1.
Bronze Age Britain
–
Bronze Age Britain is an era of British history that spanned from c.2500 until c.800 BC. Lasting for approximately 1,700 years, it was preceded by the era of Neolithic Britain and was in turn followed by the period of Iron Age Britain. Being categorised as the Bronze Age, it was marked by the use of copper and then bronze by the prehistoric Britons, Great Britain in the Bronze Age also saw the widespread adoption of agriculture. This has been described as a time when elaborate ceremonial practices emerged among some communities of subsistence agriculturalists of western Europe, there is no clear consensus on the date for the beginning of the Bronze Age in Great Britain and Ireland. Some sources give a date as late as 2000 BC, while others set 2200 BC as the demarcation between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The period from 2500 BC to 2000 BC has been called the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 2500–2000 BC, Mount Pleasant Phase, Early Beaker culture, Britain, copper+tin. 2100–1900 BC, Late Beaker, knives, tanged spearheads, 1500–1300 BC, Acton Park Phase, palstaves, socketed spearheads, copper+tin, also lead. 1300–1200 BC, Knighton Heath Period, rapiers, 1200–1000 BC, Early Urnfield, Wilburton-Wallington Phase. 1000–900 BC, Late Urnfield, socketed axes, palstaves, 800–700 BC, Ewart Park Phase, Llyn Fawr Phase, leaf-shaped swords. In Ireland the final Dowris phase of the Late Bronze Age appears to decline in about 600 BC, in around 2700 BC, a new pottery style arrived in Great Britain, the Beaker culture. Beaker pottery appears in the Mount Pleasant Phase, along with flat axes, people of this period were also largely responsible for building many famous prehistoric sites, such as the later phases of Stonehenge along with Seahenge. Movement of Europeans brought new people to the islands from the continent, recent tooth enamel isotope research on bodies found in early Bronze Age graves around Stonehenge indicates that at least some of the new arrivals came from the area of modern Switzerland. The Beaker culture displayed different behaviours from the earlier Neolithic people, integration is thought to have been peaceful, as many of the early henge sites were seemingly adopted by the newcomers. Also, the burial of dead became more individual, for example, in the Neolithic era, a large chambered cairn or long barrow was used to house the dead. The Early Bronze Age saw people buried in barrows, or sometimes in cists covered with cairns. They were often buried with a beaker alongside the body, modern thinking tends towards the latter view. Alternatively, a Beaker elite may have made the migration and come to influence the population at some level. Believed to be of Iberian origin, part of the Beaker culture brought to Great Britain the skill of refining metal, at first they made items from copper, but from around 2150 BC smiths had discovered how to make bronze by mixing copper with a small amount of tin
Bronze Age Britain
–
Bronze shield, 1200-700 BC
Bronze Age Britain
–
Socketed
axes from a hoard
Bronze Age Britain
–
Swords found in
Scotland
Bronze Age Britain
–
The
Mold Cape is unique among survivals
2.
Sewn boat
–
A sewn boat is a type of wooden boat which is clinker built and held together with tendons or flexible wood, such as roots and willow branches. Although well established, the boat name is somewhat misleading since it suggests textile or leather skin construction. Some have proposed to use laced boats instead, also related is the treenailed boat. Sewn boats start with the construction of the skin of the boat, rather than the frame, carefully shaped planks are connected at the edges, usually in the clinker style, with overlapping sections which are sewn together. As the planks are placed together, the skin begins to bend into the desired shape, the resulting structure is highly flexible. Internal framing may be added to the planks after they are sewn in, while wooden pegs can be used to fasten thicker clinker planks, this technique only works if the planks are thick enough to hold the pegs. Because of this, large ships were built using pegs. The earliest example of a boat is the 40+ metres long Solar funerary boat on show near the Gizeh pyramid, in Egypt. The sewn construction was a natural step when coming from raft or reed boatbuilding, in other parts of the world, the oldest sewn craft comes from North Ferriby, where one sample carbon dates to 1930-1750 BC. Later finds include some early Greek ships, the oldest Nordic find is the Hjortspring boat in Denmark. In Finland, Russia, Karelia and Estonia small sewn boats have been constructed more recently, the best known boats built with sewn construction are the various forms of Dhow native to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean for over two thousand years. Local fishing-boat constructed off accurately crafted planks, sewn together with coir rope
Sewn boat
–
Halsnøy boat, detail of the bow.
3.
North Ferriby
–
North Ferriby is a village and civil parish in the Haltemprice area of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. The foreshore of North Ferriby, within the Humber estuary, is the site of the earliest sewn plank boats known outside Egypt, in 1931, wooden planks belonging to an ancient boat were discovered by a local man on the shore of the Humber. Two further boats have since been discovered, estimates using radiocarbon dating have placed the origin of the boats to the Bronze Age, between 2030 and 1680 BC. The Ferriby boats are the earliest known boats found in Europe, in addition, Bronze Age round barrows were found near North Ferriby by archaeologists excavating the land on which the A63 junction was built. There was also evidence of Iron Age and early Romano-British activity in that area, the first wave of Danes arrived in the area around 900 AD with each ship setting up a local village. Amongst these was what is now North Ferriby from the Danish Ferja bi, a wooden church was built at that time, replaced by its first stone church c. 1150. The village was once significant for Ferriby Priory, c. of North Ferriby and it was dissolved along with the lesser monasteries, in 1536. The site of this priory is said to have been in the possession of 100 different persons, the village has, in succession, been the patrimonial possession of the Mortimers, the Poles, and the Bacons. It retains the elements of several elegant mansions from c. 1750 as Hull merchants started to build houses with cottages for workers. North Ferriby is situated on the bank of the Humber Estuary. To the north, atop a hill, lies Swanland via the B1231, South Ferriby is directly opposite the village, on the south bank of the Humber. North Ferriby is generally referred to as plain Ferriby by locals on the north bank, melton is close by to the west which is where the large South Hunsley School is. North Ferriby lies in the Parliamentary constituency of Haltemprice and Howden, Ferriby parish had a population of 3,893, an increase on the 2001 UK census figure of 3,819 according to the 2011 UK census. The school has approximately 300 pupils, North Ferribys main shop is a Co-operative Group convenience store. North Ferriby was home to local artist Tom Harland, the village Riding for Disabled Association is run throughout the year with the help of volunteers. The local football club, North Ferriby United A. F. C, plays in the Vanarama National League. They won the 2014–15 FA Trophy after beating Conference Premier side Wrexham FC at Wembley Stadium on 29 March 2015, there also the Anne Turner allotments and playing fields, home of North Ferriby Cricket Club. There are also three courts and a newly built skate park
North Ferriby
–
North Ferriby station
North Ferriby
–
All Saints' Church
4.
East Riding of Yorkshire
–
The East Riding of Yorkshire, or simply East Yorkshire, is a ceremonial county of England. It is located in the region of Yorkshire and the Humber, the modern East Riding of Yorkshire, was formed in 1996 from the northern part of the non-metropolitan county of Humberside. The East Riding of Yorkshire may also refer to the riding of Yorkshire. The historic riding covered an area than the modern county, it included some areas now in North Yorkshire, but did not include the area of Goole. At the 2011 Census the Unitary Authority population was 334,179, the landscape consists of a crescent of low chalk hills, the Yorkshire Wolds, surrounded by the low-lying fertile plains of Holderness and the Vale of York. The Humber Estuary and North Sea mark its southern and eastern limits, archaeological investigations have revealed artefacts and structures from all historical periods since the last ice age. There are few settlements and no industrial centres. The area is administered from the ancient market and ecclesiastical town of Beverley, Christianity is the religion with the largest following in the area and there is a higher than average percentage of retired people in residence. The economy is based on agriculture and this, along with tourism, has contributed to the rural. These aspects are also reflected in the places of interest to visitors and major landmarks, which include buildings, nature reserves. The open and maritime aspects and lack of urban developments have also led to the county being allocated relatively high targets for the generation of energy from renewable sources. Bishop Burton is the site of a college, and Hull provides the regions only university. On the southern border, close to Hull, the Humber Bridge spans the Humber Estuary to enable the A15 to link Hessle with Barton-upon-Humber in North Lincolnshire. When the last glacial period ended, the hunter gatherers of the Palaeolithic period followed the herds across the land between continental Europe and Britain. Until about 6,000 BC, Mesolithic people appear to have exploited their environment as they found it, as communities came to rely on a smaller territorial range and as population levels increased, attempts began to be made to modify or control the natural world. In the Great Wold Valley, pollen samples of Mesolithic date indicate that the forest cover in the area was being disturbed and altered by man, the Yorkshire Wolds became a major focus for human settlement during the Neolithic period as they had a wide range of natural resources. The oldest monuments found on the Wolds are the Neolithic long barrows, two earthen long barrows in the region are found at Fordon, on Willerby Wold, and at Kilham, both of which have radiocarbon dates of around 3700 BC. From around 2000 to 800 BC, the people of the Bronze Age built the 1,400 Bronze Age round barrows that are known to exist on the Yorkshire Wolds and these are found both in isolation and grouped together to form cemeteries
East Riding of Yorkshire
–
Flag
East Riding of Yorkshire
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Solid geology of the East Riding
East Riding of Yorkshire
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The chalk cliffs at Flamborough Head
East Riding of Yorkshire
–
Skidby Windmill is surrounded by fertile agricultural land typical of the East Riding.
5.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
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Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
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Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
6.
Yorkshire
–
Yorkshire, formally known as the County of York, is a historic county of Northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Due to its size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been undertaken over time by its subdivisions. Throughout these changes, Yorkshire has continued to be recognised as a geographical territory, Yorkshire has sometimes been nicknamed Gods Own County or Gods Own Country. Yorkshire Day, held on 1 August, is a celebration of the culture of Yorkshire. Yorkshire is now divided between different official regions, most of the county falls within Yorkshire and the Humber. The extreme northern part of the county falls within North East England, Small areas in the west of the historic county now form part of North West England, following boundary changes in 1974. Yorkshire or the County of York was so named as it is the shire of the city of York local /ˈjɔːk/ or Yorks Shire, York comes from the Viking name for the city, Jórvík. Shire is from Old English, scir meaning care or official charge, the shire suffix is locally pronounced /-ʃə/ shuh, or occasionally /-ʃiə/, a homophone of sheer. Early inhabitants of Yorkshire were Celts, who formed two tribes, the Brigantes and the Parisi. The Brigantes controlled territory which later became all of the North Riding of Yorkshire, the tribe controlled most of Northern England and more territory than any other Celtic tribe in England. That they had the Yorkshire area as their heartland is evident in that Isurium Brigantum was the town of their civitas under Roman rule. Six of the nine Brigantian poleis described by Claudius Ptolemaeus in the Geographia fall within the historic county, the Parisi, who controlled the area that would become the East Riding of Yorkshire, might have been related to the Parisii of Lutetia Parisiorum, Gaul. Their capital was at Petuaria, close to the Humber estuary, initially, this situation suited both the Romans and the Brigantes, who were known as the most militant tribe in Britain. Queen Cartimandua left her husband Venutius for his bearer, Vellocatus. Cartimandua, due to her relationship with the Romans, was able to keep control of the kingdom. At the second attempt, Venutius seized the kingdom, but the Romans, under general Petillius Cerialis, the fortified city of Eboracum was named as capital of Britannia Inferior and joint-capital of all Roman Britain. During the two years before the death of Emperor Septimius Severus, the Roman Empire was run from Eboracum by him, another emperor, Constantius Chlorus, died in Yorkshire during a visit in 306 AD. This saw his son Constantine the Great proclaimed emperor in the city, in the early 5th century, the Roman rule ceased with the withdrawal of the last active Roman troops
Yorkshire
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Statue of
Constantine I outside
York Minster.
Yorkshire
–
Flag of Yorkshire
Yorkshire
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York Minster, western elevation
Yorkshire
–
Yorkist king
Richard III grew up at
Middleham.
7.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
Great Britain
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Satellite image of Great Britain in April 2002
Great Britain
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Prima Europe tabula. A copy of
Ptolemy 's 2nd century map of Roman Britain
Great Britain
–
The
robin is popularly known as "Britain's favourite bird".
Great Britain
–
Heather growing wild in the
Highlands at
Dornoch.
8.
Dover Bronze Age Boat
–
Dover Bronze Age boat is one of fewer than 20 Bronze Age boats so far found in Britain. It dates to 1575–1520 BC, which may make it the oldest significantly intact boat in the world – though much older ships exist, the boat was made using oak planks sewn together with yew lashings. This technique has a tradition of use in British prehistory. A9. 5m long section of the boat is on display at Dover Museum, little is yet known about the boat in use as few clues were left with it. It was preserved by being covered quickly in silt and this would place its origin around 1500 BC, in the Middle Bronze Age in England. The boat was buried under a road and the site stretched out towards buildings. It was decided that it would be too dangerous to dig too near the buildings, previous attempts to remove such boats whole have been unsuccessful, so it was decided to cut the boat into sections and remove it and reassemble it afterwards. After nearly a month of excavation 9.5 metres of the boat was eventually recovered, depending on different views of the true size of the complete boat this 9.5 metres could be up to two thirds of the full size of the boat. The Dour leads straight into the English Channel, so speculation has been ever since its discovery about whether the Dover boat went to sea. There is plenty of evidence there was cross-Channel communication. However, The Dover Museum consider that the Dover Bronze Age Boat is the oldest seagoing boat known and they are backed by a different channel and programme from the BBC- Neil Oliver in the Bronze Age episode of A History of Ancient Britain. As part of the boat remains underground and there is no proof of the overall shape and size, much speculation as to its total length. The museum shows suggestions, but the boat could easily be more than has been removed from the ground. The width of the boat is significant, being around 2 Metres wide it is wider than dugout canoes of the time. It is wider than the Ferriby boats, for example, the boat was constructed of oak planks, stitched together with yew withies and also fixed together with wooden wedges. This makes it similar to the Ferriby boats, which are also stitched planks and it is, however, quite different to the Must Farm dugouts, which are not only dug out of one trunk, but the smaller, lightweight ones are made of lighter linden trunks. Whilst in the ground the boat was protected from being destroyed by waterlogging. After being removed from the ground the boat was kept in a state at the Mary Rose Trust at Portsmouth
Dover Bronze Age Boat
–
Dover Bronze Age Boat at Dover Museum
Dover Bronze Age Boat
9.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
Oak
–
Oak
Oak
–
Oak at Schönderling
Oak
–
A hybrid white oak, possibly
Quercus stellata ×
Q. muhlenbergii
Oak
–
Heart of oak
beams of the frame of Saint-Girons church in
Monein, France
10.
Strake
–
A strake or stringer is part of the shell of the hull of a boat or ship which, in conjunction with the other strakes, keeps the vessel watertight and afloat. Stringers run horizontally along the ships frame providing structural strength, on a longboat, one strake will typically be made up of numerous planks running end to end. The strake immediately adjacent to the keel is known as the garboard strake, there are two, one on each side of the keel. The uppermost continuous strake along the topsides is called the sheer strake, in old vessels, a rubbing strake was built in just below a carvel sheer strake. It was much less broad but thicker than other strakes so that it projected, in clinker boats, the rubbing strake was applied to the outside of the sheer strake. The strakes adjacent to the garboard are referred to accordingly as the first broad, each strake thereafter has its own special name such as bottom strakes, lowers, bilge strakes, topside strakes, and uppers. A stealer is a short strake employed to reduce the width of plank required where the girth of the hull increases or is due to a tuck in the shape. It is commonly employed in carvel and iron/steel shipbuilding, but there are few, possibly only one type of. A stealer is a short strake employed to reduce the width of plank required where the girth of the hull increases or is due to a tuck in the shape. This statement represents a mis-understanding of what a stealer is tasked with accomplishing as a hull is lined-off, after determining the widths of strakes amidships, a quantity can be determined for all these strakes. This quantity is divided into the height of the stem to determine the width of the average hood-end. This width must be twice the thickness or it will not be able to carry its fasteners. If the hood-ends are not wide enough, the quantity is dropped by one until the resulting revised width is enough to carry its fasteners. This was analogous to strengthening the hood-end by making it wider, a device was needed to compensate for the drop in strakes that actually reached the stem. The device was a strake that was stooped short of the stem by burying its forward butt end into a notch chiseled into a through plank. This strake was called a steeler by the plankers and a plank by the liners who originated it by counting strakes during the lining off process. Where the transverse sections of the shape are fuller, the strakes are wider. In many larger vessels, to ending with very narrow strakes
Strake
–
Garboard strakes and related near-keel members.
11.
Taxus baccata
–
Taxus baccata is a conifer native to western, central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, northern Iran and southwest Asia. It is the tree known as yew, though with other related trees becoming known, it may now be known as English yew. The word yew is from Proto-Germanic *īwa-, possibly originally a loanword from Gaulish *ivos, compare Irish ēo, Welsh ywen, baccata is Latin for bearing red berries. The word yew as it was originally used seems to refer to the color brown, the yew was known to Theophrastus, who noted its preference for mountain coolness and shade, its evergreen character and its slow growth. Most Romance languages, with the exception of French, kept a version of the Latin word taxus from the same root as toxic. In Slavic languages, the root is preserved, Russian tis, Slovakian tis, Slovenian tisa. In German it is known as Eibe, in Iran, the tree is known as sorkhdār. The common yew was one of the species first described by Linnaeus. It is one of around 30 conifer species in seven genera in the family Taxaceae and it is a small to medium-sized evergreen tree, growing 10–20 metres tall, with a trunk up to 2 metres diameter. The bark is thin, scaly brown, coming off in small flakes aligned with the stem, the aril is 8–15 millimetres long and wide and open at the end. The arils mature 6 to 9 months after pollination, and with the contained, are eaten by thrushes, waxwings and other birds. Maturation of the arils is spread over 2 to 3 months, the seeds themselves are poisonous and bitter, but are opened and eaten by some bird species including hawfinches, greenfinches and great tits. The aril is not poisonous, it is gelatinous and very sweet tasting, the male cones are globose, 3–6 millimetres diameter, and shed their pollen in early spring. The yew is mostly dioecious, but occasional individuals can be variably monoecious, Taxus baccata can reach 400 to 600 years of age. Some specimens live longer but the age of yews is often overestimated, ten yews in Britain are believed to predate the 10th century. The potential age of yews is impossible to accurately and is subject to much dispute. There is rarely any wood as old as the tree, while the boughs themselves often become hollow with age. One characteristic contributing to yews longevity is that it is able to split under the weight of advanced growth without succumbing to disease in the fracture, as do most other trees
Taxus baccata
–
Taxus baccata
Taxus baccata
–
Seeds of Taxus baccata
Taxus baccata
–
The
Llangernyw Yew
Taxus baccata
–
Estry Yew, Normandy, around 1,600 years old
12.
Withy
–
A withy or withe is a strong flexible willow stem - typically used in thatching and for gardening. The term is sometimes used to describe any type of flexible rod used in rural crafts such as hazel or ash. Withies traditionally serve to mark minor tidal channels in UK harbours, in many places they remain in use as of 2015 and are often marked on navigation charts. At high tide the tops of a line of withies stuck in the mud on one or both sides of a channel will show above water to indicate where the water lies. Note the images of international navigation-chart symbols for withies, places such as Wythenshawe and Withy Grove take their names from the willow woods and groves that grew there in earlier times. The Somerset Levels remain the area in the UK growing basket willow commercially. The Bitter Withy, a folk song Coppicing Fascine Willow Man, a sculpture in England BBC Inside Out - Thatching Terminology
Withy
–
A
pollarded willow with a crop of withies ready for harvest
13.
Radiocarbon dating
–
Radiocarbon dating is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s, Libby received the Nobel Prize for his work in 1960. The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting radiocarbon combines with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and from that point onwards the amount of 14C it contains begins to decrease as the 14C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the amount of 14C in a sample from a plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14C in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the samples calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of 14C in different types of organisms, additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s. Conversely, nuclear testing increased the amount of 14C in the atmosphere, measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices, which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying 14C atoms in a sample. The development of dating has had a profound impact on archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods, histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the radiocarbon revolution. Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated, such as the end of the last ice age, and they synthesized 14C using the laboratorys cyclotron accelerator and soon discovered that the atoms half-life was far longer than had been previously thought. This was followed by a prediction by Serge A. Korff, then employed at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and it had previously been thought that 14C would be more likely to be created by deuterons interacting with 13C. At some time during World War II, Willard Libby, who was then at Berkeley, learned of Korffs research, in 1945, Libby moved to the University of Chicago where he began his work on radiocarbon dating. He published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include 14C as well as non-radioactive carbon, by contrast, methane created from petroleum showed no radiocarbon activity because of its age. The results were summarized in a paper in Science in 1947, Libby and James Arnold proceeded to test the radiocarbon dating theory by analyzing samples with known ages
Radiocarbon dating
–
Sheep on the beach in
North Ronaldsay. In the winter, these sheep eat seaweed, which has a higher δ 13 C content than grass; samples from these sheep have a δ 13 C value of about −13‰, which is much higher than for sheep that feed on grasses.
Radiocarbon dating
–
Simplified version of the carbon exchange reservoir, showing proportions of carbon and relative activity of the 14 C in each reservoir
Radiocarbon dating
–
Measuring 14 C is now most commonly done with an accelerator mass spectrometer
Radiocarbon dating
–
The stump of a very old bristlecone pine. Tree rings from these trees (among others) are used in building calibration curves.
14.
National Maritime Museum
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The National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London, is the leading maritime museum of the United Kingdom and may be the largest museum of its kind in the world. The historic buildings form part of the Maritime Greenwich World Heritage Site, the museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Like other publicly funded museums in the United Kingdom, the National Maritime Museum does not levy an admission charge. The Museum was created by the National Maritime Act of 1934 Chapter 43, under a Board of Trustees and it is based on the generous donations of Sir James Caird. King George VI formally opened the Museum on 27 April 1937 when his daughter Princess Elizabeth, the first Director was Sir Geoffrey Callender. Since earliest times Greenwich has had associations with the sea and navigation and it was a landing place for the Romans, Henry VIII lived here, the navy has roots on the waterfront, and Charles II founded the Royal Observatory in 1675 for finding the longitude of places. An active loans programme ensures that items from the collection are seen in the UK, through its displays, exhibitions and outreach programmes the Museum also explores our current relationship with the sea and the future of the sea as an environmental force and resource. The museum plays host to exhibitions, including Ships Clocks & Stars in 2014, Samuel Pepys, Plague, Fire, Revolution in 2015 and Emma Hamilton, Seduction. The collection of the National Maritime Museum also includes items taken from the German Naval Academy Mürwik after World War II, including several ship models, the museum has been criticized for possessing what has been described as Looted art. The Museum regards these cultural objects as war trophies, removed under the provisions of the Potsdam Conference, the Museum awards the Caird Medal annually in honour of its major donor, Sir James Caird. The Caird Library is a comprehensive specialist reference library and a research resource for all. The reading room is open Monday to Friday,10. 00–16.45, the Archive and Library holds a fantastic range of resources for finding out more about maritime history. Material includes manuscripts, books, charts and maps dating back to the 15th century, the collection can be used to research maritime history and exploration, the history of the Merchant Navy and the Royal Navy and much more, including astronomy and timekeeping. Many of the resources they hold are useful for family historians, including collections of Master’s Certificates dating back to 1845. For news and interesting items from the collection, see Caird Library blog To request items to view in the Library, search Archive catalogue and Library catalogue. The Library has produced a range of guides to help people carry out their own research on a wide range of topics. The guides provide information about the Museums collections and other sources for research into maritime history, find out more about the research guides at Research Guides. The museum was established in 1934 within the 200 acres of Greenwich Royal Park in the buildings formerly occupied by the Royal Hospital School
National Maritime Museum
–
National Maritime Museum
National Maritime Museum
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Portrait of Captain
James Cook by
Nathaniel Dance at the National Maritime Museum.
National Maritime Museum
–
The
Bretagne, painting by
Jules Achille Noël, 1859, at the National Maritime Museum
National Maritime Museum
–
Admiral
George Keith Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith by George Sanders.
15.
Greenwich
–
Greenwich is an early-established district of todays London, England, centred 5.5 miles east south-east of Charing Cross. The town lends its name to the Royal Borough of Greenwich, Greenwich is generally described as being part of South-east London and sometimes as being part of East London. Greenwich is notable for its history and for giving its name to the Greenwich Meridian. The town became the site of a palace, the Palace of Placentia from the 15th century. The palace fell into disrepair during the English Civil War and was rebuilt as the Royal Naval Hospital for Sailors by Sir Christopher Wren and his assistant Nicholas Hawksmoor. These buildings became the Royal Naval College in 1873, and they remained an establishment for military education until 1998 when they passed into the hands of the Greenwich Foundation. The historic rooms within these buildings remain open to the public, other buildings are used by University of Greenwich and Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance. The town became a resort in the 18th century and many grand houses were built there, such as Vanbrugh Castle established on Maze Hill. From the Georgian period estates of houses were constructed above the town centre, Greenwich formed part of Kent until 1889 when the County of London was created. The place-name Greenwich is first attested in a Saxon charter of 918 and it is recorded as Grenewic in 964, and as Grenawic in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1013. It is Grenviz in the Domesday Book of 1086, and Grenewych in the Taxatio Ecclesiastica of 1291, the name means green wic or settlement. An article in The Times of 13 October 1967 stated, East Greenwich, gateway to the Blackwall Tunnel, remains solidly working class, the manpower for one eighth of Londons heavy industry. West Greenwich is a hybrid, the spirit of Nelson, the Cutty Sark, the Maritime Museum, an industrial waterfront and a number of elegant houses, ripe for development. Royal charters granted to English colonists in North America, often used the name of the manor of East Greenwich for describing the tenure as that of free socage, New England charters provided that the grantees should hold their lands as of his Majesty’s manor of East Greenwich. Grants named the castle of Windsor, places in North America that have taken the name East Greenwich include a township in Gloucester County, New Jersey, a hamlet in Washington County, New York, and a town in Kent County, Rhode Island. Tumuli to the south-west of Flamsteed House, in Greenwich Park, are thought to be early Bronze Age barrows re-used by the Saxons in the 6th century as burial grounds, to the east between the Vanbrugh and Maze Hill Gates is the site of a Roman villa or temple. A small area of red paving tesserae protected by railings marks the spot and it was excavated in 1902 and 300 coins were found dating from the emperors Claudius and Honorius to the 5th century. This was excavated by the Channel 4 television programme Time Team in 1999, broadcast in 2000, the Roman road from London to Dover, Watling Street crossed the high ground to the south of Greenwich, through Blackheath
Greenwich
–
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
Greenwich
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The view from
Greenwich Park, with the
Queen's House and the wings of the
National Maritime Museum in the foreground
Greenwich
–
Boats at Greenwich at the end of the Great River Race
Greenwich
–
The Royal Navy
Type 45 destroyer HMS Defender moored on the riverfront at Greenwich in 2015
16.
Trans Pennine Trail
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The Trans Pennine Trail is a long-distance path running from coast to coast across Northern England entirely on surfaced paths and using only gentle gradients. It forms part of European walking route E8 and is part of the National Cycle Network as Route 62, the surface and gradients make it a relatively easy trail, suitable for cyclists, pushchairs and wheelchair users. Some parts are open to horse riding. The trail is administered from an office in Barnsley, which is responsible for promotion and allocation of funding. However, the local authorities whose areas the trail runs through are responsible for management of the trail within their boundaries. The idea originated from Barnsley, where the office is now based. Work on the trail started in 1999, early development was boosted by a £5 million investment by the Millennium Commission. The trail was opened in September 2001. However, the route was not fully completed until late 2004 and it cost £60 million to construct. The main west–east trail starts at Southport, then south through the suburbs of Liverpool, through Widnes, Warrington, Manchester, Stockport. It then crosses the Peak District, heading up the Longdendale valley via the Longdendale Trail to Woodhead, then down through Dunford Bridge and Penistone, Doncaster, Selby, Hessle, Hull, there is also a north–south trail that runs from Leeds and through Wakefield. It then passes through Barnsley and crosses over the trail in the Dearne Valley area. After that it continues south to Sheffield and the Rother Valley Country Park before terminating in Chesterfield and this route is 70 miles long. The route also has several deviations and loops south of the west–east trail, another 15-mile spur runs from Selby to York. The cross-continent European walking route E8 uses the trail between Hull and Liverpool to cross England and it also crosses both the eastern and western routes of the European walking route E2. It is also part of the National Cycle Network, certificates are handed out for covering different parts of the trail. In order to them, trail users need to collect stamps at various points along the trail
Trans Pennine Trail
–
Marker at one end of the trail (
Hornsea seafront).
Trans Pennine Trail
–
Road signs in
Stockport referring to the Trail.
Trans Pennine Trail
–
National Cycle Network sign in Liverpool
17.
National Maritime Museum Cornwall
–
The National Maritime Museum Cornwall is located in a harbourside building at Falmouth in Cornwall. The building was designed by architect M. J. Long, following an architectural design competition managed by RIBA Competitions. It is an independent charitable trust and, unlike other national museums and its mission is to promote an understanding of boats and their place in peoples lives, and of the maritime heritage of Cornwall. It does this by presenting the story of the sea, boats, the museum is the countrys premier museum for boats and maintains a national register of small boats and invites owners of historic craft to register them. Three galleries are devoted to the history of Cornwall. These cover topics such as Cornish fishing, trading, boatbuilding, wrecks, the museum has a waterside café overlooking the harbour, a shop, space for temporary exhibitions, and the Sunley Lecture Theatre. The Bartlett Library is the centre of the research and provides answers on maritime matters for specialists. As well as holding many of the original port records for Falmouth, it has over 16,000 books and a very large number of magazines, cuttings and illustrations
National Maritime Museum Cornwall
–
NMM Cornwall, Falmouth
18.
University of Exeter
–
The University of Exeter is a public research university located in Exeter, Devon, South West England, United Kingdom. In post-nominals, the University of Exeter is abbreviated as Exon. and is the given to honorary. The university has four campuses, Streatham and St Lukes, and Truro, the university is centred in the city of Exeter, Devon, where it is the principal higher education institution. Streatham is the largest campus containing many of the administrative buildings. The Penryn campus is maintained in conjunction with Falmouth University under the Combined Universities in Cornwall initiative, the university was named the Sunday Times University of the Year in 2013 and was the Times Higher Education University of the Year in 2007. Exeter has maintained a top ten position in the National Student Survey since the survey was launched in 2005, for 2015-16, Exeter had a turnover of £371.5 million, including £61.4 million from research grants and contracts. Exeter is a member of the Russell Group of leading research-intensive UK universities, the university is also a member of Universities UK, the European University Association, and the Association of Commonwealth Universities and is an accredited institution of the Association of MBAs. The universitys origins can be traced back to three educational institutions that existed in the city of Exeter and in Cornwall in the middle of the nineteenth century. To celebrate the educational and scientific work of Prince Albert, and inspired by the Great Exhibition of 1851, Exeter School of Art in 1855, in 1900 its official title was changed to the Royal Albert Memorial College and the college moved to Bradninch Place in Gandy Street. As was customary for new university institutions in England in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, alderman W H Reed, a former mayor of Exeter, donated Streatham Hall on the Streatham Estate to the new University College in 1922. Streatham Hall was renamed to Reed Hall after its benefactor, at the same time, the first principal of the University College, later Sir Hector Hetherington, persuaded the Council of the College to buy a major portion of the Streatham Estate. A slow move to the Streatham Estate from the centre of the city occurred over time, the building was opened in 1931. The first of the halls of residence, Mardon Hall. Roborough Library was completed around 1939, Queen Elizabeth II presented the Charter to the university on a visit to Streatham the following year. The university underwent a period of expansion in the 1960s. These included homes for the Chemistry and Physics departments, the Newman, Laver and Engineering Buildings, queens Building had been opened for the Arts Faculty in 1959 and the Amory Building, housing Law and Social Sciences, followed in 1974. In the following two decades, considerable investment was made in developing new self-catering accommodation for students, gifts from the Gulf States made it possible to build a new university library in 1983 and more recently have allowed for the creation of a new Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies. A further major donation enabled the completion of the Xfi Centre for Finance, since 2009, significant further investment has been made into new student accommodation, new buildings in The Business School, and the Forum, a new development for the centre of Streatham Campus
University of Exeter
–
University of Exeter
University of Exeter
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Bradninch Place, original site of the University College of the South West of England
University of Exeter
–
Reed Hall, Streatham Campus
University of Exeter
–
North Cloisters, St Luke's Campus
19.
Experimental archaeology
–
It employs a number of methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches, based upon archaeological source material such as ancient structures or artifacts. It is distinct from uses of technology without any concern for archaeological or historical study. Living history and historical reenactment, which are undertaken as a hobby, are the non archaeological persons version of this academic discipline. One of the forms of experimental archaeology is the creation of copies of historical structures using only historically accurate technologies. In recent years, experimental archaeology has been featured in television productions, such as BBCs Building the Impossible. Most notable were the attempts to create several of Leonardo da Vincis designs from his sketchbooks, attempts to transport large stones like those used in Stonehenge over short distances using only technology that would have been available at the time. The original stones were moved from Pembrokeshire to the site on Salisbury Plain. Since the 1970s the re-construction of timber framed buildings has informed understanding of early Anglo Saxon buildings at West Stow, Suffolk and this extensive program of research through experiment and experience continues today. The reconstruction of part of Hadrians Wall at Vindolanda, carried out in limited time by local volunteers, greek triremes have been reconstructed by skilled sailors from plans and archaeological remains and have been successfully tried at sea. Experiments using reproduction bâtons de commandement as spear throwers, Guédelon Castle, a medieval construction project located in Treigny, France. Ozark Medieval Fortress, a project to Guédelon The Pamunkey Project - Dr. Errett Callahan led a series of extended Late Woodland living experiences in Tidewater Virginia. Marcus Junkelmann constructed Roman devices and gear for various museums and he also tested and analyzed them in various reenactments, among them a group of legionaries in full authentic gear crossing the Alps from Augsburg to Verona. Reconstruction of Galileos Experiment, the inclined plane, reconstruction of Lomonosovs discovery of Venuss atmosphere. Construction of a monastic community according to the ninth-century Plan of Saint Gall at Campus Galli, janet Stephens utilizing her own skill as a hairdresser to reconstruct Roman-era hairstyles, rebutting previously held theories about single-prong pins being used to hold them in place. Killian Driscoll undertook a series of experiments to examine the use of vein quartz. Other types of experimental archaeology may involve burying modern replica artifacts and ecofacts for varying lengths of time to analyse the effects on them. One example is Overton Down in England, the work of flintknappers is also a kind of experimental archaeology as much has been learnt about the many different types of flint tools through the hands-on approach of actually making them. Experimental archaeologists have equipped modern professional butchers, archers and lumberjacks with replica flint tools to judge how effective they would have been for certain tasks
Experimental archaeology
–
Experimental tree felling with reconstructed
adzes of the
Linear Pottery culture for the analysis of stress marks on the adze blades and ghost lines on the tree stump and the timber in comparison with marks on archaeological finds
Experimental archaeology
–
Creating a wall of mud in the Viking style.
20.
Routledge
–
Routledge is a British multinational publisher. The company publishes approximately 1,800 journals &5,000 new books each year, Routledge is claimed to be the largest global academic publisher within humanities and social sciences. Following the merger of Informa and T&F in 2004, Routledge become a publishing unit, the firm originated in 1836, when Camden bookseller George Routledge published an unsuccessful guidebook, The Beauties of Gilsand with his brother-in-law W H Warne as assistant. The company was restyled in 1858 as Routledge, Warne & Routledge when George Routledges son, Robert Warne Routledge, Frederick Warne eventually left the company after the death of his brother W. H. Warne in May 1859. Gaining rights to titles, he founded Frederick Warne & Co in 1865. In July 1865, his son Edmund Routledge became a partner, by 1902 the company was running close to bankruptcy. Following a successful restructuring, however, it was able to recover and began to acquire and merge with other publishing companies including J. C. In 1912 the company merged with Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. the descendant of companies founded by Charles Kegan Paul, Alexander Chenevix Trench, Nicholas Trübner and it was soon particularly known for its titles in the social sciences. In 1985, Routledge & Kegan Paul joined with Associated Book Publishers, just two year later, Cinven and Routledges directors accepted a deal for Routledges acquisition by Taylor & Francis Group, with the Routledge name being retained as an imprint and subdivision. In 2004, T&F became a division within Informa plc after a merger, Routledge has grown considerably as a result of organic growth and acquisitions of other publishing companies and other publishers titles by its parent company. Humanities and social sciences acquired by T&F from other publishers are rebranded under the Routledge imprint. The famous English publisher Fredric Warburg was an editor at Routledge during the early 20th century. Novelist Nina Stibbe author of Love, Nina worked at the company as a Commissioning Editor in the 1990s, the republished works of these authors have appeared as part of the Routledge Classics and Routledge Great Minds series. Competitors to the series are Verso Books Radical Thinkers, Penguin Classics, Taylor and Francis closed down the Routledge print encyclopaedia division in 2006. Some of its publications were, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, by Edward Craig, in 10 volumes, Encyclopedia of Ethics, by Lawrence C. Reference Works by Europa Publications, published by Routledge, Europa World Year Book, many of Routledges reference works are published in print and electronic formats as Routledge Handbooks and have their own dedicated Web site, Routledge Handbooks Online. Records of Routledge & Kegan Paul - Correspondence files covering the period 1935 to 1990, as well as review files 1950s-1990s, Special Collections, archives of George Routledge & Company 1853-1902, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd,1973. 6 reels of microfilm and printed index, archives of Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Henry S. King 1858-1912, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd,1973
Routledge
–
2008 conference booth
Routledge
–
Routledge
21.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
