1.
Cluses
–
Cluses is a commune in the Haute-Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in southeastern France. The commune is situated in the Arve Valley, on the river bears the same name. Cluses is known for its Alpine setting and its watch-making industry, the town is located in the Arve Valley, in the region Faucigny. Situated between Geneva and Chamonix, Cluses is located near a number of ski slopes. Cluses began as a commune with 2208 citizens in 1902, growing to 16,732 residents in 1990, during the Middle Ages, a bridge was built on the Arve River. Travelers crossing the bridge soon stimulated trade in the area, Cluses became an independent commune on 4 May 1310. The Baron Hughes of Faucigny had an important role in the evolution as an independent commune. In 1720, Claude-Joseph Balladoud introduced clockmaking in the Arve Valley, soon, family-owned workrooms and cottage industries emerged, supplying the main clock-making centres of Geneva. In 1848, the École Royale d’Horlogerie was created, and precision manufacturing in the Arve Valley soon became a mainstay of the town. On June 20,1844, all of the towns wooden buildings were destroyed in a fire. The town was rebuilt with new architecture, according to the style of Turin and this style is still represented in Cluses today, making the city particularly noteworthy in the region Haute-Savoie. For many years Cluses served as the location of the factory and headquarters of the famous Mitchell Reel company, in 1984, after building nearly 25 million fishing reels, low-cost labor competition from Asia forced the company to manufacture its products outside France. The company still exists however, and its headquarters are now located in the nearby community of Marignier. Today, Cluses is a favorite tourist and winter sports destination, watchmaking now accounts for only a small part of Cluses’ industry, though the town continues to serve as a high-tech centre for precision engineering and design of advanced technical products. Somfy S. A. a manufacturer of controls and motors for awnings, roller shutters, window coverings, and projection screens, is the largest company still located in the city. The Faucigny Music Festival, held to commemorate François Curt, founder of the Music Federation of Faucigny, each year, a different town hosts the festival, Cluses last hosted the event in June 2000. Each year, Cluses also holds a folk rock and rock music festival called Musiques en Stock. The Pont Vieux is a bridge on the Arve
2.
Historian
–
A historian is a person who researches, studies, and writes about the past, and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race, if the individual is concerned with events preceding written history, the individual is an historian of prehistory. Although historian can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike, some historians, though, are recognized by publications or training and experience. Historian became an occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany. Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics, sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, while ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times. Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region, the earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus who later became known as the father of history. Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men and he was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis. The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, while early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder, was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. Strabo was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, livy records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history, in Chinese historiography, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts, which is the source for the Apostolic Age. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages and they wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammads life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, to evaluate these sources, they developed various methodologies, such as the science of biography, science of hadith and Isnad
3.
Historiography
–
Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using particular sources, techniques, beginning in the nineteenth century, with the ascent of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups, in 2007, of 5,723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities,1,644 identified themselves with social history and 1,425 identified themselves with political history. In the early period, the term historiography meant the writing of history. In that sense certain official historians were given the title Historiographer Royal in Sweden, England, the Scottish post is still in existence. Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. For the purposes of article, history is taken to mean written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. Before writing, there was only oral history or oral tradition, in China, the earliest history was recorded in oracle bone script which was deciphered and may date back to around late 2nd millennium BCE. The Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BCE, is the earliest written of narrative history in the world, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. It is traditionally attributed to Confucius, zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era, traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder, over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty, the tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi, a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo. It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, the latter work is now lost. The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi, the first of these works were the Nihon Shoki, compiled by Prince Toneri in 720
4.
World-systems theory
–
World-systems theory, is a multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social change which emphasizes the world-system as the primary unit of social analysis. World-system refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials. This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries, nonetheless, the system has dynamic characteristics, in part as a result of revolutions in transport technology, and individual states can gain or lose their core status over time. This structure is unified by the division of labour and it is a world-economy rooted in a capitalist economy. Immanuel Wallerstein has developed the best-known version of world-systems analysis, beginning in the 1970s, Wallerstein traces the rise of the capitalist world-economy from the long 16th century. The rise of capitalism, in his view, was an outcome of the protracted crisis of feudalism. Though other commentators refer to Wallersteins project as world-systems theory, he rejects that term. For Wallerstein, then, world-systems analysis is a movement that seeks to discern the totality of what has been paraded under the labels of the. Human sciences and indeed well beyond and we must invent a new language, Wallerstein insists, to transcend the illusions of the three supposedly distinctive arenas of society, economy and politics. Many other scholars have contributed significant work in this knowledge movement, world-systems theory traces emerged in the 1970s. Its roots can be found in sociology, but it has developed into a highly interdisciplinary field, there are three major predecessors of world-systems theory, the Annales school, the Marxist tradition, and the dependence theory. The Annales School tradition influenced Wallerstein to focusing on long-term processes, world-systems theory was also significantly influenced by dependency theory, a neo-Marxist explanation of development processes. Other influences on the world-systems theory come from such as Karl Polanyi, Nikolai Kondratiev. Wallerstein sees the development of the capitalist world economy as detrimental to a proportion of the worlds population. Wallerstein views the period since the 1970s as an age of transition that will give way to a world system whose configuration cannot be determined in advance. Hall, Kunibert Raffer, Theotonio dos Santos, Dale Tomich, in sociology, a primary alternative perspective is World Polity Theory, as formulated by John W. Meyer. World-systems analysis builds upon but also differs fundamentally from dependency theory, while accepting world inequality, the world market and imperialism as fundamental features of historical capitalism, Wallerstein broke with orthodox dependency theorys central proposition. For Wallerstein, core countries do not exploit poor countries for two basic reasons, during the Industrial Revolution, for example, English capitalists exploited slaves in the cotton zones of the American South, a peripheral region within a semiperipheral country, United States
5.
Meuse (department)
–
Meuse is a department in northeast France, named after the River Meuse. Parts of Meuse belong to Parc naturel régional de Lorraine, front lines in trench warfare during World War I ran varying courses through the department and it hosted an important battle/offensive in 1916 in and around Verdun. Meuse is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790, the new departments were to be uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in size and population. The department was created from the provinces of Barrois and Three Bishoprics. From about 500 AD, the Franks controlled this part of northeastern France, the Carolingian territories were divided into three sections in 843 at the Treaty of Verdun, and the area that is now the department of Meuse, became part of Middle Francia. Lothair II died without heirs and Lotharingia was divided into an east and west part. The Battle of Sedan was fought in the part of the department during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. It resulted in the capture of the Emperor Napoleon III and large numbers of his troops and effectively decided the war in favour of Prussia, the area was again a battleground in World War I when the Battle of Verdun was fought in 1916. In the Second World War it again saw action in battle when the Germans sought to establish a base from which to capture the Meuse bridges. Meuse is a department in northeastern France and is part of the region of Grand Est, the capital and largest town in the department is Bar-le-Duc, and other large towns are Commercy and Verdun. The main rivers flowing through the department are the River Meuse, the Aire, a ridge running from south to north separates the watersheds of the Seine and the Rhine. These hills are called the Argonne and are clothed in oak forests, the area of the department is 2,408 sq mi. The principal crops grown are wheat, barley and oats, potatoes, oilseed rape, vegetables, livestock is raised and timber is extracted from the forests. The main industries are brewing and the manufacture of glass and tiles, lace-making is a traditional craft in the department. Part of the department is in the Lorraine Regional Natural Park, the park has many natural habitats including calcareous grassland, forested valleys, wet meadows, ponds and streams. There are many Natura 2000 protected areas and it is an important resting area for migratory birds, among the different habitats it includes a stretch of coast, the plain of Woëvre, the Lac de Madine, the Meuse valley and the Hague plateau. The total area of the park is 205,000 hectares, since the mid-nineteenth century, the exodus of the countryside inhabitants to the cities has caused the population of rural France to fall. Meuse has no big cities to receive population and the population of the department has thus decreased
6.
Philip II of Spain
–
Philip II of Spain, called the Prudent, was King of Spain, King of Portugal, King of Naples and Sicily, and jure uxoris King of England and Ireland. He was also Duke of Milan, from 1555, he was lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. Known in Spain as Felipe el Prudente, his empire included territories on every continent then known to Europeans, during his reign, Spain reached the height of its influence and power. This is sometimes called the Golden Age, the expression, the empire on which the sun never sets, was coined during Philips time to reflect the extent of his dominion. During Philips reign there were separate state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1569,1575 and this was partly the cause of the declaration of independence that created the Dutch Republic in 1581. The Ambassador went on to say He dresses very tastefully, the culture and courtly life of Spain were an important influence in his early life. He was tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo, the future Archbishop of Toledo, Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arms and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella, though Philip had good command over Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese, he never managed to equal his father, Charles V, as a polyglot. While Philip was also a German archduke of the House of Habsburg, Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish, he had been born in Spain and raised in the Castilian court, his native tongue was Spanish, and he preferred to live in Spain. This would ultimately impede his succession to the imperial throne, in April 1528, when Philip was eleven months old, he received the oath of allegiance as heir to the crown from the Cortes of Castile. Philip was also close to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to his two pages, the Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens, the son of his governor Juan de Zúñiga. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, Philips martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga, a Castilian nobleman who served as the commendador mayor of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by the Duke of Alba during the Italian Wars, Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542 but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. The king-emperors interactions with his son during his stay in Spain convinced him of Philips precocity in statesmanship, Philip, who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen. Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos, Philip was also left with extensive written instructions that emphasised piety, patience, modesty, and distrust. These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed, personally, Philip spoke softly and had an icy self-mastery, in the words of one of his ministers, he had a smile that cut like a sword. After living in the Netherlands in the years of his reign
7.
Lucien Febvre
–
Lucien Febvre was a French historian best known for the role he played in establishing the Annales School of history. He was the editor of the Encyclopédie française together with Anatole de Monzie. Lucien Febvre was born and brought up in Nancy, in northeastern France and his father was a philologist, who introduced Febvre to the study of ancient texts and languages, which significantly influenced Febvres way of thinking. At the age of twenty, Febvre went to Paris to enrol in the École Normale Supérieure, between 1899 and 1902, he concentrated on studying history and geography. After his graduation from college, Febvre taught at a provincial lycée, where he worked on his thesis on Philip II of Spain and the Franche-Comté. After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Febvre was forced to leave his teaching post to join the army, Febvre took up a position at the University of Strasbourg in 1919 when the province was returned to France. While there, Febvre became acquainted with Marc Bloch, who shared Febvres philosophical and political approach, the time Febvre spent in Paris played an enormous role in reshaping his outlook on the world. Prevalent approaches to art, philosophy and modern ways of thinking strongly influenced Febvre and he embraced 20th century modernism to the extent that he later claimed to have become untuned from the old world and the old ways of thinking. In his approach to history, Febvre contextualized events against the geography, psychology, History as a mere collection of historical facts no longer held any interest for Febvre. Febvres first thesis on Philip the Second and the Franche-Comté, published in 1911, in this work, Febvre tried to demonstrate the context that shows events in their true light. Febvre reconstructed the life of villagers and town dwellers in a traditional province in France by contextualizing historical events in terms of the geography. By describing Franche-Comtés rivers, salt mines, vineyards and other surroundings, Febvre created an accurate and true-to-life portrayal of the atmosphere, with this approach, Febvre was also able to reveal a negative influence that the French Government of the time played in the life of this province. This approach to history is known as histoire totale, or histoire tout court, later, Febvres work would be a paradigm for the Annales School and would become a new way of historical thinking. Another influential work of Febvre dealt with Protestantism, published in the Revue Historique in 1929, Une question mal posée attempted to study popular religion by trying to observe and quantify human behavior. Through this work, Febvre became very involved in the field of ethnology, some critics consider this work to be heavily influenced by Febvres own views of the surrounding world. As time went by, Febvre grew increasingly suspicious of theology and he refused to see people as bound by forces beyond their control. He came to the view that religion and old ways of thinking were impractical, maybe even dangerous, in the general confusion of our time, Febvre wrote, old ideas refuse to die and still find acceptance with the mass of the population. He became convinced that religious views and attitudes is as difficult as trying to influence the outcome of any sort of political or social upheavals
8.
Mainz
–
Mainz is the capital and largest city of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. It was the capital of the Electorate of Mainz at the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city is famous as the home of the invention of the printing press. Until the twentieth century, Mainz was usually referred to in English by its French name, Mainz is located on the 50th latitude, on the west bank of the river Rhine, opposite the confluence of the Main with the Rhine. The population in the early 2012 was 200,957, an additional 18,619 people maintain a primary residence elsewhere but have a home in Mainz. The city is part of the Rhein Metro area comprising 5.8 million people, Mainz can easily be reached from Frankfurt International Airport in 25 minutes by commuter railway. Mainzs history and economy are closely tied to its proximity to the Rhine river historically handling much of the regions waterborne cargo, todays huge container port hub allowing trimodal transport is located on the North Side of the town. The river also provides another positive effect, moderating Mainzs climate, after the last ice age, sand dunes were deposited in the Rhine valley at what was to become the western edge of the city. The Mainz Sand Dunes area is now a reserve with a unique landscape. When the Mainz legion camp was founded in 13/12 BC, the buildings near the Rhine River, historical sources and archaeological findings both prove the importance of the military and civilian Mogontiacum as a port city on the Rhine. The Roman stronghold or castrum Mogontiacum, the precursor to Mainz, was founded by the Roman general Drusus perhaps as early as 13/12 BC. As related by Suetonius the existence of Mogontiacum is well established by four years later, although the city is situated opposite the mouth of the Main river, the name of Mainz is not from Main, the similarity being perhaps due to diachronic analogy. Main is from Latin Menus, the name the Romans used for the river, linguistic analysis of the many forms that the name Mainz has taken on make it clear that it is a simplification of Mogontiacum. The name appears to be Celtic and ultimately it is, however, it had also become Roman and was selected by them with a special significance. Mogontiacum was an important military town throughout Roman times, probably due to its position at the confluence of the Main. The town of Mogontiacum grew up between the fort and the river, the castrum was the base of Legio XIIII Gemina and XVI Gallica, XXII Primigenia, IIII Macedonica, I Adiutrix, XXI Rapax, and XIIII Gemina, among others. Mainz was also a base of a Roman river fleet, the Classis Germanica, remains of Roman troop ships and a patrol boat from the late 4th century were discovered in 1982/86 and may now be viewed in the Museum für Antike Schifffahrt. A temple dedicated to Isis Panthea and Magna Mater was discovered in 2000 and is open to the public
9.
Prisoner of war
–
A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
10.
Rockefeller Foundation
–
The Rockefeller Foundation is a private foundation based at 420 Fifth Avenue, New York City. It was established by the six-generation Rockefeller family, the Foundation was started by Standard Oil owner John D. Rockefeller, along with his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. Its stated mission is promoting the well-being of humanity throughout the world, as of 2015, the Foundation was ranked as the 39th largest U. S. foundation by total giving. By year-end 2008 assets were tallied at $3.1 billion from $4.6 billion in 2007, on January 5,2017, the Board of Trustees announced the unanimous selection of Dr. Rajiv Shah to serve as the 13th president of the foundation. Shah became the youngest person, at 43, and first-ever Indian-American to serve as president of the foundation. He assumed the position March 1, succeeding Dr. Judith Rodin who served as president for twelve years and announced her retirement, at age 71. Rodin in turn had succeeded Gordon Conway in 2005, a former president of the University of Pennsylvania, Rodin was the first woman to head the foundation. It was in that year he gave the first $100,000 to fund the University of Chicago, over the next two decades, $35 million dollars were gifted to the institution by Rockefeller. It was also in 1906 that the Russell Sage Foundation was established, though its program was limited to working women, Rockefellers would thus not be the first foundation in America, but it brought to it unprecedented international scale and scope. On May 14,1913, New York Governor William Sulzer approved a charter for the foundation - two years after the Carnegie Corporation - with Junior becoming the first president. With its large-scale endowment, a part of Seniors fortune was insulated from inheritance taxes. On December 5, the Board made its first grant of $100,000 to the American Red Cross to purchase property for its headquarters in Washington, D. C. At the beginning the foundation was global in its approach and concentrated in its first decade entirely on the sciences, public health and medical education. In 1913 the foundation set up the International Health Commission, the first appropriation of funds for work outside the US and its early field research on hookworm, malaria, and yellow fever provided the basic techniques to control these diseases and established the pattern of modern public health services. In 1913 it also began a 20-year support program of the Bureau of Social Hygiene, whose mission was research and education on birth control, maternal health and sex education. Also in 1914, the set up a new Department of Industrial Relations. The foundation henceforth confined itself to funding responsible organizations involved in this and other controversial fields, during its first few years of work, the LSRM awarded funds primarily to social workers, with its funding decisions guided primarily by John D. Rockefeller Jr. In January 1929, LSRM funds were folded into the Rockefeller Foundation, John D. Rockefeller Jr. became the foundation chairman in 1917
11.
School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences
–
The School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences is a French grande école specialised in the social sciences, and a constituent college of PSL Research University. Originally a department of the École Pratique des Hautes Études, an institution created in 1868 with the purpose of training academic researchers, as a higher education institution under the jurisdiction of the French Ministry of Education, the EHESS trains academic researchers and professors specialised in the Social Sciences. It delivers postgraduate degrees such as the Master of research, the Doctorate, some of them are awarded conjointly by institutions such as the École Normale Supérieure, the École Polytechnique, the École pratique des hautes études, and some of the universities of Paris. The scholars in training are free to choose their own curriculum among the large quantity of seminars offered by the school, after WWII, the Rockefeller Foundation invested more funds, in the aims of favorizing non-Marxist sociological studies. Thus, the VIth section was created in 1947, and Lucien Febvre took its head, F. Braudel succeeded in 1956 to L. Febvre and concentrated the various study groups at its well-known emplacement on boulevard Raspail, in part by a financing from the Ford Foundation. Today, the EHESS is one of Frances prestigious Grands établissements and it functions as a research, teaching, and degree-granting institution. It offers advanced students high-level programs intended to lead to research careers, students are admitted on the relevance of their research project and undertake at the EHESS master programs and doctoral studies. The EHESS currently hosts more than 80 research centers and 22 doctoral programs,13 of which in partnership with other French Universities and Grandes écoles, the school is now a constituent college of the federal PSL Research University. Lucien Febvre and Fernand Braudel were members of the École des Annales, however, this school of thought was contested by the growing importance of the social sciences and the beginning of structuralism. They were reproached, along with the structuralists, for ignoring politics, the work of Braudel, Le Roy Ladurie and other historians working under their influence greatly affected the research and official teaching of history in France beginning in the 1960s. The work of Jean-Marie Pesez renewed interest in the issue of methodology in medieval archeology, during the 1970s, EHESS became the center of New History under the influence of Jacques Le Goff and Pierre Nora. Pierre Bourdieu, Luc Boltanski, Alain Touraine, Jean-Claude Passeron have all been associated with EHESS, EHESS has always been a central place for economic debate in Europe. The diversity of viewpoints has been a priority and even liberal, also, there are many relations and exchange programs with top universities in Asia and Middle-East as there are world-renowned research centers on Asian Studies and Islamic Studies in EHESS
12.
Cliometrics
–
It is a quantitative approach to economic history. The term cliometrics comes from Clio, who was the muse of history, there has been a revival in new economic history since the late 1990s. The new economic history originated in 1958 with The Economics of Slavery in the Antebellum South by American economists Alfred H. Conrad, areas of key interest included transportation history, slavery, and agriculture. Cliometrics became better known when Douglass North and William Parker became the editors of the Journal of Economic History in 1960, the Cliometrics Meetings began to be held around this time at Purdue University and are still held annually in different locations. Today, cliometric approaches are standard in several journals, including the Journal of Economic History, Explorations in Economic History, the European Review of Economic History, and Cliometrica. According to cliometric economist Claudia Goldin, the success of the revolution had as an unintended consequence the disappearance of economic historians from history departments. As economic historians started using the tools as economists, they started to seem more like other economists. In Goldins words, the new economic historians extinguished the other side, the other side nearly disappeared altogether, with only a few remaining in history departments and business schools. A group to encourage and further the study of cliometrics, The Cliometric Society, was founded in 1983, Cliometrics was introduced to Germany by American-born and -educated Richard H. Tilly since the 1970s. Here has been a revival in new ecoomic history since the late 1990s, in October 1993, the Swedish National Bank awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences to Robert William Fogel and Douglass Cecil North for having renewed research in economic history. The Academy noted that they were pioneers in the branch of history that has been called the new economic history. Fogel is often described as the father of modern econometric history, hes especially noted for using careful empirical work to overturn conventional wisdom. North, a professor at Washington University in St. Louis, was honored as a pioneer in the new institutional history, Boldizzoni summarized a common critique by arguing that cliometrics is based on the false assumption that the laws of neo-classical economics always apply to human activity. Those laws, he says, are based on choice and maximization as they operate in well-developed markets. Instead, Boldizzoni argues that the workings of economies are determined by social, political and cultural conditions specific to each society, on the other hand, Diebolt argued that cliometrics is mature and well accepted by scholars as an indispensable tool in economic history. At the applied level, cliometrics is accepted as the way to measure variables, Cliometrics and cliodynamics share the scientific ambition of using quantitative tools and historical data to test general historical principles. Both fields endeavor to gather large amounts of data across big samples. However, the two also differ in several important ways
13.
Food
–
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
14.
Fashion
–
Fashion is a popular style or practice, especially in clothing, footwear, accessories, makeup, body, or furniture. Fashion is a distinctive and often constant trend in the style in which a person dresses and it is the prevailing styles in behaviour and the newest creations of textile designers. Although aspects of fashion can be feminine or masculine, some trends are androgynous, early Western travelers, traveling whether to Persia, Turkey, India, or China, would frequently remark on the absence of change in fashion in the respective places. The Japanese Shoguns secretary bragged to a Spanish visitor in 1609 that Japanese clothing had not changed in over a thousand years, however, there is considerable evidence in Ming China of rapidly changing fashions in Chinese clothing. Changes in costume took place at times of economic or social change, as occurred in ancient Rome. In 8th-century Moorish Spain, the musician Ziryab introduced to Córdoba sophisticated clothing-styles based on seasonal and daily fashions from his native Baghdad, modified by his own inspiration. Similar changes in fashion occurred in the 11th century in the Middle East following the arrival of the Turks, who introduced clothing styles from Central Asia, the beginning in Europe of continual and increasingly rapid change in clothing styles can be fairly reliably dated. This created the distinctive Western outline of a tailored top worn over leggings or trousers, the pace of change accelerated considerably in the following century, and women and mens fashion, especially in the dressing and adorning of the hair, became equally complex. Art historians are able to use fashion with confidence and precision to date images, often to within five years. These national styles remained very different until a counter-movement in the 17th to 18th centuries imposed similar styles once again, in the 16th century, national differences were at their most pronounced. Ten 16th century portraits of German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats, albrecht Dürer illustrated the differences in his actual contrast of Nuremberg and Venetian fashions at the close of the 15th century. Though textile colors and patterns changed from year to year, the cut of a gentlemans coat, by 1800, all Western Europeans were dressing alike, local variation became first a sign of provincial culture and later a badge of the conservative peasant. The Haute house was the established by government for the fashion houses that met the standards of industry. Since then, the idea of the designer as a celebrity in his or her own right has become increasingly dominant. The impact of unisex expands more broadly to various themes in fashion including androgyny, mass-market retail. Fashion weeks are held in cities, where designers exhibit their new clothing collections to audiences. Modern Westerners have a number of choices available in the selection of their clothes. What a person chooses to wear can reflect his or her personality or interests, when people who have high cultural status start to wear new or different clothes, a fashion trend may start
15.
Norm (social)
–
From a sociological perspective, social norms are informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society. Social psychology recognizes smaller group units, such as a team or an office, in other words, norms are regarded as collective representations of acceptable group conduct as well as individual perceptions of particular group conduct. They can be viewed as products which represent individuals basic knowledge of what others do. Furthermore, in the field of psychology, the roles of norms are emphasized which can guide behavior in a certain situation or environment as mental representations of appropriate behavior. For example, it has shown that normative messages can promote pro-social behavior, including decreasing alcohol use and increasing voter turnout. According to the definition of social norms behavioral component, norms have two dimensions, how much a behaviour is exhibited, and how much the group approves of that behavior. At the same time, norms also can be changed contingent on the behavior of others. In fact, in Sherif, one confederate was able to affect the development of a group related to the autokinetic effect. Norms running counter to the behaviors of the society or culture may be transmitted and maintained within small subgroups of society. For example, Crandall noted that groups have a rate of bulimia, a publicly recognized life-threatening disease. Social norms have a way of maintaining order and organizing groups, although not considered to be formal laws within society, norms still work to promote a great deal of social control. They are statements that regulate conduct, the cultural phenomenon that is the norm is the prescriber of acceptable behavior in specific instances. Without them, there would be a world without consensus, common ground, even though the law and a states legislation is not intended to control social norms, society and the law are inherently linked and one dictates the other. This is why it has said that the language used in some legislation is controlling and dictating for what should or should not be accepted. For example, the criminalisation of sexual relations is said to protect those that are vulnerable. The language surrounding these laws conveys the message that such acts are supposedly immoral and should be condemned, norms in every culture create conformity that allows for people to become socialized to the culture in which they live. As social beings, individuals learn when and where it is appropriate to say things, to use certain words, to discuss certain topics or wear certain clothes. Thus, knowledge about cultural norms is important for impressions, which is a regulation of their nonverbal behavior
16.
Werner Sombart
–
Werner Sombart was born in Ermsleben, Harz, the son of a wealthy liberal politician, industrialist, and estate-owner, Anton Ludwig Sombart. He studied law and economics at the universities of Pisa, Berlin, in 1888, he received his Ph. D. from Berlin under the direction of Gustav von Schmoller and Adolph Wagner, then the most eminent German economists. Although faculties at such eminent universities as Heidelberg and Freiburg called him to chairs, Sombart, at that time, was an important Marxian, someone who used and interpreted Karl Marx — to the point that Friedrich Engels said he was the only German professor who understood Das Kapital. Sombart called himself a convinced Marxist, but later wrote that It had to be admitted in the end that Marx had made mistakes on many points of importance. As one of the German academics concerned with social policy, Sombart also joined the Verein für Socialpolitik around 1888, together with his friend. Sombart was not the first sociologist to devote a book to the concept of social movement as he did in his Sozialismus und soziale Bewegung. His understanding of social movements was inspired by Marx and by a book on social movements by Lorenz von Stein, for him, the rising worker’s movement was a result of the inherent contradictions of capitalism. The proletarian situation created a “love for the masses”, which, in 1902, his magnum opus, Der moderne Kapitalismus, appeared in two volumes. It is a history of economics and economic development through the centuries. The first book deals with the transition from feudal society to capitalism, in 1903 Sombart accepted a position as associate editor of the Archives for Social Science and Social Welfare, where he worked with his colleagues Edgar Jaffé and Max Weber. In 1906, Sombart accepted a call to a professorship at the Berlin School of Commerce. Here, inter alia, companion volumes to Modern Capitalism dealing with luxury, fashion, and war as economic paradigms appeared, also in 1906 his Why is there no Socialism in the United States. The book is a work on American exceptionalism in this respect to this day. Excluded from the system, Sombart argued, the Jews broke it up and replaced it with modern capitalism, in competition was unlimited. Paul Johnson, who considers the work a book, notes that Sombart left out some inconvenient truths. Sombart refused to recognize, as Weber did, that wherever these religious systems, including Judaism, were at their most powerful and authoritarian, commerce did not flourish. Jewish businessmen, like Calvinist ones, tended to operate most successfully when they had left their traditional religious environment, the book begins with the greed for gold, the roots of private enterprise, and the types of entrepreneurs. To Sombart, in work, the highest ideal is the German idea of the State
17.
Capitalism
–
Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, economists, political economists, and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism, different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition, and state-sanctioned social policies. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which elements of free markets with state intervention. Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in different times, places. Following the decline of mercantilism, mixed capitalist systems became dominant in the Western world, Capitalism has been criticized for prioritizing profit over social good, natural resources, and the environment, and that is a cause of inequality and economic instabilities. Supporters believe that it provides better products through competition, and creates strong economic growth, the term capitalist, meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term capitalism. It dates back to the mid-17th century, capitalist is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning head – also the origin of chattel and cattle in the sense of movable property. Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money, by 1283 it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm. It was frequently interchanged with a number of other words – wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property, the Hollandische Mercurius uses capitalists in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital. In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788, six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France, David Ricardo, in his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, referred to the capitalist many times. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used capitalist in his work Table Talk, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term capitalist in his first work, What is Property. To refer to the owners of capital, benjamin Disraeli used the term capitalist in his 1845 work Sybil. The initial usage of the term capitalism in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the capitalistic system. And to the capitalist mode of production in Das Kapital, the use of the word capitalism in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Das Kapital, p.124, and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p.493. Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism but instead those of capitalist, and capitalist mode of production, also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German-American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase private capitalism in 1863. Capital has existed incipiently on a scale for centuries, in the form of merchant, renting and lending activities. Simple commodity exchange, and consequently simple commodity production, which are the basis for the growth of capital from trade, have a very long history
18.
Venice
–
Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
19.
Genoa
–
Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
20.
Antwerp
–
Antwerp is a city in Belgium, the capital of Antwerp province in the region of Flanders. With a population of 510,610, it is the most populous city proper in Belgium and its metropolitan area houses around 1,200,000 people, which is second behind Brussels. Antwerp is on the River Scheldt, linked to the North Sea by the Westerschelde estuary, the Port of Antwerp is one of the biggest in the world, ranking second in Europe and within the top 20 globally. Antwerp has long been an important city in the Low Countries, the inhabitants of Antwerp are nicknamed Sinjoren, after the Spanish honorific señor or French seigneur, lord, referring to the Spanish noblemen who ruled the city in the 17th century. The city hosted the 1920 Summer Olympics, according to folklore, notably celebrated by a statue in front of the town hall, the city got its name from a legend about a giant called Antigoon who lived near the Scheldt river. He exacted a toll from passing boatmen, and for those who refused, he severed one of their hands, eventually the giant was killed by a young hero named Silvius Brabo, who cut off the giants own hand and flung it into the river. Hence the name Antwerpen, from Dutch hand werpen, akin to Old English hand and wearpan, a longstanding theory is that the name originated in the Gallo-Roman period and comes from the Latin antverpia. Antverpia would come from Ante Verpia, indicating land that forms by deposition in the curve of a river. Note that the river Scheldt, before a period between 600 and 750, followed a different track. This must have coincided roughly with the current ringway south of the city, however, many historians think it unlikely that there was a large settlement which would be named Antverpia, but more something like an outpost with a river crossing. However, John Lothrop Motley argues, and so do a lot of Dutch etymologists and historians, aan t werp is also possible. This warp is a hill or a river deposit, high enough to remain dry at high tide. Another word for werp is pol hence polders, historical Antwerp allegedly had its origins in a Gallo-Roman vicus. Excavations carried out in the oldest section near the Scheldt, 1952–1961, produced pottery shards, the earliest mention of Antwerp dates from the 4th century. In the 4th century, Antwerp was first named, having been settled by the Germanic Franks, the name was reputed to have been derived from anda and werpum. The Merovingian Antwerp was evangelized by Saint Amand in the 7th century, at the end of the 10th century, the Scheldt became the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire. Antwerp became a margraviate in 980, by the German emperor Otto I, in the 11th century Godfrey of Bouillon was for some years known as the marquis of Antwerp. In the 12th century, Norbert of Xanten established a community of his Premonstratensian canons at St. Michaels Abbey at Caloes
21.
Amsterdam
–
Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
22.
Social structures
–
In the social sciences, social structure is the patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of the individuals. On the macro scale, social structure is the system of stratification, social institutions, or. On the meso scale, it is the structure of social ties between individuals or organizations. On the micro scale, it can be the way norms shape the behavior of individuals within the social system, Social norms influence social structure through relations between the majority and the minority. These scales are not always kept separate, for example, recent scholarship by John Levi Martin has theorized that certain macro-scale structures are the emergent properties of micro-scale cultural institutions. Likewise, another recent study, in ethnography, describes how indigenous social structure in the Republic of Panama changed macro social structures and impeded a planned Panama Canal expansion. Since the 1920s, the term has been in use in social science. This approach has been important in the literature with the rise of various forms of structuralism. It is important in the study of organizations, because an organizations structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change. Therefore, structure is an important issue for management, Social structure may be seen to influence important social systems including the economic system, legal system, political system, cultural system, and others. Family, religion, law, economy, and class are all social structures, the social system is the parent system of those various systems that are embedded in it. The early study of structures has informed the study of institutions, culture and agency, social interaction. Weber investigated and analyzed the institutions of society, market, bureaucracy. One of the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, Marx argued that the economic base substantially determined the cultural and political superstructure of a society. In this context, Durkheim distinguished two forms of structural relationship, mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity, the former describes structures that unite similar parts through a shared culture, the latter describes differentiated parts united through social exchange and material interdependence. Some follow Marx in trying to identify the dimensions of society that explain the other dimensions. Others follow Lévi-Strauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures, the notion of social structure is intimately related to a variety of central topics in social science, including the relation of structure and agency. The most influential attempts to combine the concept of structure with agency are Anthony Giddens theory of structuration
23.
Adam Smith
–
Adam Smith FRSA was a Scottish economist, philosopher, and author. He was a philosopher, a pioneer of political economy. He is best known for two works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and An Inquiry into the Nature. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, after graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote, in his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith laid the foundations of free market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, he developed the concept of division of labour, Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by Tory writers in the moralising tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time, the minor planet 12838 Adamsmith was named in his memory. Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in the County of Fife and his father, also Adam Smith, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet, advocate, and prosecutor and also served as comptroller of the Customs in Kirkcaldy. In 1720 he married Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry and his father died two months after he was born, leaving his mother a widow. The date of Smiths baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723, and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth, Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, in 1740 Smith was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition. Adam Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, according to William Robert Scott, The Oxford of time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework. Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, near the end of his time there, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown
24.
Binghamton University
–
Since its establishment as Triple Cities College in 1946, the school has evolved from a small liberal arts college to a large doctoral-granting institution. Presently consisting of eight colleges and schools, it is now home to more than 17,000 undergraduate and graduate students, Binghamton is one of the four university centers in the State University of New York system. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching has classified the school as a Research University with high research activity, the Vestal campus is listed as a census-designated place with a residential population of 6,177 as of 2010. Binghamton University was first established in 1946 in Endicott, New York, Thomas J. Watson, a founding member of IBM in Broome County, viewed the Triple Cities region as an area of great potential. Originally, Triple Cities College students finished their bachelors degrees at Syracuse, by the 1948–1949 academic year these could be completed entirely at the College. At the time it joined Champlain College in Plattsburgh as the two liberal arts schools in the New York state system. When Champlain finally closed in 1952 to make way for the Plattsburgh Air Force Base, Harpur also received 16,000 non-duplicate volumes and the complete contents of the Champlain College library. In 1955, Harpur began to plan its current location in Vestal, a site large enough to anticipate future growth was purchased, with the schools move to its new 387-acre campus being completed by 1961. Colonial Hall, Triple Cities Colleges original building in Endicott, stands today as the villages Visitors Center, in 1965 Harpur College was selected to join New York state schools at Stony Brook, Albany, and Buffalo as the four new SUNY university centers. Redesignated the State University of New York at Binghamton, the new name reflected its status as an advanced degree granting institution. In a nod to tradition, its undergraduate College of Arts, with more than 60% of undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in Harpurs degree programs it is the largest of Binghamtons constituent schools. In 1967, the School of Advanced Technology was established, the precursor to the Thomas J. Watson School of Engineering and Applied Science founded in 1983. Since 1992 the school has made an effort to distinguish itself from the SUNY system, rebranding itself as Binghamton University, or Binghamton University, the first president of Harpur College, who began as dean of Triple Cities College, was Glenn Bartle. The second president, G. Bruce Dearing, served several years during the Vietnam era before leaving to become vice chancellor for academic affairs at the SUNY Central Administration in Albany. Next was C. Peter Magrath, former president of the University of Nebraska. He was asked to take on the job of acting president in the fall of 1974 when Magrath left for Minnesota, clark was selected as president and served from March 1975 through mid-1990. During this time he led the evolution from primarily a four-year liberal arts college to a research university. DeFleur became the fifth president upon Clarks retirement in 1990
25.
History Today
–
History Today is an illustrated history magazine. Published monthly in London since January 1951, it presents serious, the magazine covers all periods and geographical regions and publishes articles of traditional narrative history alongside new research and historiography. A sister publication History Review, produced tri-annually until April 2012, the founding co-editors were Peter Quennell and Alan Hodge, subsequent editors were Michael Crowder, Michael Trend, Juliet Gardiner, Gordon Marsden and Peter Furtado. The current editor is Paul Lay, the website contains all the magazines published content since 1951. A digital edition was launched in 2012, History Review was a tri-annual sister publication of History Today magazine publishing material for sixth-form level history students. The final issue of History Review was published in April 2012, in 1995 it compiled The History Today Companion to British history, with 4500 entries covering the entire field in 840 pages edited by Neil Wenborn
26.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Arnold J. Toynbee
–
Toynbee in the 1918–1950 period was a leading specialist on international affairs. He is best known for his 12-volume A Study of History, with his prodigious output of papers, articles, speeches and presentations, and numerous books translated into many languages, Toynbee was a widely read and discussed scholar in the 1940s and 1950s. Toynbee was the son of Harry Valpy Toynbee, secretary of the Charity Organization Society, Toynbee was the grandson of Joseph Toynbee, nephew of the 19th-century economist Arnold Toynbee and descendant of prominent British intellectuals for several generations. In 1912 he became a tutor and fellow in ancient history at Balliol College, after serving as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 he served as professor of Byzantine and modern Greek studies at the University of London. From 1921 to 1922 he was the Manchester Guardian correspondent during the Greco-Turkish War, in 1925 he became research professor of international history at the London School of Economics and director of studies at the Royal Institute of International Affairs in London. His first marriage was to Rosalind Murray, daughter of Gilbert Murray, in 1913 and they divorced in 1946, Toynbee then married his research assistant, Veronica M. Boulter, in the same year. He died on 22 October 1975, age 86, Michael Lang says that for much of the twentieth century, Toynbee was perhaps the world’s most read, translated, and discussed living scholar. His output was enormous, hundreds of books, pamphlets, in his best-known work, A Study of History, published 1934–1961, Toynbee. A Study of History was both a commercial and academic phenomenon, in the U. S. alone, more than seven thousand sets of the ten-volume edition had been sold by 1955. Most people, including scholars, relied on the very clear one-volume abridgement of the first six volumes by Somervell, which appeared in 1947, the press printed innumerable discussions of Toynbees work, not to mention there being countless lectures and seminars. Canadian historians were especially receptive to Toynbees work in the late 1940s, the Canadian economic historian Harold Adams Innis was a notable example. Following Toynbee and others, Innis examined the flourishing of civilizations in terms of administration of empires, Toynbees overall theory was taken up by some scholars, for example, Ernst Robert Curtius, as a sort of paradigm in the post-war period. Curtius wrote as follows in the pages of European Literature. Curtius wrote, How do cultures, and the entities which are their media, arise, grow. Only a comparative morphology with exact procedures can hope to answer these questions and it was Arnold J. Toynbee who undertook the task. After 1960, Toynbees ideas faded both in academia and the media, to the point of seldom being cited today, however, his work continued to be referenced by classical historians, at least, because his training and surest touch is in the world of classical antiquity. His roots in literature are also manifested by similarities between his approach and that of classical historians such as Herodotus and Thucydides. Comparative history, by which his approach is often categorized, has been in the doldrums, Toynbee worked for the Political Intelligence Department of the British Foreign Office during World War I and served as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919
28.
Oswald Spengler
–
Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler was a German historian and philosopher of history whose interests included mathematics, science, and art. He is best known for his book The Decline of the West, published in 1918 and 1922, Spenglers civilization model postulates that any civilization is a superorganism with a limited and predictable lifespan. He wrote extensively throughout World War I and the interwar period and his other writings made little impact outside Germany. In 1920 Spengler produced Prussiandom and Socialism, which argued for an organic, Oswald Spengler was born in 1880 in Blankenburg as the second child of Bernhard and Pauline Spengler. Oswalds elder brother was born prematurely in 1879, when his mother tried to move a heavy laundry basket, Oswald was born ten months after his brothers death. His younger sisters were Adele, Gertrud, and Hildegard, oswalds paternal grandfather, Theodor Spengler, was a metallurgical inspector in Altenbrak. On 26 May 1799, Friedrich Wilhelm Grantzow, an apprentice in Berlin. Shortly before the wedding, Bräunchen Moses was baptized as Johanna Elisabeth Anspachin, like the Grantzows in general, Pauline was of a Bohemian disposition, and, before marrying Bernhard Spengler, accompanied her dancer sister on tours. She was the least talented member of the Grantzow family, in appearance, she was plump and a bit unseemly. Her temperament, which Oswald inherited, complemented her appearance and frail physique, she was moody, irritable, when Oswald was ten years of age, his family moved to the university city of Halle. Here he received an education at the local Gymnasium, studying Greek, Latin, mathematics. Here, too, he developed his propensity for the poetry, drama. He even experimented with a few artistic creations, some of which still survive, of Goethe and Nietzsche, Spengler later stated that I feel urged to name once more those to whom I owe practically everything, Goethe and Nietzsche. Goethe gave me method, Nietzsche the questioning faculty, after his fathers death in 1901 Spengler attended several universities as a private scholar, taking courses in a wide range of subjects. In 1903, he failed his doctoral thesis on Heraclitus because of insufficient references and he eventually received his Ph. D. from Halle on 6 April 1904. In December 1904, he set to write the secondary dissertation necessary to qualify as a school teacher. This became The Development of the Organ of Sight in the Higher Realms of the Animal Kingdom and it was approved and he received his teaching certificate. In 1905 Spengler suffered a nervous breakdown, biographers report his life as a teacher was uneventful
