pins and/or blocking wires, while others may be gently shaped without stretching. Steam blocking is done by hovering a hot, steaming iron over the fabric, hovering the iron about 1 or 2 inches above the fabric flattens the stitch, makes it thinner, and allows it to hold its shape better. This is the method that works for blocking synthetics, like acrylic. Spritz blocking involves spraying the garment with water and this relaxes the fibres more than steam blocking but less than wet blocking. Most often, a bottle is used. It is possible to set synthetic fibres through a known as killing, wherein the item is pinned in place. Killed fabrics are set and cannot be returned to their original form through washing. Patchwork Blocking information for different Fabrics on Knitty. com
37.
Hatter
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Hatmaking is the manufacture of hats and head-wear. Millinery is the designing and manufacture of hats, a millinery shop is a store that sells those goods. A milliner or hatter designs, makes, trims, or sells hats, Millinery is sold to women, men and children, though some definitions limit the term to womens hats. More recently, the term milliner has evolved to describe a person who designs, makes, sells or trims hats primarily for a female clientele. The origin of the term is probably the Middle English milener, meaning an inhabitant of the city of Milan or one who deals in items from Milan, known for its fashion, many styles of headgear have been popular through history and worn for different functions and events. They can be part of uniforms or worn to indicate social status, styles include the top hat, hats worn as part of military uniforms, cowboy hat, and cocktail hat. This is a partial list of people who have had a significant influence on hatmaking, international Hat Company, an American manufacturer credited with inventing one of Americas most popular early 20th century harvest hats for field hands, farmers, and workmen. Hawley Products Company, an American manufacturer credited with inventing the tropical shaped, pressed fiber sun helmet used from World War II through the Persian Gulf War. John Cavanagh, an American hatter whose innovations included manufacturing regular, long, james Lock & Co. of London, is credited with the introduction of the bowler hat in 1849. John Batterson Stetson, credited with inventing the classic cowboy hat Giuseppe Borsalino, anna Ben-Yusuf wrote The Art of Millinery, one of the first reference books on millinery technique. Rose Bertin, milliner and modiste to Marie Antoinette, is described as the worlds first celebrity fashion designer. John Boyd is one of Londons most respected milliners and is known for the famous pink tricorn hat worn by Diana, lilly Daché was a famous American milliner of the mid-20th century. Frederick Fox was an Australian born milliner noted for his designs for the British Royal family, mr. John was an American milliner considered by some to be the millinery equivalent of Dior in the 1940s and 1950s. Stephen Jones of London, is considered one of the worlds most radical and important milliners of the late 20th, simone Mirman was known for her designs for Elizabeth II and other members of the British Royal Family. Caroline Reboux was a milliner of the 19th and early 20th centuries. David Shilling is a milliner, artist and designer based in Monaco. Justin Smith is an award-winning milliner creating bespoke and couture hats under the J Smith Esquire brand, philip Treacy of London is an award-winning milliner
38.
Mad as a hatter
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Mad as a hatter is a colloquial English phrase used in conversation to suggest that a person is suffering from insanity. The etymology of the phrase is uncertain, with explanations both connected and unconnected to the trade of hat-making, 19th-century hatters in Danbury, Connecticut, developed a condition known colloquially as the Danbury Shakes. The condition was characterized by slurred speech, tremors, stumbling, an incidence of nominalization of the verb hatter, which means To harass, to weary, to wear out with fatigue. According to Samuel Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language published in 1755, in the text he cites a passage from the work of John Dryden as an example of usage, Hes hatterd out with pennance. Roger Crab, a 17th-century hermit who, after working for a time as a hatter, gave all his goods to the poor. Although this was presaged by political and religious radicalism, and was followed by a married life. An adaptation of the Anglo-Saxon word atter meaning poison, closely related to the word adder for the poisonous Crossed Viper. Lexicographers William and Mary Morris in Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins favour this derivation because mad as a hatter was known before hat making was a recognized trade. According to A Dictionary of Common Fallacies, mad meant venomous and hatter is a corruption of adder, or viper, in a section of the January–June 1829 issue of Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine, headed Noctes Ambrocianæ. Says she, Sam, I do believe you are a born fool, Mad hatter disease Hatmaking The Hatter Mad as a March hare
39.
Alice in Wonderland
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Alices Adventures in Wonderland is an 1865 novel written by English mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll. It tells of a girl named Alice falling through a hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar. The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children and it is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre. Its narrative course and structure, characters and imagery have been influential in both popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre. The journey began at Folly Bridge in Oxford and ended 3 miles north-west in the village of Godstow, during the trip, Dodgson told the girls a story that featured a bored little girl named Alice who goes looking for an adventure. The girls loved it, and Alice Liddell asked Dodgson to write it down for her and he began writing the manuscript of the story the next day, although that earliest version no longer exists. The girls and Dodgson took another boat trip a month later when he elaborated the plot to the story of Alice, and in November he began working on the manuscript in earnest. To add the finishing touches, he researched natural history for the animals presented in the book and he added his own illustrations but approached John Tenniel to illustrate the book for publication, telling him that the story had been well liked by children. Some, including Martin Gardner, speculate that there was a version that was destroyed later by Dodgson when he wrote a more elaborate copy by hand. Chapter One – Down the Rabbit Hole, Alice is feeling bored and drowsy while sitting on the riverbank with her older sister and she then notices a White Rabbit wearing a waistcoat and pocket watch, talking to itself as it runs past. She follows it down a hole, but suddenly falls a long way to a curious hall with many locked doors of all sizes. She finds a key to a door too small for her to fit through. She then discovers a bottle on a table labelled DRINK ME, the contents of which cause her to shrink too small to reach the key and she eats a cake with EAT ME written on it in currants as the chapter closes. Chapter Two – The Pool of Tears, Chapter Two opens with Alice growing to such a size that her head hits the ceiling. Alice is unhappy and, as she cries, her tears flood the hallway, after shrinking down again due to a fan she had picked up, Alice swims through her own tears and meets a Mouse, who is swimming as well. She tries to make small talk with him in elementary French, offends the mouse and he tries to escape her. Chapter Three – The Caucus Race and a Long Tale, The sea of tears becomes crowded with other animals, Alice and the other animals convene on the bank and the question among them is how to get dry again. The Mouse gives them a very dry lecture on William the Conqueror, a Dodo decides that the best thing to dry them off would be a Caucus-Race, which consists of everyone running in a circle with no clear winner
40.
Shibori
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Shibori is a Japanese manual resist dyeing technique, which produces patterns on fabric. In Japan, the earliest known example of cloth dyed with a shibori technique dates from the 8th century, until the 20th century, not many fabrics and dyes were in widespread use in Japan. The main fabrics were silk and hemp, and later cotton, the main dye was indigo and, to a lesser extent, madder and purple root. Shibori and other arts, such as tsutsugaki, were applied to all of these fabrics. There are a number of ways one can bind, stitch, fold, twist, or compress cloth for shibori. Each method is used to achieve a result, but each method is also used to work in harmony with the type of cloth used. Therefore, the used in shibori depends not only on the desired pattern. Also, different techniques can be used in conjunction with one another to achieve even more elaborate results, kanoko shibori is what is commonly thought of in the West as tie-dye. It involves binding certain sections of the cloth to achieve the desired pattern, traditional shibori requires the use of thread for binding. The pattern achieved depends on how tightly the cloth is bound, if random sections of the cloth are bound, the result will be a pattern of random circles. If the cloth is first folded then bound, the resulting circles will be in a pattern depending on the fold used, miura shibori is also known as looped binding. It involves taking a hooked needle and plucking sections of the cloth, then a thread is looped around each section twice. The thread is not knotted, tension is the thing that holds the sections in place. The resulting dyed cloth is a water-like design, because no knot is used, miura shibori is very easy to bind and unbind. Therefore, this technique is often used. Kumo shibori is a pleated and bound resist and this technique involves pleating sections of the cloth very finely and evenly. Then the cloth is bound in very close sections, the result is a very specific spider-like design. This specific design requires very precise technique, a simple running stitch is used on the cloth then pulled tight to gather the cloth
41.
Automotive industry
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The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
42.
Casino
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A casino is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the gaming industry, casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as comedy, concerts. The term casino is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators, Casino is of Italian origin, the root casa originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. In modern-day Italian, the term designates a bordello, while the gambling house is spelled casinò with an accent. Not all casinos were used for gaming, the Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre, the Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that towns most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant. In military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a casino or kasino is an officers mess, in Italian—the source-language of the word—a casino is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a casinò. The precise origin of gambling is unknown and it is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleons France and Elizabethan England and it was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry. In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons, the creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, during the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada, Americas first legalized casinos were set up in those places. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now Americas second largest gambling city, most jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age. Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack. Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players and this can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative
43.
Home construction
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Home construction is the process of constructing a home. Beginning with simple pre-historic shelters, home construction techniques have evolved to produce the vast multitude of living accommodations available today, different levels of wealth and power have warranted various sizes, luxuries, and even defenses in a home. Environmental considerations and cultural influences have created a diverse collection of architectural styles. From castles to mud thatches, mansions to shanties, the home has grown to represent a seemingly limitless array of structures, while homes may have originated in pre-history, there are many notable stages through which cultures pass to reach the current level of modernization. Countries and communities throughout the world currently exhibit very diverse concepts of housing, the second method has been used throughout history, as materials have always been scarce. Nowadays, more advanced sourcing maps have become available, the modern family home has many more systems and facets of construction than one might initially believe. With sufficient study, a person can understand everything there is to know about any given phase of home construction. The do it yourself boom of the twentieth century was due, in large part. See House construction phases Construction Real estate development
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Shock absorber
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A shock absorber is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the energy of the shock into another form of energy which is then dissipated. Most shock absorbers are a form of dashpot, pneumatic and hydraulic shock absorbers are used in conjunction with cushions and springs. An automobile shock absorber contains spring-loaded check valves and orifices to control the flow of oil through an internal piston, one design consideration, when designing or choosing a shock absorber, is where that energy will go. In most shock absorbers, energy is converted to heat inside the viscous fluid, in hydraulic cylinders, the hydraulic fluid heats up, while in air cylinders, the hot air is usually exhausted to the atmosphere. In other types of shock absorbers, such as electromagnetic types, in general terms, shock absorbers help cushion vehicles on uneven roads. In a vehicle, shock absorbers reduce the effect of traveling over rough ground, leading to improved ride quality, while shock absorbers serve the purpose of limiting excessive suspension movement, their intended sole purpose is to damp spring oscillations. Shock absorbers use valving of oil and gasses to absorb energy from the springs. Spring rates are chosen by the based on the weight of the vehicle. Some people use shocks to modify spring rates but this is not the correct use, along with hysteresis in the tire itself, they damp the energy stored in the motion of the unsprung weight up and down. Effective wheel bounce damping may require tuning shocks to an optimal resistance, spring-based shock absorbers commonly use coil springs or leaf springs, though torsion bars are used in torsional shocks as well. Ideal springs alone, however, are not shock absorbers, as only store. Vehicles typically employ both hydraulic shock absorbers and springs or torsion bars, in this combination, shock absorber refers specifically to the hydraulic piston that absorbs and dissipates vibration. Now, composite suspension system are used mainly in 2 wheelers, in common with carriages and railway locomotives, most early motor vehicles used leaf springs. However the amount of damping provided by leaf spring friction was limited and variable according to the conditions of the springs and it also operated in both directions. Motorcycle front suspension adopted coil sprung Druid forks from about 1906, and similar designs later added rotary friction dampers and these friction disk shock absorbers were also fitted to many cars. One of the problems with motor cars was the variation in sprung weight between lightly loaded and fully loaded, especially for the rear springs. What was called for was damping that operated on the rebound, horock came up with a design in 1901 that had hydraulic damping, it worked in one direction only
45.
Bass drum
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A bass drum, or kick drum, is a large drum that produces a note of low definite or indefinite pitch. Bass drums are percussion instruments and vary in size and are used in musical genres. Three major types of bass drums can be distinguished, the type usually seen or heard in orchestral, ensemble or concert band music is the orchestral, or concert bass drum. It is the largest drum of the orchestra, the kick drum, a term for a bass drum associated with a drum kit. It is struck with an attached to a pedal, usually seen on drum kits. The pitched bass drum, generally used in marching bands and drum corps and this is tuned to a specific pitch and is usually played in a set of three to six drums. A bass drum is cylindrical with the drums diameter much greater than the drums depth. There is normally a head at both ends of the cylinder. The heads may be made of skin or plastic. There is normally a means of adjusting the tension either by threaded taps or by strings, Bass drums are built in a variety of sizes, but size has little to do with the volume produced by the drum. The size chosen being based on convenience and aesthetics, music Bass drums have many synonyms and translations, such as Gran Cassa, Grosse caisse, Grosse Trommel, and Bombo. Bass drums are too large to be held and are always mounted in some way. The usual ways of mounting a bass drum are, Using a shoulder harness so that the heads are vertical, on a floor stand as part of a drum kit. The heads are always vertical when mounted in this way, in this situation, the heads may be adjusted to any position between vertical and horizontal. It is possible for the drum to have a single cymbal mounted on it. Bass drums can have a variety of strikers depending on the music, when the drum is mounted vertically, the mallet above may be held in one hand and a rute held in the other. 2 matching bass drum mallets or a double headed mallet are used for playing drum rolls, when used as part of a drum kit, a variation of the mallet described above is mounted on a pedal and called a beater. The earliest known predecessor to the drum was the Turkish davul
46.
Timpani
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Timpani, or kettledrums, are musical instruments in the percussion family. A type of drum, they consist of a skin called a head stretched over a large bowl traditionally made of copper and they are played by striking the head with a specialized drum stick called a timpani stick or timpani mallet. Timpani evolved from military drums to become a staple of the orchestra by the last third of the 18th century. Today, they are used in many types of ensembles, including concert bands, marching bands, orchestras. Timpani is an Italian plural, the singular of which is timpano and they are also often incorrectly termed timpanis. A musician who plays the timpani is a timpanist, alternative spellings with y in place of either or both is—tympani, tympany, or timpany—are occasionally encountered in older English texts. Although the word timpani has been adopted in the English language. The German word for timpani is Pauken, the French and Spanish is timbales, the Ashanti pair of talking drums are known as atumpan. The tympanum is defined in the Etymologiae of St. Isidore of Seville, est enim pars media symphoniae in similitudinem cribri. Tympanum autem dictum quod medium est, unde, et margaritum medium tympanum dicitur, et ipsum ut symphonia ad virgulam percutitur. The tympanum is skin or hide stretched over a wooden vessel which extends out. It is said by the symphonias to resemble a sieve, but has also likened to half a pearl. It is struck with a wand, beating time for the symphonia, the reference comparing the tympanum to half a pearl is borrowed from Pliny the Elder. The basic timpani drum consists of a drumhead stretched across the opening of a bowl made of copper or, in less expensive models, fiberglass. In the Sachs–Hornbostel classification, the timpani are thus considered membranophones, the heads tension can be adjusted by loosening or tightening the rods. Most timpani have six to eight tension rods, the shape of the bowl contributes to the quality of the drum. For example, hemispheric bowls produce brighter tones while parabolic bowls produce darker tones, another factor that affects the timbre of the drum is the quality of the bowls surface. Copper bowls may have a smooth, machined surface or a surface with many small dents hammered into it
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Accordion
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Accordions are a family of box-shaped musical instruments of the bellows-driven free-reed aerophone type, colloquially referred to as a squeezebox. A person who plays the accordion is called an accordionist, the concertina and bandoneón are related, the harmonium and American reed organ are in the same family. The instrument is played by compressing or expanding the bellows while pressing buttons or keys, causing pallets to open and these vibrate to produce sound inside the body. Valves on opposing reeds of each note are used to make the instruments reeds sound louder without air leaking from each reed block. The performer normally plays the melody on buttons or keys on the manual. The accordion is widely spread across the world, nevertheless, in Europe and North America, some popular music acts also make use of the instrument. Additionally, the accordion is used in cajun, zydeco, jazz music. The piano accordion is the official city instrument of San Francisco, the oldest name for this group of instruments is harmonika, from the Greek harmonikos, meaning harmonic, musical. Today, native versions of the accordion are more common. These names refer to the type of accordion patented by Cyrill Demian, accordions have many configurations and types. Similar to a bow, the production of sound in an accordion is in direct proportion to the motion of the player. The bellows is located between the right- and left-hand manuals, and is made from pleated layers of cloth and cardboard, with added leather and metal. It is used to pressure and vacuum, driving air across the internal reeds and producing sound by their vibration. These boxes house reed chambers for the right- and left-hand manuals, each side has grilles in order to facilitate the transmission of air in and out of the instrument, and to allow the sound to better project. The grille for the manual is usually larger and is often shaped for decorative purposes. The right-hand manual is used for playing the melody and the left-hand manual for playing the accompaniment. The manual mechanism of the instrument either enables the air flow, or disables it, the different types have varying components. All instruments have reed ranks of some format, the most typical accordion is the piano accordion, which is used for many musical genres
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