1.
Tevatron
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The Tevatron was a synchrotron that accelerated protons and antiprotons in a 6.86 km, or 4.26 mi, ring to energies of up to 1 TeV, hence its name. The Tevatron was completed in 1983 at a cost of $120 million, the main achievement of the Tevatron was the discovery in 1995 of the top quark—the last fundamental fermion predicted by the standard model of particle physics. The findings were confirmed two days later as being correct with a likelihood of error less than 1 in a million by data from the LHC experiments. The Tevatron ceased operations on 30 September 2011, due to cuts and because of the completion of the LHC. The main ring of the Tevatron will probably be reused in future experiments, December 1,1968 saw the breaking of ground for the linear accelerator. The construction of the Main Accelerator Enclosure began on October 3,1969 when the first shovel of earth was turned by Robert R. Wilson and this would become the 6.4 km circumference Fermilabs Main Ring. The linac first 200 MeV beam started on December 1,1970, the booster first 8 GeV beam was produced on May 20,1971. On June 30,1971, a beam was guided for the first time through the entire National Accelerator Laboratory accelerator system including the Main Ring. The beam was accelerated to only 7 Gev, back then, the Booster Accelerator took 200 MeV protons from the Linac and boosted their energy to 8 billion electron volts. They were then injected into the Main Accelerator and that was the starting point of the Tevatron project. The Tevatron was in research and development phase between 1973 and 1979 while the acceleration at the Main Ring continued to be enhanced. A series of milestones saw acceleration rise to 20 GeV on January 22,1972 to 53 GeV on February 4, on March 1,1972, the then NAL accelerator system accelerated for the first time a beam of protons to its design energy of 200 GeV. By the end of 1973, NALs accelerator system operated routinely at 300 GeV, on 14 May 1976 Fermilab took its protons all the way to 500 GeV. This achievement provided the opportunity to introduce a new energy scale, on 17 June of that year, the European Super Proton Synchrotron accelerator had achieved an initial circulating proton beam of only 400 GeV. The conventional magnet Main Ring was shut down in 1981 for installation of superconducting magnets underneath it, the Main Ring continued to serve as an injector for the Tevatron until the Main Injector was completed west of the Main Ring in 2000. The Energy Doubler, as it was then, produced its first accelerated beam—512 GeV—on July 3,1983. Its initial energy of 800 GeV was achieved on February 16,1984, on October 21,1986 acceleration at the Tevatron was pushed to 900 GeV, providing a first proton–antiproton collision at 1.8 TeV on November 30,1986. The Main Injector, which replaced the Main Ring, was the most substantial addition, Tevatron collider Run II begun on March 1,2001 after successful completion of that facility upgrade
2.
Accelerator physics
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Accelerator physics is a branch of applied physics, concerned with designing, building and operating particle accelerators. As such, it can be described as the study of motion, manipulation and observation of relativistic charged particle beams and it is also related to other fields, Microwave engineering. Optics with an emphasis on geometrical optics and laser physics, computer technology with an emphasis on digital signal processing, e. g. for automated manipulation of the particle beam. The types of experiments done at a particular accelerator facility are determined by characteristics of the particle beam such as average energy, particle type, intensity. While it is possible to accelerate charged particles using electrostatic fields, like in a Cockcroft-Walton voltage multiplier, furthermore, due to electrostatic fields being conservative, the maximum voltage limits the kinetic energy that is applicable to the particles. To circumvent this problem, linear particle accelerators operate using time-varying fields, the space around a particle beam is evacuated to prevent scattering with gas atoms, requiring it to be enclosed in a vacuum chamber. Due to the electromagnetic fields that follow the beam, it is possible for it to interact with any electrical impedance in the walls of the beam pipe. This may be in the form of an impedance or an inductive/capacitive impedance. These impedances will induce wakefields that can interact with later particles, since this interaction may have negative effects, it is studied to determine its magnitude, and to determine any actions that may be taken to mitigate it. Due to the velocity of the particles, and the resulting Lorentz force for magnetic fields. In most accelerator concepts, these are applied by dedicated electromagnets with different properties, an important step in the development of these types of accelerators was the understanding of strong focusing. Dipole magnets are used to guide the beam through the structure, while quadrupole magnets are used for beam focusing, a particle on the exact design trajectory of the accelerator only experiences dipole field components, while particles with transverse position deviation x are re-focused to the design orbit. The general equations of motion originate from relativistic Hamiltonian mechanics, in almost all using the Paraxial approximation. Even in the cases of strongly nonlinear magnetic fields, and without the paraxial approximation, there are many different software packages available for modeling the different aspects of accelerator physics. One must model the elements that create the electric and magnetic fields, a popular code for beam dynamics, designed by CERN is MAD, or Methodical Accelerator Design. A vital component of any accelerator are the devices that allow various properties of the particle bunches to be measured. A typical machine may use different types of measurement device in order to measure different properties. While many of these rely on well understood technology, designing a device capable of measuring a beam for a particular machine is a complex task requiring much expertise
3.
Budget
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A budget is a quantitative expression of a financial plan for a defined period of time. It may include planned sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities, costs and expenses, assets, liabilities and it expresses strategic plans of business units, organizations, activities or events in measurable terms. A budget is the sum of money allocated for a particular purpose, a budget is a quantified financial plan for a forthcoming accounting period. A budget is an important concept in microeconomics, which uses a line to illustrate the trade-offs between two or more goods. In other terms, a budget is an organizational plan stated in monetary terms and it also helps to co-ordinate the activities of the organization by compelling managers to examine relationships between their own operation and those of other departments. Other essentials of budget include, To control resources To communicate plans to various responsibility center managers, to motivate managers to strive to achieve budget goals. Tools enable the actual operation of the business to be measured against the forecast. Lastly, tools establish the cost constraint for a project, program, on the other hand, if the figures diverge wildly from the budget, this sends an out of control signal, and the share price could suffer. Campaign planners incur two types of cost in any campaign, the first is the cost of human resource necessary to plan, the second type of expense that campaign planners incur is the hard cost of the campaign itself. A budget is a tool for an event director to predict with a reasonable accuracy whether the event will result in a profit. A budget can also be used as a pricing tool, there are two basic approaches or philosophies, when it comes to budgeting. One approach is telling you on mathematical models, and the other on people, the first school of thought believes that financial models, if properly constructed, can be used to predict the future. The focus is on variables, inputs and outputs, drivers, investments of time and money are devoted to perfecting these models, which are typically held in some type of financial spreadsheet application. The other school of thought holds that it’s not about models, no matter how sophisticated models can get, the best information comes from the people in the business. The focus is therefore in engaging the managers in the more fully in the budget process. The companies that adhere to this approach have their managers develop their own budgets, while many companies would say that they do both, in reality the investment of time and money falls squarely in one approach or the other. The budget of a government is a summary or plan of the revenues and expenditures of that government. There are three types of government budget, the operating or current budget, the capital or investment budget, the budget is prepared by the Treasury team led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer and is presented to Parliament by the Chancellor of the Exchequer on Budget Day
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Director (business)
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A director is a person from a group of managers who leads or supervises a particular area of a company, program, or project. Companies that use this term often have many directors spread throughout different business functions or roles, the director usually reports directly to a vice president or to the CEO directly in order to let them know the progress of the organization. Large organizations also sometimes have assistant directors or deputy directors, Director commonly refers to the lowest level of executive in an organization, but many large companies use the title of associate director more frequently. Some companies also have regional directors and area directors, regional directors are present in companies that are organized by location and have their departments under that. They are responsible for the operations for their particular country, though directors are the first stage in the executive team, area directors are seen as higher up, based on their area of control. Corporate titles are given to individuals within a business depending on the role they have. The larger the business, the titles that are present, such as CEO, COO. There are many titles within a company such as director, managing director, company director. The corporate structure consists of four key areas, Board of directors- Each director oversees a department, C-level executives- C-level is used to define the high ranking titles within a business/company. Management- The management area is next to the C-level executives in the corporate jobs hierarchy and they oversee daily tasks of the business or the company. Employees- This role is ranked at the bottom of the structure, employees work on daily tasks and objectives either in a group or individually aiming for that common goal. US law requires every company to create specific positions such as treasurer, president, american businesses are usually controlled by a chief executive officer. In the UK, a director is usually linked to the role of a CEO. The roles are similar and to some extent the same, the difference being the corporate title. Depending upon the size of an organization or a company, the number of directors can vary, start-up companies can have a single director, which is the minimum for a private limited company according to the law. However, as organizations and businesses expand, the number of directors can increase because more tasks, a board of directors ensures that a clearly outlined structure is in place which will help the business to work much more efficiently. Managing Director - A managing director is employed by the business, other roles include running the business and producing salaries. The managing director manages the board of directors and oversees the performance of the business, Executive Directors - A group of executive directors who each play a significant role within the company
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Winfield Township, DuPage County, Illinois
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Winfield Township is one of nine townships in DuPage County, Illinois, USA. As of the 2010 census, its population was 46,233 and it is the least populous of the DuPage County Townships. According to the 2010 census, the township has an area of 36.19 square miles. United States Census Bureau 2008 TIGER/Line Shapefiles United States National Atlas City-Data. com Illinois State Archives Township Officials of Illinois
6.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
United States Department of Energy
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The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States Government concerned with the United States policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material. It also directs research in genomics, the Human Genome Project originated in a DOE initiative, DOE sponsors more research in the physical sciences than any other U. S. federal agency, the majority of which is conducted through its system of National Laboratories. Former Governor of Texas Rick Perry is the current Secretary of Energy and he was confirmed by a 62 to 37 vote in the United States Senate on March 2,2017. In 1942, during World War II, the United States started the Manhattan Project, after the war in 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission was created to control the future of the project. The 1973 oil crisis called attention to the need to consolidate energy policy, on August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, which created the Department of Energy. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who served under Presidents Nixon, a DOE spokesperson denied that phrases had been banned. In December 1999, the FBI was investigating how China obtained plans for a nuclear device. Wen Ho Lee was accused of stealing nuclear secrets from Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Peoples Republic of China, Federal officials, including then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson, publicly named Lee as a suspect before he was charged with a crime. The U. S. Congress held hearings to investigate the Department of Energys mishandling of his case, republican senators thought that an independent agency should be in charge of nuclear weapons and security issues, not the Department of Energy. All but one of the 59 charges against Lee were eventually dropped because the investigation proved that the plans the Chinese obtained could not have come from Lee. Lee filed suit and won a $1.6 million settlement against the federal government, the department is under the control and supervision of a United States Secretary of Energy, a political appointee of the President of the United States. The Energy Secretary is assisted in managing the department by a United States Deputy Secretary of Energy, also appointed by the president, the department also has three under secretaries, each appointed by the president, who oversee the major areas of the departments work. The president also appoints seven officials with the rank of Assistant Secretary of Energy who have line management responsibility for major elements of the Department. The Energy Secretary assigns their functions and duties. S.4 billion budget request for DOE for fiscal year 2010, including $2.3 billion for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. The budget aims to expand the use of renewable energy sources while improving energy transmission infrastructure. It also makes significant investments in hybrids and plug-in hybrids, in smart grid technologies, most of the stimulus spending was in the form of grants and contracts. The contractor guarantees the energy improvements will generate savings, and after the contract ends, in loan guarantees, a conditional commitment requires to meet an equity commitment, as well as other conditions, before the loan guarantee is completed. The DOE budget includes $280 million to fund eight Energy Innovation Hubs, yet another hub will develop smart materials that will allow the electrical grid to adapt and respond to changing conditions
9.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
10.
Leon M. Lederman
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He is Director Emeritus of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois, USA. He founded the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy, in Aurora, Illinois in 1986, in 2012, he was awarded the Vannevar Bush Award for his extraordinary contributions to understanding the basic forces and particles of nature. Lederman was born in New York City, New York, the son of Minna and Morris Lederman, Lederman graduated from the James Monroe High School in the South Bronx. He received his bachelors degree from the City College of New York in 1943 and he then joined the Columbia faculty and eventually became Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics. In 1960, on leave from Columbia, he spent some time at CERN in Geneva as a Ford Foundation Fellow and he took an extended leave of absence from Columbia in 1979 to become director of Fermilab. In 1991, Lederman became President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Lederman is also one of the main proponents of the Physics First movement. Also known as Right-side Up Science and Biology Last, this movement seeks to rearrange the current high school curriculum so that physics precedes chemistry. A former president of the American Physical Society, Lederman also received the National Medal of Science, the Wolf Prize, Lederman served as President of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. He also served on the board of trustees for Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1989 to 1992, among his achievements are the discovery of the muon neutrino in 1962 and the bottom quark in 1977. These helped establish his reputation as among the top particle physicists, in 1977, a group of physicists, the E288 experiment team, led by Leon Lederman announced that a particle with a mass of about 6.0 GeV was being produced by the Fermilab particle accelerator. The particles initial name was the greek letter Upsilon, after taking further data, the group discovered that this particle did not actually exist, and the discovery was named Oops-Leon as a pun on the original name and Ledermans first name. Lederman later wrote his 1993 popular science book The God Particle, If the Universe Is the Answer, – which sought to promote awareness of the significance of such a project – in the context of the projects last years and the changing political climate of the 1990s. The increasingly moribund project was finally shelved that same year after some $2 billion of expenditures, Lederman also received the National Medal of Science, the Elliott Cresson Medal for Physics, the Wolf Prize for Physics and the Enrico Fermi Award. In 1995, he received the Chicago History Museum Making History Award for Distinction in Science Medicine, Lederman was an early supporter of Science Debate 2008, an initiative to get the then-candidates for president, Barack Obama and John McCain, to debate the nations top science policy challenges. Lederman was also a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festivals Advisory Board, Lederman was born in New York to a family of Jewish immigrants from Russia. His father operated a hand laundry while encouraging Leon to pursue his education and he went to elementary school in New York City, continuing on to college and his doctorate in the city. In his book, The God Particle, If the Universe Is the Answer, Lederman wrote that, although he was a chemistry major, he became fascinated with physics, because of the clarity of the logic and the unambiguous results from experimentation. His best friend during his years, Martin Klein, convinced him of the splendors of physics during a long evening over many beers
11.
Batavia, Illinois
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Batavia is a city in DuPage and Kane counties in the U. S. state of Illinois. A suburb of Chicago, it was founded in 1833 and is the oldest city in Kane County, during the latter part of the 19th century, Batavia, home to six American-style windmill manufacturing companies, became known as The Windmill City. Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, a federal government-sponsored high-energy physics laboratory, Batavia is part of a vernacular region known as the Tri-City area, along with St. Charles and Geneva, all western suburbs of similar size and relative socioeconomic condition. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 26,045. Batavia was first settled in 1833 by Christopher Payne and his family, originally called Big Woods for the wild growth throughout the settlement, the town was renamed by local judge and former Congressman Isaac Wilson in 1840 after his former home of Batavia, New York. Because Judge Wilson owned the majority of the town, he was given permission to rename the city, batavias settlement was delayed one year by the Black Hawk War, in which Abraham Lincoln was a citizen soldier, and Zachary Taylor and Jefferson Davis were Army officers. The city was incorporated on July 27,1872, after the death of her husband, Mary Todd Lincoln was an involuntary resident of the Batavia Institute on May 20,1875. Mrs. Lincoln was released four months later on September 11,1875, in the late 19th century, Batavia was a major manufacturer of the Conestoga wagons used in the countrys westward expansion. Into the early 20th century, most of the windmill operated waterpumps in use throughout Americas farms were made at one of the three manufacturing companies in Batavia. Many of the limestone buildings that were part of these factories are still in use today as government and commercial offices. The Aurora Elgin and Chicago Railway constructed a plant in southern Batavia. The Campana Factory was built in 1936 to manufacture cosmetics for The Campana Company, most notably Italian Balm, Batavia is located at 41°50′56″N 88°18′30″W. According to the 2010 census, Batavia has an area of 9.707 square miles. Batavia Avenue Main Street Randall Road Washington Street/River Street Wilson Street As of the 2000 U. S. census, there were 23,866 people,8,494 households, the population density was 2,638.4 people per square mile. There were 8,806 housing units at a density of 973.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 93. 21% White,2. 42% Black or African American,0. 11% Native American,1. 35% Asian, none Pacific Islander,1. 53% from other races, and 1. 39% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 27% of the population,22. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the family size was 3.27
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Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
13.
Particle physics
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Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. By our current understanding, these particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model, in more technical terms, they are described by quantum state vectors in a Hilbert space, which is also treated in quantum field theory. All particles and their interactions observed to date can be described almost entirely by a field theory called the Standard Model. The Standard Model, as formulated, has 61 elementary particles. Those elementary particles can combine to form composite particles, accounting for the hundreds of species of particles that have been discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all the tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists believe that it is a description of nature. In recent years, measurements of mass have provided the first experimental deviations from the Standard Model. The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates from at least the 6th century BC, in the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a variety of particles were found in collisions of particles from increasingly high-energy beams. It was referred to informally as the particle zoo, the current state of the classification of all elementary particles is explained by the Standard Model. It describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, the species of gauge bosons are the gluons, W−, W+ and Z bosons, and the photons. The Standard Model also contains 24 fundamental particles, which are the constituents of all matter, finally, the Standard Model also predicted the existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs boson. Early in the morning on 4 July 2012, physicists with the Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced they had found a new particle that behaves similarly to what is expected from the Higgs boson, the worlds major particle physics laboratories are, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Its main facility is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, which collides heavy ions such as gold ions and it is the worlds first heavy ion collider, and the worlds only polarized proton collider. Its main projects are now the electron-positron colliders VEPP-2000, operated since 2006 and its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider, which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the worlds most energetic collider of protons. It also became the most energetic collider of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions and its main facility is the Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage, which collides electrons and positrons with protons
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Illinois Technology and Research Corridor
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The Illinois Technology and Research Corridor is a region of commerce and industry located along Interstate 88 in the Chicago metropolitan area, primarily in DuPage, Kane, and DeKalb Counties. S. S. P. A writing products manufacturer headquartered in Oak Brook SAP America, the Americas subsidiary of SAP AG, Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy, a three-year magnet high school for the State of Illinois in Aurora. Many of its students participate research internships elsewhere in the ITRC and it is the second largest institution of higher education in the state of Illinois in terms of enrollment. A satellite campus is located in Naperville, argonnes annual budget is $650 million and employs 3,500 people. It is owned by the Department of Energy and operated by the UChicago Argonne, fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, located on 6,800 acres in Batavia, was commissioned on November 21,1967 by the U. S. It is home to the former highest energy particle accelerator. The accelerator was built in 1983 at a cost of $120 million and it is the largest open-air shopping center in the contiguous United States. The area is home to the Centennial Beach recreational area and the iconic Moser Tower Oakbrook Terrace Tower. It is the tallest building in suburban Chicago, the Paramount Theatre, an historic theater located in downtown Aurora Pheasant Run and the Q Center, convention centers located in St
15.
Particle accelerator
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A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to nearly light speed and to contain them in well-defined beams. Large accelerators are used in physics as colliders, or as synchrotron light sources for the study of condensed matter physics. There are currently more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world, there are two basic classes of accelerators, electrostatic and electrodynamic accelerators. Electrostatic accelerators use electric fields to accelerate particles. The most common types are the Cockcroft–Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator, a small-scale example of this class is the cathode ray tube in an ordinary old television set. The achievable kinetic energy for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating voltage, electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields to accelerate particles. Since in these types the particles can pass through the accelerating field multiple times. This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale accelerators, because colliders can give evidence of the structure of the subatomic world, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th century. Despite the fact that most accelerators actually propel subatomic particles, the term persists in popular usage when referring to particle accelerators in general. Beams of high-energy particles are useful for both fundamental and applied research in the sciences, and also in many technical and industrial fields unrelated to fundamental research and it has been estimated that there are approximately 30,000 accelerators worldwide. The bar graph shows the breakdown of the number of industrial accelerators according to their applications, for the most basic inquiries into the dynamics and structure of matter, space, and time, physicists seek the simplest kinds of interactions at the highest possible energies. These typically entail particle energies of many GeV, and the interactions of the simplest kinds of particles, leptons and quarks for the matter, the largest and highest energy particle accelerator used for elementary particle physics is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, operating since 2009. These investigations often involve collisions of heavy nuclei – of atoms like iron or gold – at energies of several GeV per nucleon, the largest such particle accelerator is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory. An example of type of machine is LANSCE at Los Alamos. A large number of light sources exist worldwide. The ESRF in Grenoble, France has been used to extract detailed 3-dimensional images of trapped in amber. Thus there is a demand for electron accelerators of moderate energy. Everyday examples of particle accelerators are cathode ray tubes found in television sets and these low-energy accelerators use a single pair of electrodes with a DC voltage of a few thousand volts between them
16.
Large Hadron Collider
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The Large Hadron Collider is the worlds largest and most powerful particle collider, most complex experimental facility ever built, and the largest single machine in the world. It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres in circumference, as deep as 175 metres beneath the France–Switzerland border near Geneva, on 13 February 2013 the LHCs first run officially ended, and it was shut down for planned upgrades. Test collisions restarted in the collider on 5 April 2015. Its second research run commenced on schedule, on 3 June 2015, the collider has four crossing points, around which are positioned seven detectors, each designed for certain kinds of research. The LHC primarily collides proton beams, but it can also use beams of lead nuclei, proton–lead collisions were performed for short periods in 2013 and 2016, and lead–lead collisions took place in 2010,2011,2013, and 2015. The LHCs computing grid is a record holder. The term hadron refers to composite particles composed of quarks held together by the strong force, a collider is a type of a particle accelerator with two directed beams of particles. In particle physics, colliders are used as a tool, they accelerate particles to very high kinetic energies. Analysis of the byproducts of these collisions gives scientists good evidence of the structure of the subatomic world, many of these byproducts are produced only by high-energy collisions, and they decay after very short periods of time. Thus many of them are hard or nearly impossible to study in other ways, many theorists expect new physics beyond the Standard Model to emerge at the TeV energy level, as the Standard Model appears to be unsatisfactory. Issues possibly to be explored by LHC collisions include, Are the masses of particles actually generated by the Higgs mechanism via electroweak symmetry breaking. The experiments found a particle appears to be the Higgs boson. Is supersymmetry, an extension of the Standard Model and Poincaré symmetry, realized in nature, are there extra dimensions, as predicted by various models based on string theory, and can we detect them. What is the nature of the matter that appears to account for 27% of the mass-energy of the universe. Why is the fundamental force so many orders of magnitude weaker than the other three fundamental forces. Are there additional sources of quark mixing, beyond those already present within the Standard Model. Why are there apparent violations of the symmetry between matter and antimatter, what are the nature and properties of quark–gluon plasma, thought to have existed in the early universe and in certain compact and strange astronomical objects today. This will be investigated by heavy ion collisions, mainly in ALICE, first observed in 2010, findings published in 2012 confirmed the phenomenon of jet quenching in heavy-ion collisions
17.
Electronvolt
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In physics, the electronvolt is a unit of energy equal to approximately 1. 6×10−19 joules. By definition, it is the amount of energy gained by the charge of an electron moving across an electric potential difference of one volt. Thus it is 1 volt multiplied by the elementary charge, therefore, one electronvolt is equal to 6981160217662079999♠1. 6021766208×10−19 J. The electronvolt is not a SI unit, and its definition is empirical, like the elementary charge on which it is based, it is not an independent quantity but is equal to 1 J/C √2hα / μ0c0. It is a unit of energy within physics, widely used in solid state, atomic, nuclear. It is commonly used with the metric prefixes milli-, kilo-, in some older documents, and in the name Bevatron, the symbol BeV is used, which stands for billion electronvolts, it is equivalent to the GeV. By mass–energy equivalence, the electronvolt is also a unit of mass and it is common in particle physics, where units of mass and energy are often interchanged, to express mass in units of eV/c2, where c is the speed of light in vacuum. It is common to express mass in terms of eV as a unit of mass. The mass equivalent of 1 eV/c2 is 1 eV / c 2 = ⋅1 V2 =1.783 ×10 −36 kg. For example, an electron and a positron, each with a mass of 0.511 MeV/c2, the proton has a mass of 0.938 GeV/c2. In general, the masses of all hadrons are of the order of 1 GeV/c2, the unified atomic mass unit,1 gram divided by Avogadros number, is almost the mass of a hydrogen atom, which is mostly the mass of the proton. To convert to megaelectronvolts, use the formula,1 u =931.4941 MeV/c2 =0.9314941 GeV/c2, in high-energy physics, the electronvolt is often used as a unit of momentum. A potential difference of 1 volt causes an electron to gain an amount of energy and this gives rise to usage of eV as units of momentum, for the energy supplied results in acceleration of the particle. The dimensions of units are LMT−1. The dimensions of units are L2MT−2. Then, dividing the units of energy by a constant that has units of velocity. In the field of particle physics, the fundamental velocity unit is the speed of light in vacuum c. Thus, dividing energy in eV by the speed of light, the fundamental velocity constant c is often dropped from the units of momentum by way of defining units of length such that the value of c is unity
18.
Top quark
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The top quark, also known as the t quark or truth quark, is the most massive of all observed elementary particles. Like all quarks, the top quark is a fermion with spin 1/2, and experiences all four fundamental interactions, gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions. It has a charge of +2/3 e, It has a large mass of 172.44 ±0.13 ±0.47 GeV/c2. The antiparticle of the top quark is the top antiquark, which differs from it only in some of its properties have equal magnitude. The top quark interacts primarily by the interaction, but can only decay through the weak force. It decays to a W boson and either a quark, a strange quark, or, on the rarest of occasions. The Standard Model predicts its mean lifetime to be roughly 5×10−25 s and this is about a twentieth of the timescale for strong interactions, and therefore it does not form hadrons, giving physicists a unique opportunity to study a bare quark. Because it is so massive, the properties of the top quark allow predictions to be made of the mass of the Higgs boson under certain extensions of the Standard Model, as such, it is extensively studied as a means to discriminate between competing theories. Kobayashi and Maskawa won the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics for the prediction of the top and bottom quark, in 1973, Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa predicted the existence of a third generation of quarks to explain observed CP violations in kaon decay. The top quark was sometimes called truth quark in the past and this discovery allowed the GIM mechanism to become part of the Standard Model. With the acceptance of the GIM mechanism, Kobayashi and Maskawas prediction also gained in credibility and their case was further strengthened by the discovery of the tau by Martin Lewis Perls team at SLAC between 1974 and 1978. This announced a third generation of leptons, breaking the new symmetry between leptons and quarks introduced by the GIM mechanism, restoration of the symmetry implied the existence of a fifth and sixth quark. It was in not long until a fifth quark, the bottom, was discovered by the E288 experiment team. This strongly suggested that there must also be a sixth quark and it was known that this quark would be heavier than the bottom, requiring more energy to create in particle collisions, but the general expectation was that the sixth quark would soon be found. However, it took another 18 years before the existence of the top was confirmed, early searches for the top quark at SLAC and DESY came up empty-handed. When, in the eighties, the Super Proton Synchrotron at CERN discovered the W boson. As the SPS gained competition from the Tevatron at Fermilab there was no sign of the missing particle. After a race between CERN and Fermilab to discover the top, the accelerator at CERN reached its limits without creating a single top, the Tevatron was the only hadron collider powerful enough to produce top quarks
19.
Collider Detector at Fermilab
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The Collider Detector at Fermilab experimental collaboration studies high energy particle collisions at the Tevatron, the worlds former highest-energy particle accelerator. The goal is to discover the identity and properties of the particles make up the universe and to understand the forces. CDF is a collaboration of about 600 physicists. The CDF detector itself weighs 5000 tons, is about 12 meters in all three dimensions, the very high energy available for these collisions makes it possible to produce heavy particles such as the Top quark and the W and Z bosons, which weigh much more than a proton. These heavier particles are identified through their characteristic decays, the CDF apparatus records the trajectories and energies of electrons, photons and light hadrons. Neutrinos do not register in the leading to an apparent missing energy. Other hypothetical particles might leave a missing energy signature, and some searches for new phenomena are based on that, there is another experiment similar to CDF called D0 located at another point on the Tevatron ring. There were two particle detectors located on the Tevatron at Fermilab, CDF and D0, CDF predates D0 as the first detector on the Tevatron. Construction of CDF began in 1982 under the leadership of John Peoples, the Tevatron was completed in 1983 and CDF began to take data in 1985. Over the years, two major updates have been made to CDF, the first upgrade began in 1989 and the second upgrade began in 2001. Each upgrade is considered a run, Run 0 was the run before any upgrades, Run I was after the first upgrade and Run II was after the second upgrade. Run II includes upgrades on the tracking system, preshower detectors. The Tevatron was shutdown in 2011, one of CDFs most famous observations is the observation of the top quark in February 1995. The existence of the top quark was hypothesized after the observation of the Upsilon in 1977, which was found to consist of a bottom quark and an anti-bottom quark. The Standard Model, which today is the most widely accepted theory describing the particles and interactions, the first generation quarks are the up and down quarks, second generation quarks are strange and charm, and third generation are top and bottom. The existence of the bottom quark solidified physicists’ conviction that the top quark existed, the top quark was the very last quark to be observed, mostly due to its comparatively high mass. Whereas, the masses of the other quarks range from.005 GeV to 4. 7GeV, only Fermilab’s Tevatron had the energy capability to produce and detect top anti-top pairs. The large mass of the top quark caused the top quark to decay almost instantaneously, within the order of 10−25 seconds, the Standard Model predicts that the top quark may decay leptonically into a bottom quark and a W boson
20.
D0 experiment
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The DØ experiment consists of a worldwide collaboration of scientists conducting research on the fundamental nature of matter. DØ was one of two major experiments located at the worlds second highest-energy accelerator, the Tevatron Collider at the Fermilab in Batavia, Illinois, the research is focused on precise studies of interactions of protons and antiprotons at the highest available energies. It involves a search for subatomic clues that reveal the character of the building blocks of the universe. The DØ experiment is located at one of the interaction regions and it is expected to record data until the end of 2011. DØ is a collaboration of about 550 physicists from 89 universities. The experiment is a test of the Standard Model of particle physics and it is sensitive in a general way to the effects of high energy collisions and so is meant to be a highly model-independent probe of the theory. This is accomplished by constructing and upgrading a large volume elementary particle detector, the detector is designed to stop as many as possible of the subatomic particles created from energy released by colliding proton/antiproton beams. The interaction region where the matter–antimatter annihilation takes place is close to the center of the detector. The beam collision area is surrounded by tracking chambers in a magnetic field parallel to the direction of the beam. Outside the tracking chamber are the detectors and the calorimeter. Muon chambers form the last layer in the detector, the whole detector is encased in concrete blocks which act as radiation shields. About 1.7 million collisions of the proton and antiproton beams are inspected every second, one of the main physics goal of the DØ experiment is the search for the Higgs boson predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics. The LEP experiments at CERN have excluded the existence of such a Higgs boson with a smaller than 114.4 GeV/c2. The combined measurements of the DØ and CDF experiments reported in January 2010 exclude a Higgs boson with a mass between 162 and 166, on March 4,2009, the DØ and CDF collaborations both announced the discovery of the production of single top quarks in proton-antiproton collisions. The observation of single top quarks is used to measure the element Vtb of the CKM matrix. 774±0.019 GeV/c2, the newly discovered electrically charged Ξb baryon, also known as the cascade b, is made of a down, a strange and a bottom quark. It is the first observed baryon formed of quarks from all three families of matter and its discovery and the measurement of its mass provide new understanding of how the strong nuclear force acts upon the quarks, the basic building blocks of matter. The DØ collaboration has published results which may explain the matter-antimatter asymmetry responsible for the abundance of matter in the universe, B mesons, which oscillate between their matter and antimatter state trillions of times each second, may take longer to decay into antimatter than matter. This would eventually lead to a greater abundance of matter than antimatter
21.
Neutrino
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A neutrino is a fermion that interacts only via the weak subatomic force and gravity. The mass of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the known elementary particles. The neutrino is so named because it is neutral and because its rest mass is so small that it was originally thought to be zero. The weak force has a short range, gravity is extremely weak on the subatomic scale. Thus, neutrinos pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected. Weak interactions create neutrinos in one of three flavors, electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos, or tau neutrinos, in association with the corresponding charged lepton. Although neutrinos were long believed to be massless, it is now known there are three discrete neutrino masses with different tiny values, but they dont correspond uniquely to the three flavors. A neutrino created with a specific flavor is in a specific quantum superposition of all three mass states. Neutrinos oscillate between different flavors in flight, for example, an electron neutrino produced in a beta decay reaction may interact in a distant detector as a muon or tau neutrino. For each neutrino, there exists a corresponding antiparticle, called an antineutrino. They are distinguished from the neutrinos by having opposite signs of lepton number, the majority of neutrinos in the vicinity of the Earth are from nuclear reactions in the Sun. About 65 billion solar neutrinos per second pass through every square centimeter perpendicular to the direction of the Sun in the region of the Earth, neutrinos are also finding practical applications, such as tomography of the interior of the earth. The neutrino was postulated first by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain how beta decay could conserve energy, momentum and he considered that the new particle was emitted from the nucleus together with the electron or beta particle in the process of beta decay. James Chadwick discovered a more massive nuclear particle in 1932 and also named it a neutron. However, the journal Nature rejected Fermis paper, saying that the theory was too remote from reality. He submitted the paper to an Italian journal, which accepted it, however, by 1934 there was experimental evidence against Bohrs idea that energy conservation is invalid for beta decay. Such a limit is not expected if the conservation of energy is invalid, Pauli made use of the occasion to publicly emphasize that the still-undetected neutrino must be an actual particle. In 1942, Wang Ganchang first proposed the use of beta capture to experimentally detect neutrinos, in the 20 July 1956 issue of Science, Clyde Cowan, Frederick Reines, F. B
22.
Fermilab E-906/SeaQuest
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With these measurements, SeaQuest will also be able to quantify the energy loss of a colored parton travelling through cold, strongly-interacting matter. SeaQuest has been approved by Fermilab to extend previous down to up antiquark measurements to larger Bjorken x and it will use a 120 GeV proton beam extracted from the Fermilab Main Injector. The experiment will also examine the modifications to the structure of the proton from nuclear binding. U/d Asymmetry Originally it was thought down and up antiquarks were produced in the sea with a ratio of 1. However, in the early 90s, DYSSIS made a measurement in the low Bjorken x region that tilted the ratio in favor of a higher d number. Experiments such as Fermilab E-866/NuSea yielded results in a range of low Bjorken x, SeaQuest will extend the measurements to higher Bjorken x, which will help resolve questions about the behavior of this ratio above x ≈0.3. Partons in Cold Nuclear Matter The Drell–Yan process is particularly well-suited to carry out a measurement of energy loss of quarks as they propagate through nuclear matter. Since the products—a virtual photon and two leptons—do not interact strongly with the rest of the medium, there is no further loss of energy due to QCD bremsstrahlung. Three main features are the shadowing, antishadowing, and the EMC effect, a previous Drell-Yan experiment has studied this with inconclusive results in the antishadowing region and with no results in the EMC effect region. SeaQuest will be able to yield more statistically precise results regarding the region, and will be able to probe into the EMC effect region
23.
MINOS
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Main injector neutrino oscillation search is a particle physics experiment designed to study the phenomena of neutrino oscillations, first discovered by a Super-Kamiokande experiment in 1998. The MINOS experiment started detecting neutrinos from the NuMI beam in February 2005, MINOS received the last neutrinos from the NUMI beam line at midnight on 30 April 2012. It has been upgraded to MINOS+ which started taking data in 2013 for 3 years, there are two detectors in the experiment. The near detector is similar to the far detector in design and it is located at Fermilab, a few hundred meters away from the graphite target which the protons interact with, and approximately 100 meters underground. The commissioning of the detector was completed in December 2004. The far detector has a mass of 5.4 kt and it is located in the Soudan mine in Northern Minnesota at a depth of 716 meters. The far detector has been operational since summer 2003, and has been taking cosmic ray. Both MINOS detectors are steel-scintillator sampling calorimeters made out of alternating planes of magnetized steel, the magnetic field causes the path of a muon produced in a muon neutrino interaction to bend, making it possible to distinguish interactions with neutrinos from those with antineutrinos. This feature of the MINOS detectors allows MINOS to search for CPT-violation with atmospheric neutrinos and anti-neutrinos, to produce the NuMI beamline,120 GeV Main Injector proton pulses hit a water-cooled graphite target. The resulting interactions of protons with the material produce pions and kaons. The neutrinos from subsequent decays of pions and kaons form the neutrino beam, most of these are muon neutrinos, with a small electron neutrino contamination. Neutrino interactions in the detector are used to measure the initial neutrino flux. On the way toward Soudan, about 20% of the muon neutrinos oscillate into other flavors, in addition, MINOS looks for the appearance of electron neutrinos in the far detector, and will either measure or set a limit on the oscillation probability of muon neutrinos into electron neutrinos. On 29 July 2006, the MINOS collaboration published a paper giving their initial measurements of oscillation parameters as judged from muon neutrino disappearance and these are, Δm223 =2. 74+0.44 −0.26 × 10−3 eV2/c4 and sin2 >0.87. In 2008 MINOS released a further result using over twice the previous data and this is the most precise measurement of Δm2. The results are, Δm223 =2. 43+0.13 −0.13 × 10−3 eV2/c4, in 2011, the above results were updated again, using a more than double data sample and improved analysis methodology. The results are, Δm223 =2. 32+0.12 −0.08 × 10−3 eV2/c4, however, after additional data were evaluated in 2012, MINOS reported that this gap has closed and no excess is there any more. Cosmic ray results from the MINOS far detector have shown there is a strong correlation between high energy cosmic rays measured and the temperature of the stratosphere
24.
MINOS+
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MINOS+ was a continuation of the MINOS experiment to measure neutrino oscillation with improved electronics. It started taking data in 2013 and ran for 3 years, the experiment has ended and a 6-month dismantling project began in early October 2016. Measure sin22θ and Δm2 with higher precision, measure sin22θ and Δm2 with higher precision. To produce the beamline,120 GeV proton pulses from the Main Injector hit a water-cooled graphite target, the resulting interactions of protons with the target material produce pions and kaons, which are focused by a system of magnetic horns. These then travel down a long tunnel, and their decay produces a neutrino beam parallel to the meson beam. Most of these are muon neutrinos, with an electron neutrino contamination. Neutrino interactions in the detector are used to measure the initial neutrino flux. For the initial 3-year run the NuMI beam will be in its medium energy configuration which will deliver the majority of neutrinos with an energy between 4 GeV and 10 GeV, nOνA sits 14 milliradians off the central line of the NuMI beam. At this angle, there is an enhancement of neutrinos with an energy of 2 GeV and this causes a problem in that the signal you are looking for is a dip in a peak. MINOS+ sits on the line of the beam so the full beam make up is seen
25.
MiniBooNE
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MiniBooNE is an experiment at Fermilab designed to observe neutrino oscillations. A neutrino beam consisting primarily of muon neutrinos is directed at a detector filled with 800 tons of mineral oil, an excess of electron neutrino events in the detector would support the neutrino oscillation interpretation of the LSND result. It started collecting data in 2002 and was running in 2012. Experimental observation of neutrinos and atmospheric neutrinos provided evidence for neutrino oscillations. Either there must be an extension to the Standard Model, or one of the results must have a different explanation. Moreover, the KARMEN experiment in Karlsruhe examined a region similar to the LSND experiment and this experiment was less sensitive than LSND, and both could be right. Cosmological data can provide an indirect but rather model-dependent bound to the mass of sterile neutrinos, however, cosmological data can be accommodated within models with different assumptions, such as that by Gelmini et al. MiniBooNE was designed to verify or refute the LSND controversial result in a controlled environment. 2008 Some members of MiniBooNE have formed a new collaboration with outside scientists, miniBooNe first results press release and arXiv,0704
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SciBooNE
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SciBar Booster Neutrino Experiment, is a neutrino experiment located at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in the USA. SciBooNE was designed to make measurements of neutrino and antineutrino cross-sections on carbon and iron nuclei. These measurements have been used by the T2K experiment which began running in Japan in 2009, SciBooNE has measured the intrinsic properties of the Booster Neutrino Beam at Fermilab, which sends neutrinos to MiniBooNE, improving the accuracy of the MiniBooNE results. The SciBooNE detector has three subsystems, SciBar, the EC and the MRD and they can be seen in the event display of SciBooNEs first neutrino event. SciBooNE successfully completed its neutrino beam data run in August,2008, the SciBooNE collaboration is a group of approximately 60 scientists from 17 institutions in five countries. SciBooNE is led by Tsuyoshi Nakaya and Morgan Wascko, sciboone SciBooNE map on Google Maps
27.
Photomultiplier
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Elements of photomultiplier technology, when integrated differently, are the basis of night vision devices. Research that analyzes light scattering, such as the study of polymers in solution use a laser. Photomultipliers are typically constructed with an evacuated glass housing, containing a photocathode, several dynodes, incident photons strike the photocathode material, which is usually a thin vapor-deposited conducting layer on the inside of the entry window of the device. Electrons are ejected from the surface as a consequence of the photoelectric effect and these electrons are directed by the focusing electrode toward the electron multiplier, where electrons are multiplied by the process of secondary emission. The electron multiplier consists of a number of electrodes called dynodes, each dynode is held at a more positive potential, by ≈100 Volts, than the preceding one. A primary electron leaves the photocathode with the energy of the photon, or about 3 eV for blue photons. A small group of primary electrons is created by the arrival of a group of initial photons, the primary electrons move toward the first dynode because they are accelerated by the electric field. They each arrive with ≈100 eV kinetic energy imparted by the potential difference, upon striking the first dynode, more low energy electrons are emitted, and these electrons are in turn accelerated toward the second dynode. The geometry of the chain is such that a cascade occurs with an exponentially-increasing number of electrons being produced at each stage. This last stage is called the anode, the necessary distribution of voltage along the series of dynodes is created by a voltage divider chain, as illustrated in the Figure. In the example, the photocathode is held at a high voltage of order 1000V. The capacitors across the final few dynodes act as reservoirs of charge to help maintain the voltage on the dynodes while electron avalanches propagate through the tube. Many variations of design are used in practice, the design shown is merely illustrative, the side-on design is used, for instance, in the type 931, the first mass-produced PMT. Besides the different photocathode materials, performance is affected by the transmission of the window material that the light passes through. A large number of models are available having various combinations of these. Either of the manuals mentioned will provide the information needed to choose a design for a particular application. The invention of the photomultiplier is predicated upon two prior achievements, the discoveries of the photoelectric effect and of secondary emission. The first demonstration of the effect was carried out in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz using ultraviolet light
28.
Soudan Underground Mine State Park
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The Soudan Underground Mine State Park is a Minnesota state park at the site of the Soudan Underground Mine, on the south shore of Lake Vermilion, in the Vermilion Range. The mine is known as Minnesotas oldest, deepest, and richest iron mine, as the Soudan Iron Mine, it has been designated a U. S. National Historic Landmark. In the late 19th century, prospectors searching for gold in northern Minnesota discovered extremely rich veins of hematite at this site, an open pit mine began operation in 1882, and moved to underground mining by 1900 for safety reasons. From 1901 until the end of mining in 1962, the Soudan Mine was owned by the United States Steel Corporations Oliver Iron Mining division. By 1912 the mine was at a depth of 1,250 feet, when the mine closed, level 27 was being developed at 2,341 feet below the surface and the entire underground workings consisted of more than fifty miles of drifts, adits, and raises. In 1965, US Steel donated the Soudan Mine to the State of Minnesota to use for educational purposes, the primary underground mining method used was known as cut and fill. This involved mining the ceiling and using Ely Greenstone and other waste rock to artificially raise the floor at the rate as the ceiling was being mined out. As a result, the floor and ceiling were always 10–20 feet apart and this technique was particularly suited to the Soudan Mine due to the strength of the hematite formations and the weakness of the encasing Greenstone. This method was not possible in the mines in Ely because the iron formations there were fractured. The park is in Breitung Township, on the shore of Lake Vermilion in northern Minnesotas Vermilion Range and it has become a popular tourist site, often visited on the way to and from Ely and the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. The state park is operated under the Department of Natural Resources and it is a National Historic Landmark, meaning that it is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The surface buildings are open to the public, and during the summer there are daily tours of the mine. Visitors are lowered in an 80-year-old electric mine hoist to level 27, two tours are open to the public, one that explores the historic mining facilities, and another that focuses on the currently active underground physics laboratory. The mine was originally home to the Soudan 1 proton decay experiment and its successor, low-background materials screening facilities are in use and continuing development. The mine was proposed as one site for a U. S. Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory, but that project has since awarded to the Homestake Mine. A fire broke out late Thursday, March 17,2011 in the shaft at the 25 level. The fire was smothered using 70,000 gallons of foam, the Underground Laboratory lost power but remained safe
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Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
30.
Weston, DuPage County, Illinois
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Weston was a community in DuPage County, Illinois, United States, near Batavia and Warrenville. It was voted out of existence by its board in order to provide a site for the National Accelerator Laboratory. Atomic Energy Commission on December 16,1966, Weston was predated by a 100 home subdivision named West Field, which was on the verge of growing in size due to a proposed development for 50,000 people. In April 1964, four months after the initial unveiling, the project had collapsed. Had construction proceeded as planned, the town would have contained the largest mall in North America, the town also was to have an airport, more than 11,000 homes, an athletics fields, a town center, and even large man-made lakes. The subdivision was taken over by DuPage County, allowing the few existing residents to remain, the former residences are currently being used as offices and residences for the international collaborators with Fermilab who are based with an academic institution. Most of the houses are still a village, and are still in use to this day. Fermilab History and Archives Project Weston, IL, How nuclear research and the mob stopped a suburb from getting built
31.
Enrico Fermi
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Enrico Fermi was an Italian physicist, who created the worlds first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1. He has been called the architect of the age and the architect of the atomic bomb. He was one of the few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally and he made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermis first major contribution was to statistical mechanics, today, particles that obey the exclusion principle are called fermions. Later Pauli postulated the existence of an invisible particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay. Fermi took up this idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle and his theory, later referred to as Fermis interaction and still later as weak interaction, described one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his Jewish wife Laura Capon and he emigrated to the United States where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Fermi led the team designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942. He was on hand when the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, went critical in 1943, at Los Alamos he headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Tellers thermonuclear Super bomb. He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, after the war, Fermi served under J. Robert Oppenheimer on the General Advisory Committee, which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters and policy. Following the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949 and he was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimers behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of the latters security clearance. Enrico Fermi was born in Rome, Italy, on 29 September 1901 and he was the third child of Alberto Fermi, a division head in the Ministry of Railways, and Ida de Gattis, an elementary school teacher. His only sister, Maria, was two years older than he was, and his brother Giulio was a year older, after the two boys were sent to a rural community to be wet nursed, Enrico rejoined his family in Rome when he was two and a half. Although he was baptised a Roman Catholic in accordance with his grandparents wishes, his family was not particularly religious, as a young boy he shared the same interests as his brother Giulio, building electric motors and playing with electrical and mechanical toys. Giulio died during the administration of an anesthetic for an operation on a throat abscess in 1915, one of Fermis first sources for his study of physics was a book he found at the local market at Campo de Fiori in Rome. Published in 1840, the 900-page Elementorum physicae mathematicae, was written in Latin by Jesuit Father Andrea Caraffa and it covered mathematics, classical mechanics, astronomy, optics, and acoustics, insofar as these disciplines were understood when the book was written. Fermis interest in physics was encouraged by his fathers colleague Adolfo Amidei, who gave him several books on physics and mathematics. Fermi graduated from school in July 1918 and, at Amideis urging
32.
Robert R. Wilson
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He subsequently went to Princeton University to work with Henry DeWolf Smyth on electromagnetic separation of the isotopes of uranium. In 1943, Wilson and many of his colleagues joined the Manhattan Projects Los Alamos Laboratory, where Wilson became the head of its Cyclotron Group, Wilson and his Cornell colleagues constructed four electron synchrotrons. In 1967 he assumed directorship of the National Accelerator Laboratory, subsequently known as the Fermilab and he resigned in 1978 in a protest against inadequate government funding. Robert Rathbun Wilson was born in Frontier, Wyoming, in 1914 and he had an older sister, Mary Jane. His parents separated when he was eight years old, and custody was awarded to his father, much of his early life was spent on cattle ranches. He changed schools frequently, and attended a number of schools, including the Todd School in Woodstock, Illinois, Wilson entered the University of California, Berkeley, in 1932, and was awarded his Bachelor of Arts degree cum laude in 1936. Wilson received his Doctor of Philosophy in 1940 for his thesis on Theory of the Cyclotron and that year he married Jane Inez Scheyer. Wilson ran into trouble with Lawrences harsh frugality while working on his cyclotron and was fired twice from the Radiation Laboratory, the first time was for losing a rubber seal in the 37-inch cyclotron which prevented its use in a demonstration to a potential donor. He was later rehired at Luis Alvarezs urging, but melted an expensive pair of pliers while welding, though offered his job back, he decided instead to go to Princeton University to work with Henry DeWolf Smyth. By 1941 the project had produced a device called the isotron, the work at Princeton was terminated during World War II when Oppenheimers secret laboratory for research on the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Projects Los Alamos National Laboratory, opened in 1943. Like a bunch of soldiers, Wilson later recalled, we signed up, en masse. Wilson moved there some of his Princeton staff and Harvard Universitys cyclotron. Only in his twenties, he was the youngest group leader in the experimental division. The cyclotron would be used for measurements of the cross section of plutonium. When Oppenheimer reorganized the laboratory in August 1944 to focus on the development of a nuclear weapon, Wilson became head of R Division. In March 1945, R Division acquired the responsibility of developing instrumentation for the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945. Wilson helped stack boxes of explosives for the 100-ton test that preceded it, at Los Alamos, he was also active in community affairs, serving on the town council. News of this met with an icy reception from Major General Leslie Groves, the petition was carried by Oppenheimer to Washington, D. C. eventually making its way via Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to President Harry S. Truman
33.
Proton
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A proton is a subatomic particle, symbol p or p+, with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge and mass slightly less than that of a neutron. Protons and neutrons, each with masses of one atomic mass unit, are collectively referred to as nucleons. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of every atom, the number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the atomic number. Since each element has a number of protons, each element has its own unique atomic number. The word proton is Greek for first, and this name was given to the nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1920. In previous years, Rutherford had discovered that the nucleus could be extracted from the nuclei of nitrogen by atomic collisions. Protons were therefore a candidate to be a particle, and hence a building block of nitrogen. In the modern Standard Model of particle physics, protons are hadrons, and like neutrons, although protons were originally considered fundamental or elementary particles, they are now known to be composed of three valence quarks, two up quarks and one down quark. The rest masses of quarks contribute only about 1% of a protons mass, the remainder of a protons mass is due to quantum chromodynamics binding energy, which includes the kinetic energy of the quarks and the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together. At sufficiently low temperatures, free protons will bind to electrons, however, the character of such bound protons does not change, and they remain protons. A fast proton moving through matter will slow by interactions with electrons and nuclei, the result is a protonated atom, which is a chemical compound of hydrogen. In vacuum, when electrons are present, a sufficiently slow proton may pick up a single free electron, becoming a neutral hydrogen atom. Such free hydrogen atoms tend to react chemically with other types of atoms at sufficiently low energies. When free hydrogen atoms react with other, they form neutral hydrogen molecules. Protons are spin-½ fermions and are composed of three quarks, making them baryons. Protons have an exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm. Protons and neutrons are both nucleons, which may be together by the nuclear force to form atomic nuclei. The nucleus of the most common isotope of the atom is a lone proton
34.
Antiproton
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The antiproton, p, is the antiparticle of the proton. Antiprotons are stable, but they are typically short-lived, since any collision with a proton will cause particles to be annihilated in a burst of energy. The existence of the antiproton with −1 electric charge, opposite to the +1 electric charge of the proton, was predicted by Paul Dirac in his 1933 Nobel Prize lecture, in terms of valence quarks, an antiproton consists of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark. Antiprotons have been detected in cosmic rays for over 25 years, first by balloon-borne experiments and their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium, and antiprotons can also be lost by leaking out of the galaxy. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions. This also provides a limit on the antiproton lifetime of about 1-10 million years. Since the galactic storage time of antiprotons is about 10 million years and this is significantly more stringent than the best laboratory measurements of the antiproton lifetime, LEAR collaboration at CERN,0.08 years Antihydrogen Penning trap of Gabrielse et al. CPT symmetry is a consequence of quantum field theory and no violations of it have ever been detected. BESS, balloon-borne experiment, flown in 1993,1995,1997,2000,2002,2004 and 2007, CAPRICE, balloon-borne experiment, flown in 1994 and 1998. HEAT, balloon-borne experiment, flown in 2000, AMS, space-based experiment, prototype flown on the space shuttle in 1998, intended for the International Space Station, launched May 2011. PAMELA, satellite experiment to detect cosmic rays and antimatter from space, recent report discovered 28 antiprotons in the South Atlantic Anomaly. Antiprotons are routinely produced at Fermilab for collider physics operations in the Tevatron, the use of antiprotons allows for a higher average energy of collisions between quarks and antiquarks than would be possible in proton-proton collisions. This is because the valence quarks in the proton, and the valence antiquarks in the antiproton and their formation requires energy equivalent to a temperature of 10 trillion K and this does not tend to happen naturally. However, at CERN, protons are accelerated in the Proton Synchrotron to an energy of 26 GeV, the protons bounce off the iridium nuclei with enough energy for matter to be created. A range of particles and antiparticles are formed, and the antiprotons are separated off using magnets in vacuum, in July 2011, the ASACUSA experiment at CERN determined the mass of the antiproton to be 1836.1526736 times more massive than an electron. This is the same as the mass of a proton, within the level of certainty of the experiment, antiprotons have been shown within laboratory experiments to have the potential to treat certain cancers, in a similar method currently used for ion therapy. The primary difference between therapy and proton therapy is that following ion energy deposition the antiproton annihilates depositing additional energy in the cancerous region. Antimatter Antineutron Positron Antihydrogen Antiprotonic helium List of particles Recycling antimatter
35.
Michael S. Witherell
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Michael Stewart Witherell is an American physicist and laboratory director. Witherell received in 1968 his bachelors degree from the University of Michigan and in 1969 his masters degree, from 1973-1981 he was on the faculty of Princeton University. He was a member of the faculty at the University of California. Witherell served as the Director of the Fermilab from 1999 to 2005, in 2005 he returned to UCSB as the Vice Chancellor for Research, serving in that role until 2016. In January 2016, the University of California appointed him to be the Director of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, in 1985 Witherell led an experiment at Fermilab which was the first to isolate a large sample of particles containing the charm quark using the new technology of silicon microstrip detectors. He received the 1990 Panofsky Prize from the American Physical Society for this research and he chaired the Mathematical and Physical Sciences Advisory Committee of the NSF from 2006-2008 and the National Academy of Sciences Board on Physics and Astronomy from 2015-2016. His wife Beth Witherell is a historian and editor-in-chief of The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau project at UCSB. Scientific American, October 1998 Michael S. Witherells profile and scientific publications on INSPIRE-HEP
36.
Piermaria Oddone
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Piermaria J Oddone is a Peruvian-American particle physicist. Born in Peru in 1944, Oddone earned his bachelors degree in Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1965, from 1972, Oddone worked at the US Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. In 1987 he was appointed Director of the Physics Division at Berkeley Lab and he was appointed director of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory and took up office on 1 July 2005. Oddone received the 2005 Panofsky Prize in Experimental Particle Physics for the invention of the Asymmetric B-Factory to carry out measurements of CP violation in B-meson decays. In September 2012, Oddone announced he would retire on July 1,2013, pier Oddones profile and scientific publications on INSPIRE-HEP
37.
Ion source
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An ion source is a device that creates atomic and molecular ions. Ion sources are used to form ions for mass spectrometers, optical emission spectrometers, particle accelerators, ion implanters, Electron ionization is widely used in mass spectrometry, particularly for organic molecules. The electrons may be created by an arc discharge between a cathode and an anode, an electron beam ion source is used in atomic physics to produce highly charged ions by bombarding atoms with a powerful electron beam. Its principle of operation is shared by the electron beam ion trap, Electron capture ionization is the ionization of a gas phase atom or molecule by attachment of an electron to create an ion of the form A−•. The reaction is A + e − → M A − where the M over the arrow denotes that to conserve energy, Electron capture can be used in conjunction with chemical ionization. An electron capture detector is used in gas chromatography systems. Chemical ionization is a lower energy process than electron ionization because it involves ion/molecule reactions rather than electron removal, the lower energy yields less fragmentation, and usually a simpler spectrum. A typical CI spectrum has an easily identifiable molecular ion, in a CI experiment, ions are produced through the collision of the analyte with ions of a reagent gas in the ion source. Some common reagent gases include, methane, ammonia, and isobutane, inside the ion source, the reagent gas is present in large excess compared to the analyte. Electrons entering the source will preferentially ionize the reagent gas, the resultant collisions with other reagent gas molecules will create an ionization plasma. Positive and negative ions of the analyte are formed by reactions with this plasma. For example, protonation occurs by CH4 + e − ⟶ CH4 + +2 e −, charge-exchange ionization is a gas phase reaction between an ion and an atom or molecule in which the charge of the ion is transferred to the neutral species. A + + B ⟶ A + B + Chemi-ionization is the formation of an ion through the reaction of a gas atom or molecule with an atom or molecule in an excited state. Associative ionization is a gas phase reaction in which two atoms or molecules interact to form a single product ion, one or both of the interacting species may have excess internal energy. For example, A ∗ + B ⟶ AB + ∙ + e − where species A with excess internal energy interacts with B to form the ion AB+, Penning ionization is a form of chemi-ionization involving reactions between neutral atoms or molecules. The process is named after the Dutch physicist Frans Michel Penning who first reported it in 1927, Penning ionization involves a reaction between a gas-phase excited-state atom or molecule G* and a target molecule M resulting in the formation of a radical molecular cation M+. In a radioactive ion source, a piece of radioactive material. This is used in smoke detectors and ion mobility spectrometers
38.
Hydrogen
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Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard weight of circa 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its monatomic form is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium, has one proton, the universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first occurred during the recombination epoch. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic, since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most nonmetallic elements, most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays an important role in acid–base reactions because most acid-base reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the form of a charge when it is known as a hydride. The hydrogen cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of acids on metals. Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water. Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production, the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market, Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen gas is flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol,2 H2 + O2 →2 H2O +572 kJ Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74%, the explosive reactions may be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C, the detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector, such leaks can be very dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling blue natural gas flames, the destruction of the Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible orange flames in that incident were the result of a mixture of hydrogen to oxygen combined with carbon compounds from the airship skin. H2 reacts with every oxidizing element, the ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, however, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. The most complicated treatments allow for the effects of special relativity
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. Bibcode:2014arXiv1411.3614C. ISBN 978-3-95450-142-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
