1.
Soil fertility
–
In lands used for agriculture and other human activities, maintenance of soil fertility typically requires the use of soil conservation practices. This is because soil erosion and other forms of soil degradation generally result in a decline in quality with respect to one or more of the aspects indicated above, bioavailable phosphorus is the element in soil that is most often lacking. Nitrogen and potassium are also needed in substantial amounts, for this reason these three elements are always identified on a commercial fertilizer analysis. For example, a 10-10-15 fertilizer has 10 percent nitrogen,10 percent available phosphorus and 15 percent water-soluble potassium, sulfur is the fourth element that may be identified in a commercial analysis—e. g. 21-0-0-24 which would contain 21% nitrogen and 24% sulfate, inorganic fertilizers are generally less expensive and have higher concentrations of nutrients than organic fertilizers. However, some have criticized the use of fertilizers, claiming that the water-soluble nitrogen doesnt provide for the long-term needs of the plant. Slow-release fertilizers may reduce leaching loss of nutrients and may make the nutrients that they provide available over a period of time. Soil fertility is a process that involves the constant cycling of nutrients between organic and inorganic forms. As plant material and animal wastes are decomposed by micro-organisms, they release inorganic nutrients to the soil solution and those nutrients may then undergo further transformations which may be aided or enabled by soil micro-organisms. The balance between immobilization and mineralization processes depends on the balance and availability of nutrients and organic carbon to soil microorganisms. Natural processes such as lightning strikes may fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to, denitrification may occur under anaerobic conditions in the presence of denitrifying bacteria. Nutrient cations, including potassium and many micronutrients, are held in strong bonds with the negatively charged portions of the soil in a process known as cation exchange. In 2008 the cost of phosphorus as fertilizer more than doubled, recently the term peak phosphorus has been coined, due to the limited occurrence of rock phosphate in the world. Photosynthesis is the process whereby plants use light energy to chemical reactions which convert CO2 into sugars. As such, all plants require access to light and carbon dioxide to produce energy, grow and reproduce. While typically limited by nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, low levels of carbon dioxide can act as a limiting factor on plant growth. Peer-reviewed and published studies have shown that increasing CO2 is highly effective at promoting plant growth up to levels over 300 ppm. Further increases in CO2 can, to a small degree
Soil fertility
–
Global distribution of soil types of the
USDA soil taxonomy system.
Mollisols, shown here in dark green, are a good (though not the only) indicator of high soil fertility. They coincide to a large extent with the world's major grain producing areas like the North American
Prairie States, the
Pampa and
Gran Chaco of South America and the
Ukraine -to-Central Asia
Black Earth belt.
Soil fertility
Soil fertility
–
Air
2.
Fertility rate
–
It is obtained by summing the single-year age-specific rates at a given time. The TFR is a rate, not based on the fertility of any real group of women since this would involve waiting until they had completed childbearing. Nor is it based on counting up the number of children actually born over their lifetime. Instead, the TFR is based on the fertility rates of women in their child-bearing years. When the NRR is exactly one, then each generation of women is exactly reproducing itself, the NRR is less widely used than the TFR, and the United Nations stopped reporting NRR data for member nations after 1998. But the NRR is particularly relevant where the number of babies born is very high due to gender imbalance. This is a significant factor in population, due to the high level of gender imbalance in the very populous nations of China. The gross reproduction rate, is the same as the NRR, in particular, the TFR does not necessarily predict how many children young women now will eventually have, as their fertility rates in years to come may change from those of older women now. However, the TFR is a summary of current fertility levels. In other words, the TPFR is a measure of life cycle fertility when childbearing age is changing. This is a significant factor in some countries, such as the Czech Republic, some measures seek to adjust for this timing effect to gain a better measure of life-cycle fertility. Replacement fertility is the fertility rate at which women give birth to enough babies to sustain population levels. If there were no mortality in the population until the end of the childbearing years then the replacement level of TFR would be very close to 2.0. The replacement fertility rate is roughly 2.0 births per woman for most industrialized countries, taken globally, the total fertility rate at replacement is 2.33 children per woman. At this rate, global population growth would tend towards zero, a log-transformation of the data gives an alternative view of the relation. The coefficients taken literally imply that for each 1% advance in GDP, the term lowest-low fertility is defined as TFR at or below 1.3. This is characteristic of some Eastern European, Southern European and East Asian countries, in 2001, more than half of the population of Europe lived in countries with lowest-low TFR, but the situation has since slightly improved. However, it may take several generations for a change in the fertility rate to be reflected in birth rate
Fertility rate
–
7–8 children
3.
Nutrition
–
Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism, the diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the availability, the processing and palatability of foods. A healthy diet includes preparation of food and storage methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and they also provide preventive and therapeutic programs at work places, schools and similar institutions. Government regulation especially in terms of licensing, is less universal for the CCN than that of RD or RDN. Another advanced Nutrition Professional is a Certified Nutrition Specialist or CNS and these Board Certified Nutritionists typically specialize in obesity and chronic disease. In order to become certified, potential CNS candidate must pass an examination. This exam covers specific domains within the health sphere including, Clinical Intervention, a poor diet can cause the wasting of kwashiorkor in acute cases, and the stunting of marasmus in chronic cases of malnutrition. The first recorded dietary advice, carved into a Babylonian stone tablet in about 2500 BC, scurvy, later found to be a vitamin C deficiency, was first described in 1500 BC in the Ebers Papyrus. According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC, in China, the concept of Qi developed, a spirit or wind similar to what Western Europeans later called pneuma. Food was classified into hot and cold in China, India, Malaya, humours developed perhaps first in China alongside qi. Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements, the first recorded nutritional experiment with human subjects is found in the Bibles Book of Daniel. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel, selected as court servants, they were to share in the kings fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions, the kings chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for ten days and were compared to the kings men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet, around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains homeomerics, suggesting the existence of nutrients. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates, who recognized and was concerned with obesity, the works that are still attributed to him, Corpus Hippocraticum, called for moderation and emphasized exercise. Salt, pepper and other spices were prescribed for various ailments in various preparations for example mixed with vinegar, in the 2nd century BC, Cato the Elder believed that cabbage could cure digestive diseases, ulcers, warts, and intoxication. Living about the turn of the millennium, Aulus Celsus, an ancient Roman doctor, believed in strong and weak foods
Nutrition
–
Hippocrates lived about 400 BC, and Galen and the understanding of nutrition followed him for centuries.
Nutrition
–
The "Nutrition Facts" table indicates the amounts of
nutrients that experts recommend to limit or consume in adequate amounts.
Nutrition
–
Followed for a millennium and a half,
Galen (1st century) created the first coherent (although mistaken) theory of nutrition.
Nutrition
–
James Lind conducted in 1747 the first controlled
clinical trial in modern times, and in 1753 published Treatise on Scurvy.
4.
Consanguinity
–
Consanguinity is the property of being from the same kinship as another person. In that aspect, consanguinity is the quality of being descended from the same ancestor as another person, the laws of many jurisdictions set out degrees of consanguinity in relation to prohibited sexual relations and marriage parties. Rules of Consanguinity are also used to determine heirs of an estate according to statutes that govern intestate succession, the Knot System is a numerical notation that defines consanguinity. Issues of consanguinity arise in several aspects of the law, Laws prohibiting incest govern the degree of kinship within which marriage or sexual intercourse is permitted. These are almost universally prohibited within the degree of consanguinity. Some jurisdictions forbid marriage between first cousins, while others do not, marriage with aunts and uncles is legal in several countries. Consanguinity is also relevant to inheritance, particularly with regard to intestate succession, in general, the law favors inheritance by persons closely related to the deceased. Some jurisdictions bar citizens from service on a jury on the basis of consanguinity with persons involved in the case, in many countries, laws prohibiting nepotism bar employment of, or certain kinds of contracts with, the near relations of public officers or employees. Under Roman civil law, which early canon law of the Catholic Church followed, in the ninth century the church raised the number of prohibited degrees to seven and changed the method by which they were calculated. Eventually the nobility became too interrelated to marry as the pool of non-related prospective spouses became smaller and they had to either defy the churchs position or look elsewhere for eligible marriage candidates. In 1215 the Fourth Lateran Council made what they believed was a change to canon law reducing the number of prohibited degrees of consanguinity from seven back to four. The method of calculating prohibited degrees was changed also, instead of the former practice of counting up to the common ancestor then down to the proposed spouse, the new law computed consanguinity by counting back to the common ancestor. After 1215 the general rule was that while fourth cousins could marry without dispensation, in fourteenth century England, for example, papal dispensations for annulments due to consanguinity were relatively few. The connotations of degree of consanguinity varies by context, most cultures define a degree of consanguinity within which sexual interrelationships are regarded as incestuous. The rule is strict on the mothers side, where the limit is about four generations back. This rule does not apply to Muslims or other ethnic groups, islamThe category includes those one is forbidden to marry due to relationship of blood as well as some who are forbidden due to marital relations. And do not marry women whom your fathers married except what has already passed and it was indeed obscene, hateful and an evil way. And those already married except those whom your right hand possesses, and allowed for you are all besides these if you seek them with your property seeking chastity not fornication
Consanguinity
–
Consanguinity of the
kings of France as shown in Arbor genealogiae regum Francorum (
Bernard Gui, early 14th century).
5.
Culture
–
Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
Culture
–
Human
symbolic expression developed as prehistoric humans reached
behavioral modernity
Culture
–
Religion and expressive
art are important aspects of human culture.
Culture
–
Celebrations,
rituals, and patterns of consumption are important aspects of
folk culture.
Culture
–
Social and political organization varies between different cultures.
6.
Instinct
–
Instinct or innate behavior is the inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behavior. Any behavior is if it is performed without being based upon prior experience. Sea turtles, newly hatched on a beach, will move toward the ocean. A kangaroo climbs into its mothers pouch upon being born, honeybees communicate by dancing in the direction of a food source without formal instruction. Other examples include animal fighting, animal behavior, internal escape functions. The absence of volitional capacity must not be confused with an inability to modify fixed action patterns, the role of instincts in determining the behavior of animals varies from species to species. The more complex the system of an animal, the greater is the role of the cerebral cortex and social learning. A comparison between a crocodile and an elephant illustrates how mammals for example are heavily dependent on social learning, lionesses and chimpanzees raised in zoos away from their birth mothers most often reject their own offspring because they have not been taught the skills of mothering. Such is not the case with species such as reptiles. In everyday speech, the instinct is often used to refer to intuition or even clairvoyance. Jean Henri Fabre, an entomologist, considered instinct to be any behavior which did not require cognition or consciousness to perform, Fabres inspiration was his intense study of insects, some of whose behaviors he wrongly considered fixed and not subject to environmental influence. Instinct as a concept fell out of favor in the 1920s with the rise of behaviorism and such thinkers as B. F. Skinner, which held that most significant behavior is learned. These beliefs, like Fabres belief that most behaviors were simply reflexive, an interest in innate behaviors arose again in the 1950s with Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen, who made the distinction between instinct and learned behaviors. Our modern understanding of behavior in animals owes much to their work. For instance, there exists a sensitive period for a bird in which it learns the identity of its mother, Konrad Lorenz famously had a goose imprint on his boots. Thereafter the goose would follow whoever wore the boots, the identity of the gooses mother was learned, but the gooses behavior towards the boots was instinctive. The term instinct in psychology was first used in the 1870s by Wilhelm Wundt, by the close of the 19th century, most repeated behavior was considered instinctual. In a survey of the literature at that time, one researcher chronicled 4,000 human instincts, as research became more rigorous and terms better defined, instinct as an explanation for human behavior became less common
Instinct
–
An instinctive behavior of shaking water from wet fur.
Instinct
–
A baby
leatherback turtle makes its way to the open ocean
Instinct
–
Primitive reflexes
7.
Endocrinology
–
Endocrinology is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. Specializations include behavioral endocrinology and comparative endocrinology, the endocrine system consists of several glands, all in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Endocrinology is the study of the system in the human body. This is a system of glands which secrete hormones, hormones are chemicals which affect the actions of different organ systems in the body. Examples include thyroid hormone, growth hormone, and insulin, the endocrine system involves a number of feedback mechanisms, so that often one hormone will control the action or release of another secondary hormone. If there is too much of the hormone, it may provide negative feedback to the primary hormone. This definition holds for most classical hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms, autocrine signals, a neuroendocrine signal is a classical hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron. Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three to more than 200 amino acid residues and can have a mass as large as 30,000 grams per mole. All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, steroid hormones are converted from their parent compound, cholesterol. Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. Some forms of vitamin D, such as calcitriol, are steroid-like and bind to homologous receptors and these organs include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, testes, and pancreas. An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in treating disorders of the system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism. The diagnosis and treatment of diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing and this might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites, an endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations. A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease, atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. Diagnostic imaging of endocrine organs may reveal incidental findings called incidentalomas, Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are diseases that need lifelong care
Endocrinology
–
Thomas Addison
Endocrinology
–
Illustration depicting the primary endocrine organs of a female
8.
Economics
–
Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
Economics
–
Economists study trade, production and consumption decisions, such as those that occur in a traditional
marketplace.
Economics
–
World GDP (PPP) per capita by country (2014)
Economics
–
In
Virtual Markets, buyer and seller are not present and trade via intermediates and electronic information. Pictured:
São Paulo Stock Exchange, Brazil.
Economics
–
A map showing the main
trade routes for goods within
late medieval Europe.
9.
Emotion
–
Emotion, generally speaking, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition, Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion and those acting primarily on the emotions they are feeling may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of our believing that we are in a dangerous situation, other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. According to some theories, they are states of feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that influence our behavior, the physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency, extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the force behind motivation, positive or negative. Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components, Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components, the different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, a similar multicomponential description of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels, expressive body actions, the numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate, in addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective processes in the brain. Emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is associated with a pattern of physiological activity. Emotions produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes, the original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the survival of humans. Emotions are responses to significant internal and external events, the word emotion dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means to stir up. The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion to replace passion, according to one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word likely dates back to the very origins of language. The modern word emotion is heterogeneous In some uses of the word, on the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild and to states that are not directed at anything. One line of research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language
Emotion
–
Two Dimensions of Emotion
Emotion
–
Examples of basic emotions
Emotion
–
William James about the time he wrote on emotions
10.
Crude birth rate
–
The birth rate is the total number of live births per 1,000 of a population in a year. The birth rate are used to calculate population growth, the crude birth rate is the number of live births per year per 1,000 midyear population Another term used interchangeably with birth rate is natality. When the crude death rate is subtracted from the birth rate. This is equal to the rate of population change, the total birth rate —typically indicated as births per 1,000 population—is distinguished from an age-specific rate. The first known use of the birth rate in English occurred in 1859. In 2012 the average birth rate was 19.611 according to the World Bank and 19.15 births per 1,000 total population according to the CIA. Again, the average birth rate has shrunk to 18.6 births per 1,000 total population in 2016. The 2016 average of 18.6 births per 1,000 total population is estimated to be about 4.3 births/second or about 256 births/minute for the world, the birth rate is an issue of concern and policy for national governments. Some seek to increase the rate with financial incentives or provision of support services to new mothers. Conversely, other countries have policies to reduce the birth rate, policies to increase the crude birth rate are known as pro-natalist policies, and policies to reduce the crude birth rate are known as anti-natalist policies. Measures such as improved information on birth control and its availability have achieved results in countries such as Iran. There has also been discussion on whether bringing women into the forefront of development initiatives will lead to a decline in birth rates, in some countries, government policies have focused on reducing birth rates by improving womens rights, sexual and reproductive health. Typically, high rates are associated with health problems, low life expectancy, low living standards, low social status for women. Demographic transition theory postulates that as a country undergoes economic development and social change its population growth declines, at the 1974 World Population Conference in Bucharest, Romania, womens issues gained considerable attention. Family programs were discussed, and 137 countries drafted a World Population Plan of Action, as part of the discussion, many countries accepted modern birth control methods such as the birth control pill and the condom while opposing abortion. Abortion, according to a research based on psychological aspect stated, Birth rates ranging from 10–20 births per 1,000 are considered low, while rates from 40–50 births per 1,000 are considered high. There are problems associated with both extremes, high birth rates may stress government welfare and family programs. Low birth rates may stress the government to provide adequate senior welfare systems, there will be fewer children to support an aging population
Crude birth rate
–
Countries by crude birth rate (CBR) in 2014
11.
Infant mortality
–
Infant mortality refers to deaths of young children, typically those less than one year of age. It is measured by the infant mortality rate, which is the number of deaths of children one year of age per 1000 live births. The Under-Five Mortality Rate is also an important statistic considering the Infant Mortality Rate has a limit on focusing on children only under one year of age. Premature birth is the biggest contributor to the IMR, one of the most common preventable causes of infant mortality is smoking during pregnancy. Many factors contribute to infant mortality, such as the level of education, environmental conditions. Improving sanitation, access to drinking water, immunization against infectious diseases. Child mortality is the death of a child before the fifth birthday. National statistics sometimes group these two mortality rates together, Infant mortality rate was an indicator used to monitor progress towards the Fourth Goal of the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations for the year 2015. It is now a target in the Sustainable Development Goals for Goal Number 3, throughout the world, Infant Mortality Rate fluctuates drastically, and according to Biotechnology and Health Sciences, education and life expectancy in the country is the leading indicator of IMR. This study was conducted across 135 countries over the course of 11 years with Africa having the highest Infant Mortality Rate of any other region studied with 68 deaths per 1,000 live births. Infant mortality rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 live births of children one year of age. The rate for a region is the number of children dying under one year of age, divided by the number of live births during the year. Forms of infant mortality, Perinatal mortality is late fetal death, Neonatal mortality is newborn death occurring within 28 days postpartum. Neonatal death is attributed to inadequate access to basic medical care, during pregnancy. This accounts for 40–60% of infant mortality in developing countries, postneonatal mortality is the death of children aged 29 days to one year. The major contributors to postneonatal death are malnutrition, infectious disease, troubled pregnancy, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, causes of infant mortality directly lead to the death. Greatest percentage reduction of infant mortality occurs in countries already have low rates of infant mortality. Common causes are preventable with low-cost measures, in the United States, a primary determinant of infant mortality risk is infant birth weight with lower birth weights increasing the risk of infant mortality
Infant mortality
–
Infant mortality rates, under age 1, in 2013
12.
Total fertility rate
–
It is obtained by summing the single-year age-specific rates at a given time. The TFR is a rate, not based on the fertility of any real group of women since this would involve waiting until they had completed childbearing. Nor is it based on counting up the number of children actually born over their lifetime. Instead, the TFR is based on the fertility rates of women in their child-bearing years. When the NRR is exactly one, then each generation of women is exactly reproducing itself, the NRR is less widely used than the TFR, and the United Nations stopped reporting NRR data for member nations after 1998. But the NRR is particularly relevant where the number of babies born is very high due to gender imbalance. This is a significant factor in population, due to the high level of gender imbalance in the very populous nations of China. The gross reproduction rate, is the same as the NRR, in particular, the TFR does not necessarily predict how many children young women now will eventually have, as their fertility rates in years to come may change from those of older women now. However, the TFR is a summary of current fertility levels. In other words, the TPFR is a measure of life cycle fertility when childbearing age is changing. This is a significant factor in some countries, such as the Czech Republic, some measures seek to adjust for this timing effect to gain a better measure of life-cycle fertility. Replacement fertility is the fertility rate at which women give birth to enough babies to sustain population levels. If there were no mortality in the population until the end of the childbearing years then the replacement level of TFR would be very close to 2.0. The replacement fertility rate is roughly 2.0 births per woman for most industrialized countries, taken globally, the total fertility rate at replacement is 2.33 children per woman. At this rate, global population growth would tend towards zero, a log-transformation of the data gives an alternative view of the relation. The coefficients taken literally imply that for each 1% advance in GDP, the term lowest-low fertility is defined as TFR at or below 1.3. This is characteristic of some Eastern European, Southern European and East Asian countries, in 2001, more than half of the population of Europe lived in countries with lowest-low TFR, but the situation has since slightly improved. However, it may take several generations for a change in the fertility rate to be reflected in birth rate
Total fertility rate
–
Total fertility rate rate by region
13.
Religiosity
–
Religiosity, in its broadest sense, is a comprehensive term used to refer to the numerous aspects of religious activity, dedication, and belief. Another term less often used is religiousness, in its narrowest sense, religiosity deals more with how religious a person is, and less with how a person is religious. Decades of anthropological, sociological, and psychological research have established that religious congruence is actually rare, people’s religious ideas, are fragmented, loosely connected, and context dependent, like in all other domains of culture and in life. The beliefs, affiliations, and behaviors of any individual are complex activities that have many sources including culture, as examples of religious incongruence he notes, Observant Jews may not believe what they say in their Sabbath prayers. Christian ministers may not believe in God, and people who regularly dance for rain don’t do it in the dry season. Demographic studies often show wide diversity of beliefs, belonging. Global studies on religion also show diversity, numerous studies have explored the different components of human religiosity. What most have found is there are multiple dimensions. What most measures of religiosity find is that there is at least some distinction between religious doctrine, religious practice, and spirituality, for example, one can accept the truthfulness of the Bible, but never attend a church or even belong to an organized religion. Another example is an individual who does not hold orthodox Christian doctrines and these are explanatory examples of the broadest dimensions of religiosity and that they may not be reflected in specific religiosity measures. Most dimensions of religiosity are correlated, meaning people who attend church services are also likely to score highly on the belief. But individuals do not have to high on all dimensions or low on all dimensions. Sociologists have differed over the number of components of religiosity. Charles Glocks five-dimensional approach was among the first of its kind in the field of sociology of religion, other sociologists adapted Glocks list to include additional components. The contributions of genes and environment to religiosity have been quantified in studies of twins and sociological studies of welfare, availability, a market-based theory of religious choice and governmental regulation of religion have been the dominant theories used to explain variations of religiosity between societies. However, Gill and Lundsgaarde documented a much stronger correlation between welfare state spending and religiosity, see Welfare spending vs Church attendance diagram on the right. A meta-analysis found a correlation of -.24 between intelligence quotient and religiosity for western societies. The correlation was suggested to be a result of nonconformity, more cognitive and less intuitive thinking styles among the less religious, the study noted limitations on the results such as not considering of the role of religion type and of culture in assessing the relationship
Religiosity
–
The Gallup Religiosity Index, 2009. (light color indicates religious, dark nonreligious)
14.
Urban area
–
An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, in urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The worlds urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since, in 2009, the number of people living in urban areas surpassed the number living in rural areas and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that the majority of the population lived in a city. In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet, Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density, historian John Gurda writes, I have tried to uncover Milwaukees civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions. It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there, I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, about 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world. The metropolitan areas of Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.3 million inhabitants each and La Plata, seven other provinces have over one million people each, Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. According to IBGE urban areas already concentrate 84. 35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 20,12, and 5 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, there are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. According to Statistics Canada, an area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre. If two or more areas are within 2 km of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area. Accordingly, the new definition set out three types of population centres, small, medium and large
Urban area
–
Greater Tokyo Area, the world's most populous urban area, with about 35 million people.
Urban area
–
Buenos Aires Córdoba
Urban area
Urban area
–
Rosario Mendoza
15.
Intelligence and fertility
–
The combined net effect of these two forces on ultimate population intelligence is not well studied and is unclear. Other correlates of IQ include income and educational attainment, which are also fertility factors that are correlated with fertility rate. These men, taken as a whole, had few children, in 1963, Weyl and Possony asserted that comparatively small differences in average intelligence can become very large differences in the very high I. Q. ranges. A decline in average intelligence of only a few points will mean a much smaller population of gifted individuals. More rigorous studies carried out on Americans alive after the Second World War returned different results suggesting a positive correlation with respect to intelligence. Will probably continue in the future in the United States. Other researchers began to report a negative correlation in the 1960s after two decades of neutral or positive fertility. In 1982, Daniel Vining sought to address issues in a large study on the fertility of over 10,000 individuals throughout the United States. The average fertility in his study was correlated at −0.86 with IQ for white women and −0.96 for black women. Vining argued that this indicated a drop in the genotypic average IQ of 1.6 points per generation for the white population, if children had, on average, the same IQ as their parents, IQ would decline by.81 points per generation. Taking.71 for the heritability of IQ as given by Jinks and Fulker. The Bell Curve argued that the average genotypic IQ of the United States was declining due to both dysgenetic fertility and large scale immigration of groups with low average IQ. In a 1999 study Lynn examined the relationship between the intelligence of adults aged 40 and above and their numbers of children and their siblings, data was collected from the 1994 National Opinion Research Center survey among a representative sample of 2992 English-speaking individuals aged 18 years. Findings revealed that weak negative correlations of −0.05 and −0.09, further analysis showed that the negative correlation was present only in females. In 2004 Richard Lynn and Marian Van Court attempted a straightforward replication of Vinings work and their study returned similar results, with the genotypic decline measuring at 0.9 IQ points per generation for the total sample and 0.75 IQ points for whites only. Without migration the average IQ of the US population will decline by about 0.8 points per generation, Lynn and Harvey found a correlation of −0.73 between national IQ and fertility. They estimated that the effect had been a decline in the worlds genotypic IQ of 0.86 IQ points for the years 1950–2000, a further decline of 1.28 IQ points in the worlds genotypic IQ is projected for the years 2000–2050. They thought it probable that both genotypic and phenotypic IQ will gradually start to decline for the whole world, there is thus an inverse correlation between income and fertility within and between nations
Intelligence and fertility
–
7–8 Children
16.
Age and female fertility
–
Female fertility is affected by age. Age is thus a major fertility factor for women, after puberty, female fertility increases and then decreases, with advanced maternal age causing an increased risk of female infertility. In humans, a womans fertility peaks in the early and mid-20s, while many sources suggest a more dramatic drop at around 35, this is unclear since studies are still cited from the nineteenth century. One 2004 study of European women found fertility of the 27-34, at age 45, a woman starting to try to conceive will have no live birth in 50–80 percent of cases. Menopause, or the cessation of periods, generally occurs in the 40s and 50s and marks the cessation of fertility. A womans fertility peaks in her early and mid-20s after which it starts to decline, however, the exact estimates of the chances of a woman to conceive after a certain age are not clear, and are subject to debate. For women aged 38, however, only 77 out of every 100 will do so, the women were divided into four age groups, 19–26, 27–29, 30–34 and 35–39. Statistical analysis showed that the women in the 27–29 age group had significantly less chance on average of becoming pregnant than did the 19- to 26-year-olds. Pregnancy rates did not change notably between the 27–29 age group and the 30–34 age group, but dropped significantly for the 35–39 age group. The age of the partner had a significant impact on female fertility among the women who had reached their mid-30s. However, experts said the new study was too small and there were too many variables which were too difficult to sort out, david Dunson, a biostatistician at the U. S. A French study found no difference between the fertility rate of women under 25 and those ages 26–30, after which fertility started to decrease, estimating the fertility of a woman is quite difficult because of the male factor. This French study looked at 2,193 women who were using artificial insemination because their husbands were azoospermic. The cumulative success rates after 12 cycles of insemination were 73% for women under age 25, 74% in women ages 26–30, 61% for ages 31–35, and 54% in the over 35 age group. The below is a table containing estimates of the percentage of women who, if starting to conceive at a certain age, note that while for the young ages researchers tend to agree, for older ages there is discrepancy. In terms of ovarian reserve, a woman has 12% of her reserve at age 30 and has only 3% at age 40. 81% of variation in ovarian reserve is due to age alone, transvaginal ultrasound can also be used to “count the number of follicles” and this procedure is called Antral Follicle Count. A study of a population of French women from 1670 and 1789 shows that those who married at age 20–24 had 7.0 children on average and 3. 7% remained childless
Age and female fertility
17.
Paternal age effect
–
The paternal age effect is the statistical relationship between paternal age at conception and biological effects on the child. Such effects can relate to birthweight, congenital disorders, life expectancy, a 2017 review found that while severe health effects are associated with higher paternal age, the total increase in problems caused by paternal age is low. While paternal age has increased since 1960-1970 this is not seen as a public health concern. The genetic quality of sperm, as well as its volume and motility, all may decrease with age, crow to claim that the greatest mutational health hazard to the human genome is fertile older males. The paternal age effect was first proposed implicitly by Weinberg in 1912, dNA-based research started more recently, in 1998, in the context of paternity testing. Evidence for a paternal age effect has been proposed for a number of conditions, diseases, in many of these, the statistical evidence of association is weak, and the association may be related by confounding factors, or behavioural differences. These conditions are Apert syndrome, Crouzon syndrome, Pfeiffer syndrome, achondroplasia, thanatophoric dysplasia, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, and multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b. The most significant effect concerns achondroplasia, which occur in about 1 in 1,875 children fathered by men over 50. However, the risk for achondroplasia is still considered clinically negligible, several studies have reported that advanced paternal age is associated with an increased risk of miscarriage. The strength of the association differs between studies and it has been suggested that these miscarriages are caused by chromosome abnormalities in the sperm of aging men. An increased risk for stillbirth has also suggested for pregnancies fathered by men over 45. A systematic review published in 2010 concluded the risk of low birthweight in infants with paternal age is saucer-shaped, that is, the highest risks occur at low and at high paternal ages. Compared with an age of 25–28 years as a reference group. There was no association of paternal age with preterm births or with small for gestational age births, Schizophrenia is thought by some to be associated with advanced paternal age but it is not proven. Some studies examining autism spectrum disorder and advanced age have demonstrated an association between the two, although there also appears to be an increase with maternal age. There is no relationship with maternal age. The mechanisms under discussion are not mutually exclusive, paternal age may be associated with an increased risk of breast cancer, but the association is weak and there are confounding effects. According to a 2017 review, there is consistent evidence of an increase in incidence of acute lymphoblastic leukemia with paternal age
Paternal age effect
–
DNA methylation
18.
Fertilisation
–
The cycle of fertilisation and development of new individuals is called sexual reproduction. During double fertilisation in angiosperms the haploid male gamete combines with two polar nuclei to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus by the process of vegetative fertilisation. In 1784, Spallanzani established the need of interaction between the females ovum and males sperm to form a zygote, oscar Hertwig, in Germany, described the fusion of nuclei of spermatozoa and of ova from sea urchin. In flowering plants there are two sperm from each pollen grain, in seed plants, after pollination, a pollen grain germinates, and a pollen tube grows and penetrates the ovule through a tiny pore called a micropyle. The sperm are transferred from the pollen through the pollen tube, bryophyte is a traditional name used to refer to all embryophytes that do not have true vascular tissue and are therefore called non-vascular plants. Some bryophytes do have specialised tissues for the transport of water, however, since these do not contain lignin, a fern is a member of a group of roughly 12,000 species of vascular plants that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular and they have stems and leaves, like other vascular plants. Most ferns have what are called fiddleheads that expand into fronds, the gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, Cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. The term gymnosperm comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος, meaning naked seeds and their naked condition stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants, which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, often modified to form cones, the pollen tube does not directly reach the ovary in a straight line. It travels near the skin of the style and curls to the bottom of the ovary, then near the receptacle, it breaks through the ovule through the micropyle, after being fertilised, the ovary starts to swell and develop into the fruit. With multi-seeded fruits, multiple grains of pollen are necessary for syngamy with each ovule, the growth of the pollen tube is controlled by the vegetative cytoplasm. The sperms are interconnected and dimorphic, the one, in a number of plants, is also linked to the tube nucleus and the interconnected sperm. Double fertilisation is the process in angiosperms in which two sperm from each pollen tube fertilise two cells in a gametophyte that is inside an ovule. After the pollen tube enters the gametophyte, the tube nucleus disintegrates. This is the point when fertilisation actually occurs, pollination and fertilisation are two separate processes, the nucleus of the other sperm cell fuses with two haploid polar nuclei in the centre of the gametophyte. This triploid cell divides through mitosis and forms the endosperm, a nutrient-rich tissue, the two central-cell maternal nuclei that contribute to the endosperm arise by mitosis from the single meiotic product that also gave rise to the egg. Therefore, maternal contribution to the constitution of the triploid endosperm is double that of the embryo
Fertilisation
–
Sperm and ovum fusing
Fertilisation
–
In the
Bryophyte land plants, fertilization takes place within the
archegonium. This
moss has been
genetically modified so that the unfertilized egg within the archegonium produces a blue colour.
Fertilisation
–
Red-veined darters (
Sympetrum fonscolombii) flying "in cop" (male ahead), enabling the male to prevent other males from mating. The eggs are fertilised as they are laid, one at a time.
19.
Sportsperson
–
An athlete or sportsman is a person who is good at a sport and competes in one or more sports that involve physical strength, speed or endurance. The terms application to those who participate in activities, such as horse riding or driving, is somewhat controversial. Athletes may be professionals or amateurs, most professional athletes have particularly well-developed physiques obtained by extensive physical training and strict exercise accompanied by a strict dietary regimen. The word athlete is a romanization of the Greek, άθλητὴς, athlētēs, one who participates in a contest, from ἄθλος, áthlos, or ἄθλον, áthlon, athletes involved in isotonic exercises have an increased mean left ventricular end-diastolic volume and are less likely to be depressed. Due to their strenuous physical activities, athletes are far more likely than the population to visit massage salons and pay for services from massage therapists. An all-around athlete is a person who competes in sports at a high level. Examples of people who played numerous sports professionally include Jim Thorpe, Lionel Conacher, Deion Sanders, Danny Ainge and Babe Zaharias. Others include Ricky Williams, Bo Jackson, and Damon Allen, japanese athletes such as Kazushi Sakuraba, Kazuyuki Fujita, Masakatsu Funaki and Naoya Ogawa have successfully competed in both professional wrestling and mixed martial arts. The title of Worlds Greatest Athlete traditionally belongs to the worlds top competitor in the decathlon and heptathlon in track and field. The decathlon consists of 10 events,100 meters, long jump, shot put, high jump,400 meters,110 m hurdles, discus, pole vault, javelin, and 1500 m. The heptathlon consists of seven events, the 100 m hurdles, high jump, shot put,200 meters, long jump, javelin, and 800 meters. These competitions require an athlete to possess the whole spectrum of ability in order to be successful including speed, strength, coordination, jumping ability. Although the title Worlds Greatest Athlete seems a natural fit for these two events, its association with the decathlon/heptathlon officially began with Jim Thorpe. During the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden, Thorpe won the medal in the Decathlon. Thorpe notably also competed professionally in soccer, baseball, American Football, and basketball, and competed collegiately in track and field, soccer, baseball, lacrosse, and did ballroom dancing. King Gustav V of Sweden, while awarding Thorpe the decathlon gold said, You and that title has become associated with the decathlon event ever since. Outdoor enthusiast Jock Athlete of the Year Suresh Joachim Multiple Guinness World Record holder
Sportsperson
–
Jim Thorpe at the
1912 Summer Olympics
20.
Breastfeeding
–
Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the feeding of babies and young children with milk from a womans breast. Health professionals recommend that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a life and continue as often. During the first few weeks of life babies may nurse roughly every two to three hours, the duration of a feeding is usually ten to fifteen minutes on each breast. Mothers may pump milk so that it can be used later when breastfeeding is not possible, Breastfeeding has a number of benefits to both mother and baby, which infant formula lacks. Deaths of an estimated 820,000 children under the age of five could be prevented every year with increased breastfeeding. Breastfeeding decreases the risk of respiratory infections and diarrhea, both in developing and developed countries. Other benefits include lower risks of asthma, food allergies, celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, Breastfeeding may also improve cognitive development and decrease the risk of obesity in adulthood. Mothers may feel pressure to breastfeed, however in the developed world children generally grow up normally when bottle fed, benefits for the mother include less blood loss following delivery, better uterus shrinkage, weight loss, and less postpartum depression. Breastfeeding delays the return of menstruation and fertility, a known as lactational amenorrhea. Long term benefits for the mother include decreased risk of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, Breastfeeding is less expensive than infant formula. Health organizations, including the World Health Organization, recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months and this means that no other foods or drinks other than possibly vitamin D are typically given. After the introduction of foods at six months of age, recommendations include continued breastfeeding until at least one to two years of age, globally about 38% of infants are only breastfed during their first six months of life. In the United States, about 75% of women begin breastfeeding, Medical conditions that do not allow breastfeeding are rare. Mothers who take certain drugs and medications should not breastfeed. Smoking, limited intake of alcohol, and coffee are not reasons to avoid breastfeeding, the endocrine system drives milk production during pregnancy and the first few days after the birth. From the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy, a body produces hormones that stimulate the growth of the breasts milk duct system. After birth, the hormone oxytocin contracts the muscle layer of cells surrounding the alveoli to squeeze milk into the duct system. Oxytocin is also necessary for the milk ejection reflex, or let-down to occur, let-down occurs in response to the babys suckling, though it also may be a conditioned response, e. g. to the cry of the baby
Breastfeeding
–
A baby breastfeeding
Breastfeeding
–
Himba woman and child
Breastfeeding
–
Newborn rests as caregiver checks breath sounds
Breastfeeding
–
Rooming-in bassinet
21.
The pill
–
The combined oral contraceptive pill, often referred to as the birth control pill or colloquially as the pill, is a birth control method that includes a combination of an estrogen and a progestogen. When taken by every day, these pills inhibit female fertility. They were first approved for use in the United States in 1960. They are currently used by more than 100 million women worldwide, as of 2012, 16% of U. S. women aged 15-44 reported being on the birth control pill, making it the most widely used contraceptive method among women of that age range. Use varies widely by country, age, education, and marital status, one third of women aged 16–49 in the United Kingdom currently use either the combined pill or progestogen-only pill, compared with only 1% of women in Japan. Two forms are on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the pill was a catalyst for the sexual revolution. Combined oral contraceptive pills should be taken at the time each day. If one or more tablets are forgotten for more than 12 hours, most brands of combined pills are packaged in one of two different packet sizes, with days marked off for a 28-day cycle. For the 21-pill packet, a pill is consumed daily for three weeks, followed by a week of no pills, for the 28-pill packet,21 pills are taken, followed by a week of placebo or sugar pills. A woman on the pill will have a withdrawal bleed sometime during the placebo week, there are also two newer combination birth control pills that have 24 days of active hormone pills, followed by 4 days of placebo. The placebo pills allow the user to take a pill every day, placebo pills may contain an iron supplement, as iron requirements increase during menstruation. Failure to take pills during the placebo week does not impact the effectiveness of the pill, the withdrawal bleeding that occurs during the break from active pills was thought to be reassuring, as a physical confirmation of not being pregnant. The 28-day pill package also simulates the average menstrual cycle, though the events during a pill cycle are significantly different from those of a normal ovulatory menstrual cycle. The pill suppresses the normal cycle, and the withdrawal bleeding occurs while the pills are taken. The withdrawal bleeding is also predictable, unexpected breakthrough bleeding can be a possible side effect of longer term active regimens. Attempting this with bi- or tri-phasic pill formulations carries a risk of breakthrough bleeding. It will not, however, increase the risk of getting pregnant, starting in 2003, women have also been able to use a three-month version of the Pill. Seasonique is another version in which the week every three months is replaced with a week of low-dose estrogen
The pill
–
Combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP)
The pill
–
Half-used blister pack of LevlenED
The pill
–
oral contraceptives, 1970s
22.
IUD
–
An intrauterine device is a small, often T-shaped birth control device that is inserted into a womans uterus to prevent pregnancy. IUDs are one form of long-acting reversible birth control, among birth control methods, IUDs, along with contraceptive implants, result in the greatest satisfaction among users. Evidence supports effectiveness and safety in adolescents and those who have and have not previously had children, once removed, even after long-term use, fertility returns to normal rapidly. Failure rates are about 0. 8% with copper devices and 0. 2% with hormonal devices in the first year of use, while copper IUDs may increase menstrual bleeding and result in more painful cramps, hormonal IUDs may reduce menstrual bleeding or stop menstruation altogether. Cramping can be treated with NSAIDs, other potential complications include expulsion and rarely perforation of the uterus. IUDs do not affect breastfeeding and can be inserted immediately after delivery and they may also be used immediately after an abortion. The use of IUDs as a form of birth control dates from the 1800s, the types of intrauterine devices available, and the names they go by, differ by location. In the United States, there are two available, Nonhormonal copper IUD IUD with progestogen The WHO ATC labels both copper and hormonal devices as IUDs. In the United Kingdom, there are over 10 different types of copper IUDs available, in the UK, the term IUD refers only to these copper devices. Hormonal intrauterine contraception is considered to be a different type of control and is labeled with the term intrauterine system. Copper IUDs primarily work by disrupting sperm motility and damaging sperm so that they are prevented from joining with an egg, copper acts as a spermicide within the uterus, increasing levels of copper ions, prostaglandins, and white blood cells within the uterine and tubal fluids. The increased copper ions in the cervical mucus inhibit the sperms motility and viability, preventing sperm from traveling through the cervical mucus, copper can also alter the endometrial lining, but studies show that this alteration can prevent implantation, but not disrupt implantation. Most copper IUDs have a plastic T-shaped frame that is wound around with pure electrolytic copper wire and/or has copper collars, the arms of the frame hold the IUD in place near the top of the uterus. The Paragard TCu 380a measures 32 mm horizontally, and 36 mm vertically, copper IUDs have a first year failure rate ranging from 0.1 to 2. 2%. In the Eurogine Gold T IUD, which is made in Spain, there is a gold core, GoldringMedusa is a differently-shaped German version of the Gold T. Another form of AuCu IUD is called Goldlily which is made by the Hungarian company, Goldlily consists of a layer of copper wires wrapped around an original layer of gold wires, and it provides electrochemical protection in addition to ionic protection. Radelkis also makes Silverlily, which is similar to Goldlily, nova-T380 contains a strengthening silver core, but does not incorporate silver ions themselves to provide electrochemical protection. Other shapes of IUD include the so-called U-shaped IUDs, such as the Load and Multiload, and it is held in place by a suture to the fundus of the uterus
IUD
–
Hormonal IUD (
Mirena)
IUD
–
Copper IUD (
Paragard T 380A)
IUD
–
A copper T shaped IUD with removal strings
IUD
–
An IUD as seen on pelvic X ray
23.
Sterilization (medicine)
–
Sterilization is any of a number of medical techniques that intentionally leave a person unable to reproduce. It is a method of birth control, for other causes of sterility, see infertility. Sterilization methods include both surgical and non-surgical, and exist for males and females. Sterilization procedures are intended to be permanent, reversal is generally difficult or impossible, Sterilization is used all over the world by many different people. There are multiple ways of having sterilization done but the two that are used most frequently are, tubal sterilization and vasectomy, a vasectomy is one of the options a man has and a tubal sterilization is an option for women. There are many different ways tubal sterilization can be accomplished and it is extremely effective and in the United States surgical complications are low. With that being said, tubal sterilization is still a method that involves surgery, women that chose a tubal sterilization may have a higher risk of serious side effects, more than a man has with a vasectomy. Pregnancies after a tubal sterilization can still occur, even years after the procedure. It is not very likely, but if it does there is a high risk of ectopic gestation. Statistics confirm that a handful of tubal sterilization surgeries are performed shortly after a vaginal delivery mostly by minilaparotomy, in some cases, sterilization can be reversed but not all. It can vary by the type of sterilization performed, surgical sterilization methods include, Tubal ligation in females, known popularly as having ones tubes tied. The Fallopian tubes, which allow the sperm to fertilize the ovum and this generally involves a general anesthetic and a laparotomy or laparoscopic approach to cut, clip or cauterize the fallopian tubes. The vasa deferentia, the tubes that connect the testicles to the prostate, are cut and this prevents sperm produced in the testicles from entering the ejaculated semen. Although the term vasectomy is established in the community, the correct medical terminology is vasoligation. The uterus is surgically removed, permanently preventing pregnancy and some diseases and this is frequently used for the sterilization of animals, but rarely for humans. It was also used on some human male children for other reasons, see castrato. Transluminal procedures are performed by entry through the reproductive tract. These generally use a catheter to place a substance into the Fallopian tubes that eventually causes blockage of the tract in this segment, such procedures are generally called non-surgical as they use natural orifices and thereby do not necessitate any surgical incision
Sterilization (medicine)
–
This article is about sterilization of humans. For sterilization of other animals, see
Neutering.
24.
Vasectomy
–
Vasectomy is a surgical procedure for male sterilization or permanent contraception. During the procedure, the vas deferens are severed and then tied or sealed in a manner so as to prevent sperm from entering into the urethra. There are several methods by which a surgeon might complete a vasectomy procedure, due to the simplicity of the surgery, a vasectomy usually takes less than thirty minutes to complete. After a short recovery at the office, the patient is sent home to rest. Because the procedure is invasive, many vasectomy patients find that they can resume their typical sexual behavior within a week. The procedure is not often encouraged for young men as their chances for biological parenthood are thereby more or less permanently reduced to almost zero by it. It is seldom performed on dogs but is performed on bulls. A vasectomy is done to prevent fertility in males and it ensures that in most cases the person will be sterile after confirmation of success following surgery. The procedure is regarded as permanent because vasectomy reversal is costly, men with vasectomies have a very small chance of successfully impregnating a woman, but a vasectomy has no effect on rates of sexually transmitted infections. After vasectomy, the remain in the scrotum where Leydig cells continue to produce testosterone. Some studies have found that sexual desire after vasectomy may be somewhat diminished, when the vasectomy is complete, sperm cannot exit the body through the penis. Sperm are still produced by the testicles, but they are broken down. Much fluid content is absorbed by membranes in the epididymis, and much content is broken down by the responding macrophages. Sperm is matured in the epididymis for about a month before leaving the testicles, within one year after vasectomy, sixty to seventy per cent of vasectomized men develop antisperm antibodies. In some cases, vasitis nodosa, a proliferation of the ductular epithelium. The accumulation of sperm increases pressure in the vas deferens and epididymis, the entry of the sperm into the scrotum can cause sperm granulomas to be formed by the body to contain and absorb the sperm which the body will treat as a foreign biological substance. Late failure, i. e. pregnancy following spontaneous recanalization of the vasa deferentia, has also been documented, short-term possible complications include infection, bruising and bleeding into the scrotum resulting in a collection of blood known as a hematoma. A study in 2012 demonstrated a rate of 2. 5% postvasectomy
Vasectomy
–
A post-vasectomy scrotum, showing typical post-operative
bruising, incision
stitches and a
shaved scrotum.
Vasectomy
–
Vasectomy
25.
Fetus
–
A fetus is a stage in the prenatal development of viviparous organisms. In human development, a fetus or foetus is a human between the embryonic state and birth. The fetal stage of development tends to be taken as beginning at the age of eleven weeks. In biological terms, however, prenatal development is a continuum, the use of the term fetus generally implies that an embryo has developed to the point of being recognizable as a human, this is the point usually taken to be the ninth week after fertilization. A fetus is also characterized by the presence of all the body organs, though they will not yet be fully developed and functional. The word fetus is from the Latin fētus, the British, Irish, and Commonwealth spelling is foetus, which has been in use since at least 1594. It arose as a hypercorrection based on an incorrect etymology that may have originated with an error by Isidore of Seville in AD620 and this spelling is the most common in most Commonwealth nations, except in the medical literature, where fetus is used. The etymologically accurate original spelling fetus is used in Canada and the United States, in addition, fetus is now the standard English spelling throughout the world in medical journals. The spelling faetus was used historically, in humans, the fetal stage commences at the beginning of the ninth week. At the start of the stage, the fetus is typically about 30 millimetres in length from crown to rump. The head makes up half of the fetus size. Breathing-like movement of the fetus is necessary for stimulation of lung development, the heart, hands, feet, brain and other organs are present, but are only at the beginning of development and have minimal operation. The genitalia of the starts to form and placenta becomes fully functional during week 9. At this point in development, uncontrolled movements and twitches occur as muscles, the brain, and pathways begin to develop. A woman pregnant for the first time, typically feels fetal movements at about 21 weeks, whereas a woman who has given birth at least once, by the end of the fifth month, the fetus is about 20 cm long. The amount of body fat rapidly increases, thalamic brain connections, which mediate sensory input, form. Bones are fully developed, but are soft and pliable. Iron, calcium, and phosphorus become more abundant, fingernails reach the end of the fingertips
Fetus
–
A human fetus, attached to
placenta, at around twelve weeks after
fertilization. Until around nine weeks after fertilization, this prenatal human would have been described as an
embryo.
Fetus
–
3D ultrasound of 3-inch (76 mm) fetus (about 14 weeks
gestational age)
Fetus
–
Fetus at 17 weeks
Fetus
–
Fetus at 20 weeks
26.
Hormonal
–
Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes, eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid/protein derivatives. The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine signaling system, the term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell or nearby cells. Hormones affect distant cells by binding to receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway, Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a range of regulatory systems. Upon secretion, certain hormones, including hormones and catecholamines, are water-soluble and are thus readily transported through the circulatory system. The endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream typically into fenestrated capillaries, Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to nearby target tissue. The reaction of the cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells. This is an example of a negative feedback loop. Hormone cells are typically of a cell type, residing within a particular endocrine gland, such as the thyroid gland, ovaries. Hormones exit their cell of origin via exocytosis or another means of membrane transport, the hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal, the rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic negative feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence the metabolism and excretion of hormones, thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an effect of the hormone, for example, thyroid-stimulating hormone causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output of thyroid hormones. To release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and these can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus. Eicosanoids are considered to act as local hormones and they are considered to be local because they possess specific effects on target cells close to their site of formation. They also have a rapid degradation cycle, making sure they do not reach distal sites within the body, most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either cell membrane associated or intracellular receptors
Hormonal
–
Different types of hormones are secreted in the body, with different biological roles and functions.
27.
Menstrual cycle
–
The menstrual cycle is the regular natural change that occurs in the female reproductive system that makes pregnancy possible. The cycle is required for the production of ovocytes, and for the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy, up to 80% of women report having some symptoms during the one to two weeks prior to menstruation. Common symptoms include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability and these symptoms interfere with normal life and therefore qualify as premenstrual syndrome in 20 to 30% of women. In 3 to 8%, they are severe, the first period usually begins between twelve and fifteen years of age, a point in time known as menarche. They may occasionally start as early as eight, and this onset may still be normal, the average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world and earlier in developed world. The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women and 21 to 35 days in adults, menstruation stops occurring after menopause which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age. Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days, the menstrual cycle is governed by hormonal changes. These changes can be altered by using hormonal birth control to prevent pregnancy, each cycle can be divided into three phases based on events in the ovary or in the uterus. The ovarian cycle consists of the phase, ovulation, and luteal phase whereas the uterine cycle is divided into menstruation, proliferative phase. Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen in the phase, discharges of blood flow stop. Follicles in the ovary begin developing under the influence of an interplay of hormones. Approximately mid-cycle, 24–36 hours after the luteinizing hormone surges, the dominant follicle releases an ovocyte, under the influence of progesterone, the uterine lining changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within two weeks, the corpus luteum will involute, causing a sharp drop in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. The hormone drop causes the uterus to shed its lining in a process termed menstruation, menstruation also occurs in some other animals including shrews, bats, and other primates such as apes and monkeys. The average age of menarche is 12–15 and they may occasionally start as early as eight, and this onset may still be normal. This first period occurs later in the developing world than the developed world. The average age of menarche is approximately 12.5 years in the United States,12.7 in Canada,12.9 in the UK and 13.1 years in Iceland, factors such as genetics, diet and overall health can affect timing. The cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a reproductive period is termed menopause
Menstrual cycle
–
Figure showing the progression of the menstrual cycle and the different hormones contributing to it.
Menstrual cycle
–
Diagram illustrating how the
uterus lining builds up and breaks down during the menstrual cycle.
Menstrual cycle
–
An ovary about to release an egg
Menstrual cycle
–
Half-used blister pack of a combined oral contraceptive. The white pills are
placebos, mainly for the purpose of reminding the woman to continue taking the pills.
28.
Fertile window
–
The menstrual cycle is the regular natural change that occurs in the female reproductive system that makes pregnancy possible. The cycle is required for the production of ovocytes, and for the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy, up to 80% of women report having some symptoms during the one to two weeks prior to menstruation. Common symptoms include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability and these symptoms interfere with normal life and therefore qualify as premenstrual syndrome in 20 to 30% of women. In 3 to 8%, they are severe, the first period usually begins between twelve and fifteen years of age, a point in time known as menarche. They may occasionally start as early as eight, and this onset may still be normal, the average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world and earlier in developed world. The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women and 21 to 35 days in adults, menstruation stops occurring after menopause which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age. Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days, the menstrual cycle is governed by hormonal changes. These changes can be altered by using hormonal birth control to prevent pregnancy, each cycle can be divided into three phases based on events in the ovary or in the uterus. The ovarian cycle consists of the phase, ovulation, and luteal phase whereas the uterine cycle is divided into menstruation, proliferative phase. Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen in the phase, discharges of blood flow stop. Follicles in the ovary begin developing under the influence of an interplay of hormones. Approximately mid-cycle, 24–36 hours after the luteinizing hormone surges, the dominant follicle releases an ovocyte, under the influence of progesterone, the uterine lining changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within two weeks, the corpus luteum will involute, causing a sharp drop in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. The hormone drop causes the uterus to shed its lining in a process termed menstruation, menstruation also occurs in some other animals including shrews, bats, and other primates such as apes and monkeys. The average age of menarche is 12–15 and they may occasionally start as early as eight, and this onset may still be normal. This first period occurs later in the developing world than the developed world. The average age of menarche is approximately 12.5 years in the United States,12.7 in Canada,12.9 in the UK and 13.1 years in Iceland, factors such as genetics, diet and overall health can affect timing. The cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a reproductive period is termed menopause
Fertile window
–
Figure showing the progression of the menstrual cycle and the different hormones contributing to it.
Fertile window
–
Diagram illustrating how the
uterus lining builds up and breaks down during the menstrual cycle.
Fertile window
–
An ovary about to release an egg
Fertile window
–
Half-used blister pack of a combined oral contraceptive. The white pills are
placebos, mainly for the purpose of reminding the woman to continue taking the pills.
29.
Ovule
–
In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells. It consists of three parts, The integument forming its outer layer, the nucellus, and female gametophyte in its center, the female gametophyte—specifically termed a megagametophyte—is also called the embryo sac in angiosperms. The megagametophyte produces an egg cell for the purpose of fertilization, after fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed. In flowering plants, the ovule is located inside the portion of the called the gynoecium. The ovary of the gynoecium produces one or more ovules and ultimately becomes the fruit wall, ovules are attached to the placenta in the ovary through a stalk-like structure known as a funiculus. Different patterns of attachment, or placentation, can be found among plant species. Axile placentation, The ovary is divided into segments, with placentas in separate locules. Ventral sutures of carpels meet at the centre of the ovary, Placentae are along fused margins of carpels. Basal placentation, The placenta is at the base of the ovary on a protrusion of the thalamus, simple or compound carpel, unilocular ovary. Free-central placentation, Derived from axile as partitions are absorbed, leaving ovules at the central axis, there is only one elongated placenta on one side of the ovary, as ovules are attached at the fusion line of the carpels margins. Parietal placentation, Placentae on inner wall within a non-sectioned ovary. Two or more carpels, unilocular ovary, in gymnosperms such as conifers, ovules are borne on the surface of an ovuliferous scale, usually within an ovulate cone. In some extinct plants, megasporangia and perhaps ovules were borne on the surface of leaves, in other extinct taxa, a cupule surrounds the ovule. The ovule appears to be a megasporangium with integuments surrounding it, ovules are initially composed of diploid maternal tissue, which includes a megasporocyte. Megaspores remain inside the ovule and divide by mitosis to produce the female gametophyte or megagametophyte. The remnants of the megasporangium tissue surround the megagametophyte, megagametophytes produce archegonia, which produce egg cells. After fertilization, the contains a diploid zygote and then, after cell division begins. In flowering plants, a sperm nucleus fuses with other nuclei in the megagametophyte forming a typically polyploid endosperm tissue
Ovule
–
Models of different ovules,
Botanical Museum Greifswald
Ovule
–
Location of ovules inside a
Helleborus foetidus flower
30.
Sperm
–
Sperm is the male reproductive cell and is derived from the Greek word sperma. In the types of reproduction known as anisogamy and its subtype oogamy. A uniflagellar sperm cell that is motile is referred to as a spermatozoon, Sperm cells cannot divide and have a limited life span, but after fusion with egg cells during fertilization, a new organism begins developing, starting as a totipotent zygote. The human sperm cell is haploid, so that its 23 chromosomes can join the 23 chromosomes of the egg to form a diploid cell. In mammals, sperm develops in the testicles and is released from the penis, the mammalian sperm cell consists of a head, neck, a midpiece and a tail. The head contains the nucleus with densely coiled chromatin fibres, surrounded anteriorly by an acrosome, the neck contains the sperm centriole. The midpiece has a central core with many mitochondria spiralled around it, used for ATP production for the journey through the female cervix, uterus. The tail or flagellum executes the lashing movements that propel the spermatocyte, although semen contains millions of sperm, the egg will admit only one. The other ones will die and be absorbed. The spermatozoa of animals are produced through spermatogenesis inside the gonads via meiotic division. The initial spermatozoon process takes around 70 days to complete, the spermatid stage is where the sperm develops the familiar tail. The next stage where it becomes fully mature takes around 60 days when it is called a spermatozoan, Sperm cells are carried out of the male body in a fluid known as semen. Human sperm cells can survive within the reproductive tract for more than 5 days post coitus. Semen is produced in the vesicles, prostate gland and urethral glands. In 2016 scientists at Nanjing Medical University claimed they had produced cells resembling mouse spermatids artificially from stem cells and they injected these spermatids into mouse eggs and produced pups. Sperm quantity and quality are the parameters in semen quality. Thus, in humans, it is a measure of fertility in a man, the genetic quality of sperm, as well as its volume and motility, all typically decrease with age. Human sperm cells are vulnerable to free radical attack and the generation of oxidative DNA damage
Sperm
–
Sperm and egg fusing
Sperm
–
Diagram of a human sperm cell
Sperm
–
Human sperm stained for semen quality testing.
31.
Rhythm method
–
Calendar-based methods are various methods of estimating a womans likelihood of fertility, based on a record of the length of previous menstrual cycles. Various methods are known as the Knaus–Ogino method and the rhythm method, the standard days method is also considered a calendar-based method, because when using it, a woman tracks the days of her menstrual cycle without observing her physical fertility signs. These methods may be used to achieve pregnancy by timing unprotected intercourse for days identified as fertile, the first formalized calendar-based method was developed in 1930 by John Smulders, a Roman Catholic physician from the Netherlands. It was based on knowledge of the menstrual cycle and this method was independently discovered by Hermann Knaus, and Kyusaku Ogino. This system was a form of birth control available to Catholic couples for several decades. A new development in calendar-based methods occurred in 2002, when Georgetown University introduced the Standard Days Method. The Standard Days Method is promoted in conjunction with a product called CycleBeads, some sources may treat the terms rhythm method and fertility awareness as synonymous. However, fertility awareness is usually used as a term that includes tracking basal body temperature. The World Health Organization considers the rhythm method to be a type of calendar-based method. More effective than calendar-based methods, systems of fertility awareness that track basal body temperature, cervical mucus, teachers of symptoms-based methods take care to distance their systems from the poor reputation of the rhythm method. Many consider the method to have been obsolete for at least 20 years. Some sources may treat the terms rhythm method and natural family planning as synonymous, in the early 20th century, the calendar-based method known as the rhythm method was promoted by members of the Roman Catholic Church as the only morally acceptable form of family planning. Methods accepted by this church are referred to as family planning, so at one time. Today, NFP is a term that includes symptoms-based fertility awareness methods. This overlap between uses of the terms the rhythm method and natural family planning may contribute to confusion, the term the rhythm method is sometimes used, in error, to describe the behavior of any people who have unprotected vaginal intercourse, yet wish to avoid pregnancy. The first day of bleeding is considered day one of the menstrual cycle and it is not known if historical cultures were aware of what part of the menstrual cycle is most fertile. In the year 388, Augustine of Hippo wrote of periodic abstinence, if the Manichaieans practiced something like the Jewish observances of menstruation, then the time. After her purification would have indeed been when a woman, similarly, a Chinese sex manual written close to the year 600 stated that only the first five days following menstruation were fertile
Rhythm method
–
A
CycleBeads birth control chain, used for a rough estimate of fertility based on days since menstruation
Rhythm method
–
An illustration to be used by women whose menstrual cycles are usually between 26 and 32 days in length
32.
Conjecture
–
In mathematics, a conjecture is a conclusion or proposition based on incomplete information, for which no proof has been found. Conjectures such as the Riemann hypothesis or Fermats Last Theorem have shaped much of history as new areas of mathematics are developed in order to prove them. In number theory, Fermats Last Theorem states that no three positive integers a, b, and c can satisfy the equation an + bn = cn for any value of n greater than two. This theorem was first conjectured by Pierre de Fermat in 1637 in the margin of a copy of Arithmetica where he claimed he had a proof that was too large to fit in the margin. The first successful proof was released in 1994 by Andrew Wiles, the unsolved problem stimulated the development of algebraic number theory in the 19th century and the proof of the modularity theorem in the 20th century. It is among the most notable theorems in the history of mathematics, two regions are called adjacent if they share a common boundary that is not a corner, where corners are the points shared by three or more regions. For example, in the map of the United States of America, Utah and Arizona are adjacent, but Utah and New Mexico, möbius mentioned the problem in his lectures as early as 1840. The conjecture was first proposed on October 23,1852 when Francis Guthrie, while trying to color the map of counties of England, a number of false proofs and false counterexamples have appeared since the first statement of the four color theorem in 1852. The four color theorem was proven in 1976 by Kenneth Appel and it was the first major theorem to be proved using a computer. Appel and Hakens approach started by showing that there is a set of 1,936 maps. Appel and Haken used a computer program to confirm that each of these maps had this property. Additionally, any map that could potentially be a counterexample must have a portion that looks like one of these 1,936 maps, showing this required hundreds of pages of hand analysis. Appel and Haken concluded that no smallest counterexamples exists because any must contain, yet do not contain and this contradiction means there are no counterexamples at all and that the theorem is therefore true. Initially, their proof was not accepted by all mathematicians because the proof was infeasible for a human to check by hand. Since then the proof has gained acceptance, although doubts remain. The Hauptvermutung of geometric topology is the conjecture that any two triangulations of a triangulable space have a refinement, a single triangulation that is a subdivision of both of them. It was originally formulated in 1908, by Steinitz and Tietze and this conjecture is now known to be false. The non-manifold version was disproved by John Milnor in 1961 using Reidemeister torsion, the manifold version is true in dimensions m ≤3
Conjecture
–
The real part (red) and imaginary part (blue) of the Riemann zeta function along the critical line Re(s) = 1/2. The first non-trivial zeros can be seen at Im(s) = ±14.135, ±21.022 and ±25.011. The
Riemann hypothesis, a famous conjecture, says that all non-trivial zeros of the zeta function lie along the critical line.
33.
March of Dimes
–
The March of Dimes Foundation is a United States nonprofit organization that works to improve the health of mothers and babies. The organization was founded by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1938, as the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, the name March of Dimes was coined by Eddie Cantor. After use of the vaccine became widespread, the foundation expanded its focus to the prevention of birth defects and infant mortality. The organization began in 1938 as the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, in 1976 it became known as the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation. In 2007, the became the March of Dimes Foundation. The group was founded by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on January 3,1938, as a response to U. S. epidemics of polio, Roosevelt was himself diagnosed with polio in 1921, and it left him unable to move his legs. The foundation was an alliance between scientists and volunteers, with raising money to support research and education efforts. The National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis was a reconstitution of the Georgia Warm Springs Foundation, OConnor became the foundations president, a position he held for more than three decades. His first task was to create a network of chapters that could raise money and deliver aid. The name March of Dimes — a play on the radio and newsreel series, The March of Time — was coined by stage, screen. He inspired a nationwide fundraising campaign in the week preceding President Roosevelts birthday on January 30,1938, thousands of people mailed cards and letters, each containing a dime, to the White House. Cantors appeal collected more than $85,000 in what the press called a silver tide which actually swamped the White House. During the past few days bags of mail have been coming, literally by the load, to the White House. Yesterday between forty and fifty thousand letters came to the room of the White House. Today an even greater number — how many I cannot tell you — for we can estimate the actual count by counting the mail bags. In all the envelopes are dimes and quarters and even dollar bills — gifts from grown-ups, … It is glorious to have ones birthday associated with a work like this. The March of Dimes was the used for the foundations annual fundraising event that requested each child donate a dime. At the Christmas season, booths were set up in cities where the children could drop their dime in a slot and these were out on the street and sometimes not even overseen by anyone
March of Dimes
–
FDR's personal secretary
Missy LeHand with the 30,000 letters containing ten-cent contributions to the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis that arrived at the White House the morning of January 28, 1938
March of Dimes
–
FDR receives a $1 million check, proceeds from the first President's Birthday Ball (1934)
March of Dimes
–
Eleanor Roosevelt with celebrities invited to Washington, D.C., for the 1937 President's Birthday Ball
March of Dimes
–
FDR buys a certificate enrolling him as "Founder No. 1" of the new National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (1938)
34.
Chromosome
–
A chromosome is a DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. Prokaryotes usually have one single circular chromosome, whereas most eukaryotes are diploid, chromosomes in eukaryotes are composed of chromatin fiber. Chromatin fiber is made of nucleosomes, a nucleosome is a histone octamer with part of a longer DNA strand attached to and wrapped around it. Chromatin fiber, together with associated proteins is known as chromatin, chromatin is present in most cells, with a few exceptions, for example, red blood cells. Occurring only in the nucleus of cells, chromatin contains the vast majority of DNA, except for a small amount inherited maternally. Chromosomes are normally visible under a microscope only when the cell is undergoing the metaphase of cell division. Before this happens every chromosome is copied once, and the copy is joined to the original by a centromere resulting in an X-shaped structure, the original chromosome and the copy are now called sister chromatids. During metaphase, when a chromosome is in its most condensed state, in this highly condensed form chromosomes are easiest to distinguish and study. In prokaryotic cells, chromatin occurs free-floating in cytoplasm, as these cells lack organelles, the main information-carrying macromolecule is a single piece of coiled double-helix DNA, containing many genes, regulatory elements and other noncoding DNA. The DNA-bound macromolecules are proteins that serve to package the DNA, chromosomes vary widely between different organisms. Some species such as certain bacteria also contain plasmids or other extrachromosomal DNA and these are circular structures in the cytoplasm that contain cellular DNA and play a role in horizontal gene transfer. Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction plays a significant role in genetic diversity. In prokaryotes and viruses, the DNA is often densely packed and organized, in the case of archaea, by homologs to eukaryotic histones, small circular genomes called plasmids are often found in bacteria and also in mitochondria and chloroplasts, reflecting their bacterial origins. Some use the term chromosome in a sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells. However, others use the concept in a sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division. The word chromosome comes from the Greek χρῶμα and σῶμα, describing their strong staining by particular dyes, schleiden, Virchow and Bütschli were among the first scientists who recognized the structures now so familiar to everyone as chromosomes. The term was coined by von Waldeyer-Hartz, referring to the term chromatin, in a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s, Theodor Boveri gave the definitive demonstration that chromosomes are the vectors of heredity. His two principles were the continuity of chromosomes and the individuality of chromosomes and it is the second of these principles that was so original
Chromosome
–
Walter Sutton (left) and
Theodor Boveri (right) independently developed the chromosome theory of inheritance in 1902.
Chromosome
–
Diagram of a replicated and condensed
metaphase eukaryotic chromosome. (1)
Chromatid – one of the two identical parts of the chromosome after
S phase. (2)
Centromere – the point where the two chromatids touch. (3) Short arm. (4) Long arm.
Chromosome
Chromosome
–
Human chromosomes during
metaphase
35.
Testes
–
The testicle or testis is the male gonad in animals. Like the ovaries to which they are homologous, the testicles are components of both the system and the endocrine system. The primary functions of the testes are to produce sperm and to produce androgens, both functions of the testicle are influenced by gonadotropic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary. Luteinizing hormone results in testosterone release, the presence of both testosterone and follicle-stimulating hormone is needed to support spermatogenesis. Almost all healthy male vertebrates have two testicles and they are typically of similar size, although in sharks, that on the right side is usually larger, and in many bird and mammal species, the left may be the larger. The primitive jawless fish have only a single testis, located in the midline of the body, the testicles of a dromedary camel are 7–10 cm long,4.5 cm deep and 5 cm in width. The right testicle is often smaller than the left, the testicles of a male red fox attain their greatest weight in December–February. Spermatogenesis in male golden jackals occurs 10–12 days before the females enter estrus and, during this time, in mammals, the testes are often contained within an extension of the abdomen called the scrotum. In mammals with external testes it is most common for one testicle to hang lower than the other. While the size of the varies, it is estimated that 21. 9% of men have their higher testicle being their left. This is due to differences in the anatomical structure on the right. In healthy European adult humans, average volume is 18 cm³ per testis. The average testicle size after puberty measures up to around 2 inches long,0.8 inches in breadth, measurement in the living adult is done in two basic ways, comparing the testicle with ellipsoids of known sizes. Measuring the length, depth and width with a ruler, a pair of calipers or ultrasound imaging, the volume is then calculated using the formula for the volume of an ellipsoid, 4/3 π × × ×. Human testicles are smaller than chimpanzee testicles but larger than gorilla testicles, under a tough membranous shell, the tunica albuginea, the testis of amniotes and some teleost fish, contains very fine coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules. The tubules are lined with a layer of cells that from puberty into old age, the sperm move into the vas deferens, and are eventually expelled through the urethra and out of the urethral orifice through muscular contractions. Amphibians and most fish do not possess seminiferous tubules, instead, the sperm are produced in spherical structures called sperm ampullae. These are seasonal structures, releasing their contents during the breeding season, before the next breeding season, new sperm ampullae begin to form and ripen
Testes
–
Inner workings of the testicles.
Testes
–
Cross section of rabbit testis, photographed in bright field microscopy at 40× magnification.
Testes
–
A human testicle is being measured with an orchidometer and is typically 15 to 25 ml in volume.
Testes
–
Testicle
36.
Fertility clinic
–
Fertility clinics are medical clinics that assist couples, and sometimes individuals, who want to become parents but for medical reasons have been unable to achieve this goal via the natural course. Clinics apply a number of tests and sometimes very advanced medical treatments to achieve conceptions. Fertility clinics are staffed with trained personnel including reproductive endocrinologists, embryologists, sonographers, additional specialists from acupuncture, hypnotherapy, and nutrition may also be part of the team. Fertility clinics look to both males and females for diagnosis of fertility problems, diagnosis has shown that fertility problems arise 35% of the time from males, 35% from female, 20% from combined issues, and 10% from unexplained causes. They may also perform ultrasounds by a sonographer and advanced pregnancy tests, treatment may include ovulation induction, surgical interventions, artificial insemination, such as intrauterine insemination, in vitro fertilization, or the use of an egg donor or a sperm donor. In vitro fertilization is the most well known of the assisted reproductive technology procedures performed at a fertility clinic, the Centers for Disease Control requires outcome data be reported to the Society of Assisted Reproductive Technology which is the organization that compiles statistics. Fertility clinics are often compared by these IVF success rates, a consultation with many fertility clinics is always a good option to get a more complete comparison for a patients specific situation and needs. Medical dramas set in a fertility clinic include Inconceivable which ran for two episodes in 2005 before being cancelled, and The Family Man, a British series in three parts, furthermore, Private Practice is set in a clinic that offers fertility services to a large extent. Sperm bank Sperm donor Egg donor Surrogacy Third party reproduction Embryo donation Artificial insemination IVF Reproductive medicine
Fertility clinic
–
Fertility Clinic near
Chennai, India
37.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
38.
Demographic transition
–
The theory was proposed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson, who observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the previous 200 years. Most developed countries have completed the transition and have low birth rates. In addition, in the long term, the demographic transition should be reversed via evolutionary pressure for higher fertility. Scholars debate whether industrialization and higher incomes lead to population, or whether lower populations lead to industrialization. The theory is based on an interpretation of history developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson. Adolphe Landry of France made similar observations on demographic patterns and population growth potential around 1934, in the 1940s and 1950s Frank W. Notestein developed a more formal theory of demographic transition. By 2009, the existence of a correlation between fertility and industrial development had become one of the most widely accepted findings in social science. The transition involves four stages, or possibly five, in stage one, pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates are high and roughly in balance. All human populations are believed to have had this balance until the late 18th century, in fact, growth rates were less than 0. 05% at least since the Agricultural Revolution over 10,000 years ago. In stage two, that of a developing countr, the death rates drop quickly due to improvements in supply and sanitation. The improvements specific to food supply typically include selective breeding and crop rotation, other improvements generally include access to ovens, baking, and television. For example, numerous improvements in public health reduce mortality, especially childhood mortality, prior to the mid-20th century, these improvements in public health were primarily in the areas of food handling, water supply, sewage, and personal hygiene. One of the often cited is the increase in female literacy combined with public health education programs which emerged in the late 19th. In Europe, the death rate decline started in the late 18th century in northwestern Europe and spread to the south, without a corresponding fall in birth rates this produces an imbalance, and the countries in this stage experience a large increase in population. Population growth begins to level off, the birth rate decline in developed countries started in the late 19th century in northern Europe. It is important to note that birth rate decline is caused also by a transition in values, during stage four there are both low birth rates and low death rates. As the large group born during stage two ages, it creates a burden on the shrinking working population. Death rates may remain consistently low or increase slightly due to increases in lifestyle diseases due to low levels and high obesity
Demographic transition
–
A major factor in reducing birth rates in stage 3 countries such as Malaysia is the availability of family planning facilities, like this one in Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia.
Demographic transition
–
Demographic change in Sweden from 1735 to 2000. Red line: crude
death rate (CDR), blue line: (crude)
birth rate (CBR)
39.
Demographics of France
–
The demography of France is monitored by the Institut national détudes démographiques and the Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques. As of the 1 January 2017, almost 67 million people lived in the French Republic, including all the five overseas departments,64,859,000 of these lived in Metropolitan France, the part of France located in Europe. In March 2017 the population of France officially reached the 67 million mark, the 66 million mark was reached in the beginning of 2014. The population of France is growing with 1 million people every 3 years, for an average annual growth of 340,000 people, or a grow rate of +0, 6%. France was historically Europes most populous nation, during the Middle Ages, more than one quarter of Europes total population was French, by the 17th century, this had decreased slightly to one fifth. By the beginning of the 20th century, other European nations, such as Germany and Russia, had caught up with, however, the countrys population sharply increased with the baby boom following World War II. According to INSEE, since 2004,200,000 immigrants entered annually into the country, one out of two was born in Europe and one in three in Africa. Between 2009 and 2012, the number of Europeans entering France increased sharply, the national birth rate, after dropping for a time, began to rebound in the 1990s and currently the countrys fertility rate is close to the replacement level. According to a 2006 INSEE study, The natural increase is close to 300,000 people, a level that has not been reached in more than thirty years. Among the 802,000 newborns in metropolitan France in 2010,80. 1% had two French parents,13. 3% had one French parent, and 6. 6% had two non-French parents. For the same year,27. 3% of newborns in metropolitan France had at least one parent and 23. 9% had at least one parent born outside of Europe. Between 2006 and 2008, about 40% of newborns in France had one foreign-born grandparent, racial and ethnic censuses have been banned by the French government since 1978, since the term race in France invokes associations with Nazi Germany. France was historically the largest nation in Europe, during the Middle Ages more than one quarter of Europes population was French, by the 17th century it was still one fifth. Starting around 1800, the evolution of the population in France has been atypical in Europe. Unlike the rest of Europe, there was no population growth in France in the 19th. The birth rate in France diminished much earlier than in the rest of Europe, the slow growth of Frances population in the 19th century was reflected in the countrys very low emigration rate. The French population only grew by 8. 6% between 1871 and 1911, while Germanys grew by 60% and Britains by 54%, ferdinand Foch joked that the only way for France to permanently improve its relationship with Germany was to castrate 20 million Germans. If Frances population had grown at the rate as that of England
Demographics of France
–
With a
total fertility rate of 2.01 (in 2012), France is the most fertile country in the
European Union, similar to the Republic of Ireland.
Demographics of France
–
Two centuries of population growth
40.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
41.
Patriotism
–
Patriotism is an attachment to a homeland. This attachment can be viewed in terms of different features relating to ones own homeland, including ethnic and it encompasses a set of concepts closely related to those of nationalism. An excess of patriotism in the defense of a nation is called chauvinism, the abstract noun patriotism appears in the early 18th century. The general notion of virtue and group dedication has been attested in culture globally throughout the historical period. For the Enlightenment thinkers of 18th-century Europe, loyalty to the state was considered in contrast to loyalty to the Church. It was argued that clerics should not be allowed to teach in schools since their patrie was heaven. One of the most influential proponents of this notion of patriotism was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Enlightenment thinkers also criticized what they saw as the excess of patriotism, in 1774, Samuel Johnson published The Patriot, a critique of what he viewed as false patriotism. On the evening of 7 April 1775, he made the famous statement, however, there is no direct evidence to contradict the widely held belief that Johnsons famous remark was a criticism of patriotism itself. Patriotism is the will of the members of a country to support the country, Patriotism may be strengthened by adherence to a national religion. This is the opposite of the separation of church and state demanded by the Enlightenment thinkers who saw patriotism and faith as similar and opposed forces. Michael Billig and Jean Bethke Elshtain have both argued that the difference between patriotism and faith is difficult to discern and relies largely on the attitude of the one doing the labelling. Wellman calls this position patriotist rather than nationalist to single out the members of territorial, political units rather than cultural groups, marxists have taken various stances regarding patriotism. On one hand, Karl Marx famously stated that The working men have no country, the same view is promoted by present-day Trotskyists such as Alan Woods, who is in favour of tearing down all frontiers and creating a socialist world commonwealth. On the other hand, Stalinists and Maoists are usually in favour of socialist patriotism based on the theory of socialism in one country. Several surveys have tried to measure patriotism for various reasons, such as the Correlates of War project which found some correlation between war propensity and patriotism, the results from different studies are time dependent. For example, patriotism in Germany before World War I ranked at or near the top, since 1981, the World Values Survey explores peoples national values and beliefs and refer to the average answer for high income residents of a country to the question Are you proud to be. Charles Blatberg, From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics, Putting Practice First, craig Calhoun, Is it Time to Be Postnational. in Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights, Stephen May, Tariq Modood and Judith Squires
Patriotism
–
Allegory of Patriotism at the
Monument to the Fallen for Spain in
Madrid (1840), by sculptor Francisco Pérez del Valle.
Patriotism
–
An American poster with a patriotic theme (1917), issued by the U.S. Food Administration during World War I
42.
Demographic history of the United States
–
This article is about the demographic history of the United States. Note that the numbers do not include Native Americans until 1860. Most settlements were created by family groups with several generations often present in each settlement. Probably close to 80% of the owned the land they lived and farmed on. They nearly all used English Common Law as their code of law and, except for the Dutch and Germans. They established their own elected governments and courts and were, within a few years. Many new immigrants did end up on the frontiers as that was where the land was usually the cheapest, the New England colonists included more educated men as well as many skilled farmers, tradesmen and craftsmen. They were mostly farmers and settled in villages for common religious activity. Shipbuilding, commerce, and fisheries were important in coastal towns, New Englands healthy climate, and abundant food supply resulted in the lowest death rate and highest birth rate of any place in the world. The eastern and northern frontier around the initial New England settlements was mainly settled by the Yankee descendants of the original New Englanders. Emigration to the New England colonies after 1640 and the start of the English Civil War decreased to less than 1% in nearly all years prior to 1845. The rapid growth of the New England colonies was almost entirely due to the birth rate. The middle colonies settlements were scattered west of New York City, New York, the Dutch-started colony of New York had the most eclectic collection of residents from many different nations and prospered as a major trading and commercial center after about 1700. The Pennsylvania colonial center was dominated by the Quakers for decades after they emigrated there, mainly from the North Midlands of England and these settlers were of about 60% British and 33% German extraction. By 1780 in New York about 17% of the population were descendants of Dutch settlers, the rest were mostly English with a wide mixture of other Europeans and about 6% Blacks. New Jersey and Delaware had a majority of British with 7-11% German-descended colonists, about a 6% black population, nearly all were at least third-generation natives. The main drive of the economy in Virginia, Maryland and South Carolina was large plantations growing staples for export, especially tobacco, outside the plantations, land was farmed by independent farmers who rented from the proprietors, or owned it outright. They emphasized subsistence farming to food for their large families
Demographic history of the United States
–
Play media
Demographic history of the United States
43.
Birth control movement in the United States
–
While seeking legitimacy for the birth control movement partly through the approval of organized eugenics, Sanger and other activists also worked on the political front. Hoping to provoke a legal decision, Sanger deliberately broke the law by distributing The Woman Rebel. In 1916, Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in the United States, but the clinic was shut down by police. A major turning point for the movement came during World War I, the governments response included an anti-venereal disease campaign that framed sexual intercourse and contraception as issues of public health and legitimate topics of scientific research. Encouraged by the changing attitudes towards birth control, Sanger opened a second birth control clinic in 1923. Throughout the 1920s, public discussion of contraception became more commonplace, the widespread availability of contraception signaled a transition from the stricter sexual mores of the Victorian era to a more sexually permissive society. Legal victories in the 1930s continued to weaken anti-contraception laws, in 1942, the Planned Parenthood Federation of America was formed, creating a nationwide network of birth control clinics. The practice of birth control was common throughout the U. S. prior to 1914, longstanding techniques included the rhythm method, withdrawal, diaphragms, contraceptive sponges, condoms, prolonged breastfeeding, and spermicides. Use of contraceptives increased throughout the century, contributing to a 50 percent drop in the fertility rate in the United States between 1800 and 1900, particularly in urban regions. The only known survey conducted during the century of American womens contraceptive habits was performed by Clelia Mosher from 1892 to 1912. Although contraceptives were relatively common in middle-class and upper-class society, the topic was discussed in public. The book suggested that family planning was an effort. Owen recommended withdrawal, but he also discussed sponges and condoms and that book was followed by Fruits of Philosophy, The Private Companion of Young Married People, written in 1832 by Charles Knowlton, which recommended douching. Knowlton was prosecuted in Massachusetts on obscenity charges, and served three months in prison, Birth control practices were generally adopted earlier in Europe than in the United States. Knowltons book was reprinted in 1877 in England by Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, as the birth control societies spread across Europe, so did birth control clinics. The first birth control clinic in the world was established in the Netherlands in 1882, run by the Netherlands first female physician, the first birth control clinic in England was established in 1921 by Marie Stopes, in London. Many states also passed state laws, sometimes extending the federal law by outlawing the use of contraceptives. Comstock was proud of the fact that he was responsible for thousands of arrests
Birth control movement in the United States
–
Margaret Sanger leaving a courthouse in New York in 1917
Birth control movement in the United States
–
Robert Dale Owen wrote the first book on birth control published in the U.S.
Birth control movement in the United States
–
Anthony Comstock was responsible for many anti-contraception laws in the U.S.
Birth control movement in the United States
–
Margaret Sanger was a leader of the birth control movement
44.
Baby Boom
–
A baby boom is any period marked by a significant increase of birth rate. This demographic phenomenon is usually ascribed within certain geographical bounds, the causes of baby booms involves various fertility factors. The baby boom most often occurred in countries that experienced tremendous damage from the war and were going through dramatic economic hardships and these countries include Germany and Poland. In 1945 when the war ended, an amount of veterans returned home. In order to make this process as easy and comforting as possible, bill of Rights was to encourage home ownership and higher levels of education by having very low or no interest at all on loans for veterans. Getting settled in with a more comforting economic position allowed families to come together, have a place to live, be educated, now thriving on the American Dream, life was simple, jobs were plentiful, and a record number of babies were born. The U. S. birthrate exploded after World War II, from 1945 to 1961, more than 65 million children were born in the United States. At the height of this boom, a child was born every seven seconds. Historians say that the boom was the resultant of couples holding off on having children due to the Great Depression. Once the baby boom began, the average woman started getting married around the age of 20 instead of 22 and these couples were very eager to have babies after the war ended because they knew that the world would be a much better place to start a family. Another leading cause that led to the boom was that people were able to afford moving out to the suburbs to raise a family instead of living in the heart of the city. Additionally, the cost of living out in the suburbs was very cheap and this was also the time period where women were encouraged to take on their roles, meaning that they were encouraged to stay home and be a housewife along with being a mother while the husband works. The market became a sellers market, many families were adapting to popular culture changes that included purchasing TVs, opening credit card accounts, and little things like buying mouse ears to wear while watching Mickey Mouse. Overall, the boom time period was a blessing but it also had its flaws once economists realized how many children were being born. People began to worry if there would be enough resources available, the issues of the baby boom time period are that it could hugely impact the population change and cause social and economic impacts. One of the impact of the baby boom is the concern that when baby boomers get older and retire. The economics of an area or country could benefit from the baby boom and it could increase the demand of housing, transportation, facilities and more for the increasing population. With an increase in population, the demand for food also increased, if a country can not keep up with the rapidly increasing population, it could cause a food shortage and insufficient health care facilities to take care of babies
Baby Boom
–
United States birth rate (births per 1000 population per year). The
United States Census Bureau defines the demographic birth boom as between 1946 and 1964 (red).
45.
Fertilization
–
The cycle of fertilisation and development of new individuals is called sexual reproduction. During double fertilisation in angiosperms the haploid male gamete combines with two polar nuclei to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus by the process of vegetative fertilisation. In 1784, Spallanzani established the need of interaction between the females ovum and males sperm to form a zygote, oscar Hertwig, in Germany, described the fusion of nuclei of spermatozoa and of ova from sea urchin. In flowering plants there are two sperm from each pollen grain, in seed plants, after pollination, a pollen grain germinates, and a pollen tube grows and penetrates the ovule through a tiny pore called a micropyle. The sperm are transferred from the pollen through the pollen tube, bryophyte is a traditional name used to refer to all embryophytes that do not have true vascular tissue and are therefore called non-vascular plants. Some bryophytes do have specialised tissues for the transport of water, however, since these do not contain lignin, a fern is a member of a group of roughly 12,000 species of vascular plants that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular and they have stems and leaves, like other vascular plants. Most ferns have what are called fiddleheads that expand into fronds, the gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, Cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. The term gymnosperm comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος, meaning naked seeds and their naked condition stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants, which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, often modified to form cones, the pollen tube does not directly reach the ovary in a straight line. It travels near the skin of the style and curls to the bottom of the ovary, then near the receptacle, it breaks through the ovule through the micropyle, after being fertilised, the ovary starts to swell and develop into the fruit. With multi-seeded fruits, multiple grains of pollen are necessary for syngamy with each ovule, the growth of the pollen tube is controlled by the vegetative cytoplasm. The sperms are interconnected and dimorphic, the one, in a number of plants, is also linked to the tube nucleus and the interconnected sperm. Double fertilisation is the process in angiosperms in which two sperm from each pollen tube fertilise two cells in a gametophyte that is inside an ovule. After the pollen tube enters the gametophyte, the tube nucleus disintegrates. This is the point when fertilisation actually occurs, pollination and fertilisation are two separate processes, the nucleus of the other sperm cell fuses with two haploid polar nuclei in the centre of the gametophyte. This triploid cell divides through mitosis and forms the endosperm, a nutrient-rich tissue, the two central-cell maternal nuclei that contribute to the endosperm arise by mitosis from the single meiotic product that also gave rise to the egg. Therefore, maternal contribution to the constitution of the triploid endosperm is double that of the embryo
Fertilization
–
Sperm and ovum fusing
Fertilization
–
In the
Bryophyte land plants, fertilization takes place within the
archegonium. This
moss has been
genetically modified so that the unfertilized egg within the archegonium produces a blue colour.
Fertilization
–
Red-veined darters (
Sympetrum fonscolombii) flying "in cop" (male ahead), enabling the male to prevent other males from mating. The eggs are fertilised as they are laid, one at a time.
46.
Family planning
–
Family planning is the practice of controlling the number of children in a family and the intervals between their births, particularly by means of artificial contraception or voluntary sterilization. Because family is included in the name, consideration of a couples desire to bear children. Family planning may involve consideration of the number of children a woman wishes to have, including the choice to have no children, if sexually active, family planning may involve the use of contraception and other techniques to control the timing of reproduction. Other techniques commonly used include sexuality education, prevention and management of sexually transmitted infections, pre-conception counseling and management, Family planning is sometimes used as a synonym or euphemism for access to and the use of contraception. However, it often involves methods and practices in addition to contraception and it is most usually applied to a female-male couple who wish to limit the number of children they have and/or to control the timing of pregnancy. Family planning may encompass sterilization, as well as abortion, raising a child requires significant amounts of resources, time, social, financial, and environmental. Planning can help assure that resources are available, the purpose of family planning is to make sure that any couple, man, or woman who has the desire to have a child has the resources that are needed in order to complete this goal. With these resources a couple, man or women can explore the options of natural birth, surrogacy, artificial insemination, the WHO states about maternal health that, Maternal health refers to the health of women during pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. While motherhood is often a positive and fulfilling experience, for too many women it is associated with suffering, ill-health, about 99% of maternal deaths occur in less developed countries, > ½ occur in sub-Saharan Africa and almost ⅓ in South Asia. Both early and late motherhood have increased risks, young teenagers face a higher risk of complications and death as a result of pregnancy. Waiting until the mother is at least 18 years old before trying to have children improves maternal and child health. Also, if children are desired after a child is born, it is healthier for the mother. After a miscarriage or abortion, it is healthier to wait at least 6 months, when planning a family, women should be aware that reproductive risks increase with the age of the woman. The risk of prolonged labor is higher, older mothers have a higher risk of a long labor, putting the baby in distress. Family planning benefits the health and well-being of women and families throughout the world, using contraception can help to avoid unwanted pregnancies and space births, protect against STDs, including HIV/AIDS, and provide other health benefits. Modern methods of family planning include birth control, assisted reproductive technology and family planning programs. The use of methods of contraception is an important basis for improving the long-term health of adolescent girls. ”In cases where couples may not want to have children just yet. Federal family planning programs reduced childbearing among poor women by as much as 29 percent, adoption is sometimes used to build a family
Family planning
–
Combined oral contraceptives. Introduced in 1960, "the Pill" has played an instrumental role in family planning for decades.
Family planning
–
Placard showing negative effects of missing family planning (Ethiopia)
Family planning
–
Placard showing positive effects of family planning (Ethiopia)
Family planning
–
A family planning facility in Kuala Terengganu,
Malaysia
47.
Fertility deity
–
A fertility deity is a god or goddess associated with sex, fertility, pregnancy, and childbirth. In some cases these deities are associated with these experiences. Fertility rites may accompany their worship, the following is a list of fertility deities. Anahit, goddess of fertility, birth, beauty and water Aramazd, creator-god and source of the Earths fertility Tonacatecuhtli, coatlicue, goddess of fertility, life, death and rebirth. Chimalma, goddess of fertility, life, death and rebirth, xochitlicue, goddess of fertility, life, death and rebirth. Xochipilli, god of love, art, games, beauty, dance, flowers, maize, fertility, xochiquetzal, goddess of fertility, beauty, female sexual power, protection of young mothers, pregnancy, childbirth, and womens crafts. Toci, is the Mother of the Men, see Temazcalteci Temazcalteci, see Intercession of saints and Hagiography for details about those aspects of Catholic doctrine. Parvati, goddess associated with fertility, marital felicity, devotion to the spouse, asceticism, freyr, god associated with farming, weather and fertility Frigg, goddess associated with prophecy, marriage and childbirth Gefjun, goddess of ploughing and possibly fertility Odin The allfather. God of war, wisdom and seiðr Thor, god associated with thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, yúcahu, masculine spirit of fertility along with his mother Atabey who was his feminine counterpart
Fertility deity
–
Coatlicue, Aztec goddess of fertility, life, death and rebirth
Fertility deity
–
Min, ancient Egyptian god of fertility and lettuce
Fertility deity
–
Priapus, Greek god of fertility, gardens and male genitalia
Fertility deity
–
Parvati
48.
Oncofertility
–
Oncofertility is a subfield that bridges oncology and reproductive research to explore and expand options for the reproductive future of cancer survivors. The name was coined in 2006 by Teresa K. Woodruff at the Oncofertility Consortium, with 10% of cancer patients being younger than age 40, this issue affects more than 135,000 people in the United States each year. As cancer survivorship increases, the preservation of fertility in women, men, the ability to easily preserve fertility prior to cancer treatment can provide hope at the time of diagnosis for families later in life. Oncofertility also incorporates reproductive issues after cancer treatment, such as planning, complex contraception, hormonal management throughout survivorship, surrogacy. Experimental options include testicular tissue banking when testicular tissue is surgically removed, scientists are developing methods to use this tissue for fertility preservation in males. Options for women to have children after cancer have increased significantly in recent years and these techniques do not protect against the effects of chemotherapy. Experimental techniques include ovarian tissue banking in which an ovary is surgically removed, scientists are also working on ways to mature undeveloped eggs from this ovarian tissue. After sterilizing cancer treatment, a woman can also choose surrogacy or adoption, recent efforts also investigate the implications of a cancer diagnosis during pregnancy. Prepubescent children have fewer options to preserve fertility than adults and these include testicular sperm extraction for males and ovarian tissue banking for females. Fertility preservation costs may be prohibitive for young patients and multiple organizations now provide methods to reduce costs for patients and these include Fertile Hope and Fertile Action. The Supreme Court of the United States addressed the Social Security implications of oncofertility in March 2012 with Astrue v. Capato, research also investigates ethical issues in oncofertility, such as the decision-making process for adolescent children and their families. Oncofertility Consortium MyOncofertility SaveMyFertility Fertility Preservation Patient Navigator
Oncofertility
–
Placing ovarian tissue strips into the preserving solution
Oncofertility
–
Cryopreserving ovarian tissue strips
49.
Reproductive health
–
Individuals do face inequalities in reproductive health services. Inequalities vary based on status, education level, age, ethnicity, religion. It is possible for example, that low income individuals lack the resources for health services. The WHO assessed in 2008 that Reproductive and sexual ill-health accounts for 20% of the burden of ill-health for women. Reproductive health is a part of sexual and reproductive health and rights, Women bear and usually nurture children, so their reproductive health is inseparable from gender equality. Denial of such rights also worsens poverty, Reproductive health should be looked at through a lifecycle approach as it affects both men and women from infancy to old age. According to UNFPA, reproductive health at any age profoundly affects health later in life, as such, services such as health and education systems need to be strengthened and availability of essential health supplies such as contraceptives and medicines must be supported. For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the rights of all persons must be respected, protected and fulfilled. However, while used by WHO as well as organizations, this is not an official WHO position. Emerging research in the field of sexual and reproductive health identifies a series of factors that enhance the translation of research into policy and these include discursive changes, content changes, procedural changes and behavioural changes. Early childbearing and other behaviours can have health risks for women, waiting until a woman is at least 18 years old before trying to have children improves maternal and child health. After a fetal fatality, it is healthier to wait at least 6 months, most of these deaths can be avoided with improving womens access to quality care from a skilled birth attendant before, during and after pregnancy and childbirth. Modern contraception is often unavailable in parts of the world. In developing parts of the world, the lack of access to contraception is a cause of unintended pregnancy. According to UNFPA, access to services for all women could prevent about one in three deaths related to pregnancy and childbirth. The practice is concentrated in 29 countries in Africa and the Middle East, FGM also takes place in immigrant communities in Western countries, such as the UK. FGM procedures that seal or narrow a vaginal opening lead to a need for future surgeries of cutting open in order to allow for sexual intercourse, common STIs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes, HIV, hepatitis B, human papillomavirus, syphilis, and trichomoniasis. Sexually transmitted infections affect reproductive and sexual health, having a negative impact worldwide
Reproductive health
–
Prevalence of FGM by country, according to a 2013 UNICEF report
. PMID 23517858. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.02.040.
