1.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
United States Army
–
The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
3.
Fort Sill
–
Fort Sill, Oklahoma is a United States Army post north of Lawton, Oklahoma, about 85 miles southwest of Oklahoma City. Today, Fort Sill remains the only active Army installation of all the forts on the Southern Plains built during the Indian Wars, Fort Sill is also one of the four locations for Army Basic Combat Training. It has played a significant role in every major American conflict since 1869, sheridans massive winter campaign involved six cavalry regiments accompanied by frontier scouts such as Buffalo Bill Cody, Wild Bill Hickok, Ben Clark and Jack Stilwell. At first, the garrison was called Camp Wichita and was referred to by the Indians as the Soldier House at Medicine Bluffs. Sheridan later named it in honor of his West Point classmate and friend, Brigadier General Joshua W. Sill, the first post commander was Brevet Maj. Gen. Benjamin Grierson and the first Indian agent was Colonel Albert Gallatin Boone, grandson of Daniel Boone. Fort Sill soldiers were restricted from taking action against the Indians. The Indians resumed raiding the Texas frontier and used Fort Sill as a sanctuary, in 1871, General of the Army William Tecumseh Sherman arrived at Fort Sill from Fort Richardson, Texas, while on a tour of Army posts throughout the country. Sherman was at Fort Richardson when they became aware of the Warren Wagon Train Raid, soon after Sherman arrived at Fort Sill, the Indian Agent brought several Kiowa chiefs to tell their story about attacking the wagon train. When Sherman ordered their arrest during a meeting on Griersons porch, in memory of the event, the Commanding Generals quarters were dubbed Sherman House. The Army arrested three chiefs during the skirmish, Satank, Satanta and Addo-etta. Sherman ordered them to Texas for a trial for the murders. When the three were put into a wagon and taken under escort to Fort Richardson, Satank began his death song. A mile down the trail, he grabbed the carbine of one of the troopers in the wagon, before he could cock and fire it, he was hit by several shots fired by the escort. Satank was left against a tree and the continued on its mission. A marker on Berry Road near the curve marks the spot where Satank and his grave is in Chiefs Knoll in the post cemetery. Satanta and Addo-etta were tried by Texas courts on 5 and 6 July and they were sentenced to death by hanging. Supporters of the Quaker peace policy convinced Governor Edmund J. Davis to commute the Indians sentences to life imprisonment, then in October 1873 they were paroled. In June 1874, the Comanches, Kiowas and Southern Cheyennes engaged in the Red River War, lasting a year, it was a war of attrition involving relentless pursuit by converging military columns
4.
Oklahoma
–
Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central United States. Oklahoma is the 20th-most extensive and the 28th-most populous of the 50 United States, the states name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma, meaning red people. The name was settled upon statehood, Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were merged, on November 16,1907, Oklahoma became the 46th state to enter the union. Its residents are known as Oklahomans, or informally Okies, and its capital, a major producer of natural gas, oil, and agricultural products, Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology. In 2007, it had one of the economies in the United States, ranking among the top states in per capita income growth. Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahomas primary economic anchors, with nearly two-thirds of Oklahomans living within their metropolitan statistical areas. With small mountain ranges, prairie, mesas, and eastern forests, most of Oklahoma lies in the Great Plains, Cross Timbers, interior Highlands—a region especially prone to severe weather. The name Oklahoma comes from the Choctaw phrase okla humma, literally meaning red people, equivalent to the English word Indian, okla humma was a phrase in the Choctaw language used to describe Native American people as a whole. Oklahoma later became the de facto name for Oklahoma Territory, and it was approved in 1890. Oklahoma is the 20th-largest state in the United States, covering an area of 69,898 square miles and it is one of six states on the Frontier Strip and lies partly in the Great Plains near the geographical center of the 48 contiguous states. It is bounded on the east by Arkansas and Missouri, on the north by Kansas, on the northwest by Colorado, on the far west by New Mexico, much of its border with Texas lies along the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen, a failed continental rift. The geologic figure defines the placement of the Red River, the Oklahoma panhandles Western edge is out of alignment with its Texas border. The Oklahoma/New Mexico border is actually 2.1 to 2.2 miles east of the Texas line, the border between Texas and New Mexico was set first as a result of a survey by Spain in 1819. It was then set along the 103rd Meridian, in the 1890s, when Oklahoma was formally surveyed using more accurate surveying equipment and techniques, it was discovered the Texas line was not set along the 103rd Meridian. Surveying techniques were not as accurate in 1819, and the actual 103rd Meridian was approximately 2.2 miles to the east and it was much easier to leave the mistake than for Texas to cede land to New Mexico to correct the surveying error. The placement of the Oklahoma/New Mexico border represents the true 103rd Meridian, cimarron County in Oklahomas panhandle is the only county in the United States that touches four other states, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado and Kansas. Its highest and lowest points follow this trend, with its highest peak, Black Mesa, at 4,973 feet above sea level, situated near its far northwest corner in the Oklahoma Panhandle. The states lowest point is on the Little River near its far southeastern boundary near the town of Idabel, Oklahoma, which dips to 289 feet above sea level
5.
Saint Barbara
–
Saint Barbara, Feast Day December 4, known in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the Great Martyr Barbara, was an early Christian Greek saint and martyr. Accounts place her in the 3rd century in the Greek city Nicomedia, present-day Turkey or in Heliopolis of Phoenicia, present-day Baalbek, there is no reference to her in the authentic early Christian writings nor in the original recension of Saint Jeromes martyrology. Her name can be traced to the 7th century, and veneration of her was common, especially in the East, from the 9th century. Because of doubts about the historicity of her legend, she was removed from the General Roman Calendar in the 1969 revision, Saint Barbara is often portrayed with miniature chains and a tower. Many of the thirteen miracles in a 15th-century French version of her turn on the security she offered that her devotees would not die without making confession. Having secretly become a Christian, she rejected an offer of marriage that she received through him, dioscorus, in pursuit of his daughter, was rebuffed by the first shepherd, but the second betrayed her and was turned to stone and his flock changed to locusts. Dragged before the prefect of the province, Martinianus, who had her cruelly tortured, during the night, the dark prison was bathed in light and new miracles occurred. Every morning her wounds were healed, torches that were to be used to burn her went out as soon as they came near her. Finally she was condemned to death by beheading and her father himself carried out the death-sentence. However, as punishment for this, he was struck by lightning on the way home, Barbara was buried by a Christian, Valentinus, and her tomb became the site of miracles. Williams of the Anglican Community of the Resurrection, the name of Saint Barbara was known in Rome in the 7th century, her cult can be traced to the 9th century, at first in the East. Since there is no mention of her in the earlier martyrologies and her legend is included in Vincent of Beauvais Speculum historiale and in later versions of the Golden Legend. Various versions, which include two surviving plays, differ on the location of her martyrdom, which is variously given as Tuscany, Rome, Antioch, Baalbek. Saint Barbara is one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers and her association with the lightning that killed her father has caused her to be invoked against lightning and fire, by association with explosions, she is also the patron of artillery and mining. Her feast on December 4 was included in the Tridentine Calendar, in 1729, that date was assigned to the celebration of Saint Peter Chrysologus, reducing that of Saint Barbara to a commemoration in his Mass. In 1969, because the accounts of her life and martyrdom were judged to be entirely fabulous, lacking clarity even about the place of her martyrdom, but she is still mentioned in the Roman Martyrology, which, in addition, lists another ten martyr saints named Barbara. A small part of St. Andrew Ukrainian Orthodox Cathedral in Bloomingdale and her feast day for Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Anglicans is December 4. Saint Barbara became the saint of artillerymen
6.
Henry Knox
–
Henry Knox was a military officer of the Continental Army and later the United States Army, who also served as the first United States Secretary of War from 1789 to 1794. Born and raised in Boston, Massachusetts, he owned and operated a bookstore there, cultivating an interest in military history and joining a local artillery company. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, he befriended General George Washington, in this role he accompanied Washington on most of his campaigns, and had some involvement in many major actions of the war. He established training centers for artillerymen and manufacturing facilities for weaponry that were valuable assets to the fledgling nation, following the adoption of the United States Constitution, he became President Washingtons Secretary of War. In this role he oversaw the development of coastal fortifications, worked to improve the preparedness of local militia, Knoxs idealistic views on the subject were frustrated by ongoing illegal settlements and fraudulent land transfers involving Indian lands. He retired to what is now Thomaston, Maine, in 1795 and he died in 1806 from an infection he contracted after swallowing a chicken bone, leaving an estate that was bankrupt. Henry Knoxs parents, William and Mary, were of Scotch-Irish origin and his father was a ship builder who, due to financial reverses, left the family for St Eustatius in the West Indies where he died in 1762 of unknown causes. Henry was admitted to the Boston Latin School, where he studied Greek, Latin, arithmetic, since he was the oldest son still at home when his father died, he left school at the age of 12 and became a clerk in a bookstore to support his mother. The shops owner, Nicholas Bowes, became a father figure for the boy, allowing him to browse the shelves of the store. The inquisitive future war hero, when he was not running errands, taught himself French, learned some philosophy and advanced mathematics and he immersed himself in literature from a tender age. However, Knox was also involved in Bostons street gangs, becoming one of the toughest fighters in his neighborhood, impressed by a military demonstration, at 18 he joined a local artillery company called The Train. On March 5,1770 Knox was a witness to the Boston massacre, according to his affidavit, he attempted to defuse the situation, trying to convince the British soldiers to return to their quarters. He also testified at the trials of the soldiers, in which all, in 1771 he opened his own bookshop, the London Book Store, in Boston opposite Williams Court in Cornhill. The store was, in the words of a contemporary, a resort for the British officers and Tory ladies. Boasting an impressive selection of excellent English products and managed by a friendly proprietor, as a bookseller, Knox built strong business ties with British suppliers and developed relationships with his customers, but he retained his childhood aspirations. Largely self-educated, he stocked books on science, and also questioned soldiers who frequented his shop in military matters. The genial giant initially enjoyed reasonable success, but his profits slumped after the Boston Port Bill. In 1772 he cofounded the Boston Grenadier Corps as an offshoot of The Train, shortly before his 23rd birthday Knox accidentally discharged a shotgun, shooting two fingers off his left hand
7.
United States Army Coast Artillery Corps
–
The U. S. Army Coast Artillery Corps was a corps level organization responsible for coastal, harbor, and anti-aircraft defense of the United States between 1901 and 1950. The CAC also operated heavy and railway artillery during World War I, as early as 1882 the need for heavy fixed artillery for seacoast defense was noted in Chester A. In 1885 the Endicott Board was convened under the subsequent Grover Cleveland administration and this board recommended a large-scale program of harbor defenses at 29 ports, including guns, mortars, and mine fields. Most of their recommendations were implemented and new defenses were constructed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers 1895-1905, as the defenses were constructed, each harbor or rivers installations were controlled by Artillery Districts, renamed Coast Defense Commands in 1913 and Harbor Defense Commands in 1925. An extensive fire control system was developed and provided for the forts of each Coast Artillery District, Army leaders realized that heavy fixed artillery required different training programs and tactics than mobile field artillery. Prior to 1901 each of the seven artillery regiments contained both heavy and light artillery batteries, in February 1901 the Artillery Corps was divided into two types, field artillery and coast artillery. The previous seven artillery regiments were dissolved, and 30 numbered companies of artillery and 126 numbered companies of coast artillery were authorized. 82 existing heavy artillery batteries were designated as coast artillery companies, the company-based organization was for flexibility, as each harbor defense command was differently equipped and a task-based organization was needed. The Coast Artillery would alternate between small unit and regimental organization several times over its history, the head of the Artillery Corps became the Chief of Artillery in the rank of brigadier general with jurisdiction over both types of artillery. The Coast Artillery became responsible for the installation and operation of the mine fields that were planted to be under observation, fired electrically. The mine component was considered to be among the armament of coastal defense works. In 1905, after the experiences of the Spanish–American War, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a new board on fortifications and they updated some standards and reviewed the progress of the Endicott boards program. Most of the changes recommended by this board were technical, such as adding more searchlights, electrification, the board also recommended fortifications in territories acquired from Spain, Cuba and the Philippines, as well as Hawaii and a few other sites. Defenses in Panama were authorized by the Spooner Act of 1902, due to rapid development of the dreadnought battleship type, a new 14-inch gun was introduced in a few locations, primarily Los Angeles, the Philippines, and Panama. The Taft program fortifications differed slightly in construction and had fewer numbers of guns at a given location than those of the Endicott program. By the beginning of World War I, the United States had a defense system that was equal to any other nation. The rapidity of technological advances and changing techniques increasingly separated coastal defenses from field artillery, officers were rarely qualified to command both, requiring specialization. National Guard coast artillery units were formed by the states to attempt to bring the CAC up to strength in wartime
8.
Air Defense Artillery Branch (United States)
–
The Air Defense Artillery branch of the US Army specializes in anti-aircraft weapons. The Air Defense Artillery branch descended from Anti-Aircraft Artillery into a branch on 20 June 1968. On 1 December 1968, the ADA branch was authorized to wear modified Artillery insignia, according to the Armys Field Manual 44-100, the mission of Air Defense Artillery is to protect the force and selected geopolitical assets from aerial attack, missile attack, and surveillance. On 10 October 1917 an Antiaircraft Service in the American Expeditionary Force was created at Arnouville-Les-Gonesse where a school was established. These units were organized by Col. James A. Shipton but were disbanded in May 1918, the National Defense Act of 1920 formally assigned the air defense mission to the Coast Artillery Corps, and 4 battalions were organized in 1921. In 1924 under a reorganization of the Coast Artillery the battalions were reorganized as regiments. 203rd Coast Artillery MO. 206th Coast Artillery AR. 207th Coast Artillery N. Y. 211th Coast Artillery MA. 212th Coast Artillery N. Y. 213th Coast Artillery PA. 214th Coast Artillery GA, 251st Coast Artillery CA. 369th Coast Artillery N. Y. In 1938 there were only 5 Regular Army and thirteen National Guard regiments, in November 1942,781 battalions were authorized. However, this number was pared down to 331 battalions by the end of the war, by late 1944 the regiments had been broken up into battalions and 144 Antiaircraft Artillery Groups had been activated, some of these existed only briefly. On 9 March 1942 Antiaircraft Command was established in Washington D. C. Army Anti-Aircraft Command was created on 29 June 1950. The Army formed it to command the Army units allocated to the air defense of the Continental United States, ARAACOM was also charged with becoming the Army component of a joint continental defense force, if and when the joint force was designated. Eastern and Western Army Antiaircraft Commands were established with HQ at Stewart AFB, New York, Anti-Aircraft Command moved to Mitchel Air Force Base, New York on 1 November 1950. On 10 April 1951, the Commanding General assumed command of all AAA units allocated to continental air defense—six AW, nine 90-mm. battalions plus four brigade and seven Gp HQ, eight AAA Ops Det and 15 Signal radar detachments. On 24 April Central Army Anti-Aircraft Command was established with HQ at Kansas City and it was organized 1 May 1951. By 31 December controlling formations had grown to six brigades and 13 group headquarters, on 31 May 1955 EARAACOM was disestablished and personnel assigned to the 1st AAA Region. In 1955, numbering started to replace geographic locations to designate regions, the 1st, 2nd and 5th Regions now covered the area once called Eastern ARAACOM. In 1956, Western ARAACOM became 6th Region, and the following year, areas of responsibility between regions and brigades continued to shift throughout the life of the command. On March 21,1957, ARAACOM was renamed to US Army Air Defense Command, on 26 July 1960, ARADCOM activated a sixth region
9.
Artillery
–
Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company
10.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
11.
National Guard of the United States
–
All members of the National Guard of the United States are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by 10 U. S. C. National Guard units are under the control of the state. The majority of National Guard soldiers and airmen hold a civilian job full-time while serving part-time as a National Guard member, local militias were formed from the earliest English colonization of the Americas in 1607. The first colony-wide militia was formed by Massachusetts in 1636 by merging small older local units, the various colonial militias became state militias when the United States became independent. The title National Guard was used from 1824 by some New York State militia units, National Guard became a standard nationwide militia title in 1903, and specifically indicated reserve forces under mixed state and federal control from 1933. The first muster of militia forces in what is today the United States took place on September 16,1565, appropriately enough, this muster occurred in the shadow of an oncoming hurricane. This Spanish militia tradition and the English tradition that would be established to the north would provide the nucleus for Colonial defense in the New World. The militia tradition continued with the first permanent English settlements in the New World, Jamestown Colony and Plymouth Colony both had militia forces, which initially consisted of every able bodied adult male. By the mid-1600s every town had at least one militia company, as a result of the Spanish–American War, Congress was called upon to reform and regulate the training and qualification of state militias. The first national laws regulating the militia were the Militia acts of 1792, in 1903, with passage of the Dick Act, the predecessor to the modern-day National Guard was formed. It required the states to divide their militias into two sections, the law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, and Reserve Militia for all others. During World War I, Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916, Congress also authorized the states to maintain Home Guards, which were reserve forces outside the National Guards being deployed by the Federal Government. The National Guard of the states, territories, and the District of Columbia serves as part of the first-line of defense for the United States. C. Where the National Guard operates under the President of the United States or his designee, the governors exercise control through the state adjutants general. The National Guard may be called up for duty by the governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods. The National Guard is administered by the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity of the Army, the National Guard Bureau provides a communication channel for state National Guards to the DoD. S. C. The National Guard Bureau is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau, prior to 2008, the functions of Agricultural Development Teams were within Provincial Reconstruction Teams of the US Government. Today, ADTs consist of soldiers and airmen from the Army National Guard, today, ADTs bring an effective platform for enhanced dialogue, building confidence, sharing interests, and increasing cooperation amongst the disparate peoples and tribes of Afghanistan
12.
History of the United States Army
–
The history of the United States Army began in 1775. From its formation, the United States Army has been the land based part of the United States Armed Forces. The Armys primary responsibility has been the fighting of land battles, the Corps of Engineers has a major role in controlling rivers inside the United States. The Continental Army was founded in response to a need for professional soldiery in the American Revolutionary War in order to fight the invading British Army, until the 1940s, the Army was relatively small in peacetime. In 1947, the Air Force became completely independent from the Army Air Forces, the Army was under the control of the War Department until 1947, and the Defense Department since then. The U. S. Army fought the War of 1812, American Civil War, Spanish–American War, World War I, World War II, Korean War and Vietnam War. After the Cold War ended in 1991, the U. S. Army has focused on Western Asia, and was involved in the 1991 Gulf War and war in Iraq, and the war in Afghanistan. When the American Revolutionary War began in April 1775, the revolutionaries did not have an army. Previously, each colony had relied upon the militia, made up of part-time civilian-soldiers, the initial orders from Congress authorized ten companies of riflemen. The first full regiment of Regular Army infantry, the 3rd Infantry Regiment, was not formed until June 1784. During the War of 1812, an invasion of Canada failed, between 1815 and 1860, the main role of the U. S. Army was fighting Native Americans in the West in the American Indian Wars, and manning coast artillery stations at major ports. The U. S. used regular units and many units in the Mexican-American War of 1846-48. At the outset of the American Civil War, the regular U. S. Army was small, following the Civil War, the U. S. Army fought more wars with Native Americans, who resisted U. S. expansion into the center of the continent. A combined conscript and volunteer force, the National Army, was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I, during World War II, the Army of the United States was formed as a successor to the National Army. The end of World War II set the stage for the ideological confrontation known as the Cold War, with the outbreak of the Korean War, concerns over the defense of Western Europe led to the establishment of NATO. During the Cold War, American troops and their allies fought communist forces in Korea, the 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The Army converted to a force with greater emphasis on training. By 1989, the Cold War was coming to a close, the Army leadership reacted by starting to plan for a reduction in strength
13.
5th Field Artillery Regiment
–
The 5th Field Artillery Regiment was constituted as part of the Regular Army in January 1907. Individual battalions have lineages that date back further, as of 2013, only two battalions are active. Description A gold color metal and enamel device 1 inch in diameter which is an adaptation of the crest, symbolism The crest is that of the Hamilton family. Background The distinctive unit insignia was approved for the 5th Field Artillery Regiment on 21 January 1924. It was redesignated for the 5th Field Artillery Battalion on 13 September 1944, the insignia was cancelled on 19 April 1960. It was reinstated and authorized for the 5th Field Artillery Regiment effective 1 September 1971, blazon Shield, Gules the liberty bell Or between five arrows four point down in fess paleways and one in base fessways the latter broken Sable fimbriated Argent. On a chief embattled Vert fimbriated Argent a five-pointed mullet of the last. Crest, On a wreath of the colors Or and Gules, on a mount an oak tree fructed of 13 acorns and penetrated transversely in the stem by a frame saw Proper. Symbolism Shield, The shield is scarlet for Artillery, the Liberty Bell alludes to the Revolutionary War. The five arrows commemorate the Indian War campaign credit of old Company “F”, the embattled partition line refers to the ramparts of Chapultapec and denotes service during the Mexican War. The star, the insignia of the 12th Corps in which batteries of the regiment served, is representative of the Civil War, crest, The crest is that of the Hamilton family. Background, The coat of arms was approved for the 5th Field Artillery Regiment on 4 June 1924. It was redesignated for the 5th Field Artillery Battalion on 13 September 1944, the insignia was cancelled on 19 April 1960. It was reinstated and authorized for the 5th Field Artillery Regiment effective 1 September 1971, 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery is the oldest regular army unit on active duty. After participating in the victory at Yorktown, the unit was selected as the only Continental Army unit to remain on active duty status. Later the unit fought in the War of 1812, and in the Miami, Creek, Seminole, Little Big Horn, the unit also participated multiple campaigns in the Mexican War. Remaining loyal to the Union, Hamiltons Own fought valiantly in the Valley, Manassas, Antietam, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and the Virginia 1861 Campaigns. After earning a campaign streamer at Santiago, the 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery went to the Philippines and participated in the campaigns at Cavite, Luzon 1899, Samar 1900, an officer of the battalion, First Lieutenant Gruber composed the Caisson Song
14.
American Revolution
–
The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
15.
101st Field Artillery Regiment
–
The 101st Field Artillery regiment is the oldest field artillery regiment in the United States Army with a lineage dating to 13 December 1636 when it was organized as the South Regiment. For the first 250 years of the units existence it served in infantry formations, 101st Field Artillery Regiment was first formed on 13 December 1636 as the South Regiment by the Massachusetts General Court. Its first commander was Colonel John Winthrop, since its creation, the regiment has served in six colonial wars and nine American wars totalling 47 campaigns through 2010. Charlie Battery, 1st Battalion 101st Field Artillery holds the lineage of the 102nd Field Artillery, alpha Battery, 1st Battalion 101st Field Artillery is based in Fall River, Massachusetts. Bravo Battery is based in Waterbury, Vermont and is part of the Vermont National Guard. Charlie Battery, 1st Battalion 101st Field Artillery, re-activated in 2016, is based in Danvers, the battalion currently is the fires battalion for the 86th Infantry Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division. In the past twenty years, Echo Battery 101st FA has fallen under the 26th Division Artillery, the unit currently is the target acquisition battery for the 197th Field Artillery Brigade, New Hampshire National Guard. In August 1765, the regiment was activated to patrol the streets of Boston to help quell riots that broke out in response to the Stamp Act, in March 1770, elements of the regiment again patrolled the streets of Boston to enforce the law after the Boston Massacre. In 1786 during Shays Rebellion, members of the regiment protected judges, between July and October 1863, the regiment served in New York City to enforce draft laws after the New York Draft Riots. The regiment was called into service on 14 July 1863 during the Boston Draft riots. While manning the Cooper Street Armory in Bostons North End, the armory was attacked by over 1,000 rioters intent upon seizing the weapons stored there. When the mob penetrated the main gate, the soldiers opened fire killing and wounding dozens of rioters. The regiment was reviewed by President Andrew Johnson in 1867, President Ulysses S. Grant in 1869, the regiment took part in the funeral of President Ulysses S. Grant in 1885. From 16 June to 27 November 1916, the regiment was federalized and served in Texas during the Mexican Border crises. In May 1996, Detachment 1, Headquarters Battery, 101st Field Artillery Battalion was ordered to duty to serve with the Nordic-Polish Brigade in Bosnia in support of Operation Joint Endeavor. In May 1997, Echo Battery, 101st Field Artillery was activated and served throughout Bosnia in support of Operation Joint Guard and it also provides howitzers to fire during a Fourth of July concert in Plymouth, Massachusetts. Corporal Nathaniel M. Allen – Was awarded the Medal of Honor for saving the regimental colors from capture during the Battle of Gettysburg, major Asa M. Cook – first commander Light Artillery Company, 1st Brigade. He was the first Massachusetts National Guardsman killed in action after the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001, private Walter Brennan, three-time Academy Award–winning actor, served with the 101st in France in World War I
16.
Infantry Branch (United States)
–
The Infantry Branch is a branch of the United States Army first established in 1775. Ten companies of riflemen were authorized by a resolution of the Continental Congress on 14 June 1775, the Armys current regimental numbering system dates from this act. And after the Mexican–American War reduced back to pre war levels, 26th Infantry Regiment 27th Infantry Regiment 28th Infantry Regiment 29th Infantry Regiment 30th Infantry Regiment The Militia Act of 1903 established the National Guard. Airborne and Air Assault infantry battalions, are larger than the light and Ranger infantry battalions. Stryker and mechanized infantry units TO&Es are markedly different from each other as well as from the several sub-types of light infantry, an obvious difference is the requirement to allow for additional manpower and equipment to man, maintain, and service their respective vehicles. Marine Infantry In addition to the six types of US Army Infantry, described above, Marine infantry is essentially multi-purpose, heavily-manned and equipped, light infantry. Marine infantry battalions that are reinforced to form a Battalion Landing Team are also heavily supported with additional organic assets. This combat support includes, a field artillery battery, three reinforced armored vehicle platoons, and one platoon each of infantry reconnaissance and combat engineers. Additionally, some Marine infantrymen attend U. S. Army Airborne or Ranger training, however, since the USMC does not maintain either airborne or Ranger infantry units, only a relatively small number of Marines ever attend these two schools. Furthermore, while not designated as special forces, deployed Marine Expeditionary Units are certified as Special Operations Capable. S. Historical register and dictionary of the United States Army, from, Volume 1 By Francis Bernard Heitman Official U. S. bulletin, Volume 1 By United States. Committee on Public Information Encyclopedia of United States Army insignia and uniforms By William K. Emerson
17.
Armor Branch (United States)
–
The Armor Branch of the United States Army is an active combat arms branch. It was created provisionally in 1940 as Armored Force under Chief of the Armored Force, Brigadier General Adna R. Chaffee, Jr. even though the armor branch traces its lineage back to the original cavalry units, its first beginnings date from the First World War. The Tank Service of the National Army was formed on 5 March 1918. the Armored Force was formed on 10 July 1940 and became a permanent branch of the Army in 1950. The United States Army Armor School is now located at Fort Benning, ARMOR is the professional journal of the U. S. Army’s Armor Branch, published by the Chief of Armor at Fort Benning, GA. training center for the Army’s tank and cavalry forces. It is also one of the oldest publications in the U. S. S
18.
Mortar (weapon)
–
A mortar is a device that fires projectiles at low velocities and short ranges. The mortar has traditionally used as a weapon to propel explosive mortar bombs in high-arcing ballistic trajectories. The weapon is typically muzzle-loading with a short, often smooth-bore barrel, Modern mortars are light and easily portable. They can be used for fire support with a variety of ammunition. Mortars have been used for hundreds of years, originally in siege warfare, many historians consider the first mortars to have been used at the 1453 siege of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror. A European account of the 1456 siege of Belgrade by Giovanni da Tagliacozzo said that the Ottoman Turks used seven mortars that fired stone shots one Italian mile high. The time of flight of these was long enough that casualties could be avoided by posting observers to give warning of their trajectories. However, earlier mortars were used in Korea in a 1413 naval battle when Korean gunsmiths developed the Wangu, the earliest version of the Wangu dates back to 1407. Choe Hae-san, the son of Choe Mu-seon, is credited with inventing the first Wangu. Early mortars, such as the Pumhart von Steyr, were large and heavy. Simply made, these weapons were no more than iron bowls reminiscent of the kitchen, an early transportable mortar was invented by Baron Menno van Coehoorn. This mortar fired a shell, which had a fuse lit by the hot gases when fired. This innovation was taken up, necessitating a new form of naval ship. Mortars played a significant role in the Venetian conquest of Morea, an early use of these more mobile mortars as field weapons was by British forces in the suppression of the 1719 Jacobite rising at the Battle of Glen Shiel. High angle trajectory mortars held an advantage over standard field guns in the rough terrain of the West Highlands of Scotland. Coehorn-type mortars of approximately 180 pounds weight were used by both sides during the American Civil War and these answered as coehorns, and shells were successfully thrown from them into the trenches of the enemy. The mortar had fallen out of use by the Napoleonic era. The German Army studied the Siege of Port Arthur, where heavy artillery had been unable to destroy defensive structures like barbed wire, the solution they developed was a short-barrelled rifled muzzle-loading mortar called the Minenwerfer, and was built in three sizes
19.
United States Army Field Artillery School
–
The school further develops leaders who are tactically and technically proficient, develops and refines warfighting doctrine, and designs units capable of winning on future battlefields. The school is located at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. The mission of the Field Artillery is to destroy, defeat, the mission of the Field Artillery School, The U. S. The U. S. Army Field Artillery enables maneuver commanders to dominate in Unified Land Operations through effective targeting, integration, shield, Gules, a field piece of the 16th century paleways in plan Or. Crest, On a wreath of the colors the arm of Saint Barbara embowed clothed of the second, issuing from the portion of an embattled tower Argent. Symbolism, The shield is red for Artillery, the piece depicted. The crest is the arm of Saint Barbara, the saint of Artillery. Background, The device was approved for The Field Artillery School in 8 April 1926. It was redesignated for The Artillery School on 19 May 1954, on 11 September 1957 the device was redesignated for the U. S. On 13 February 1969 it was redesignated for the U. S. Field Artillery School, description/Blazon, On a scarlet shield edged with a 1/8 inch yellow border,3 inches in height and 2 inches in width overall, a yellow field piece. Symbolism, The ancient field piece is taken from the device of the Field Artillery School, as well as the colors scarlet, background, The shoulder sleeve insignia was originally approved on 17 July 1970 for the U. S. Army Field Artillery School. It was amended on 9 June 1981 to extend authorization for wear to personnel assigned to the U. S. Army Field Artillery Center. Description/Blazon, A gold color metal and enamel device 1 inch in height overall on a shield Gules, symbolism, The shield is red for Artillery, the field piece depicted, having been used in the 16th century, is the forerunner of the modern artillery. Background, The distinctive unit insignia was approved for the Field Artillery School on 29 March 1930. It was redesignated for the Artillery School on 19 May 1954, on 11 September 1957 the insignia was redesignated for the U. S. Army Artillery and Missile School. The distinctive unit insignia was redesignated for the U. S. Field Army Artillery School on 13 February 1969 and it was amended on 9 June 1981 to extend authorization for wear to personnel assigned to the U. S. Army Field Artillery Center. The origin of USAFAS can be traced back to the 1907 reorganization of the Artillery Corps, the 1907 reorganization created Coastal and Field Artillery Branches. In the process of reorganization, the Field Artillery was deprived of its former home at Fort Monroe
20.
Harry S. Truman
–
Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
21.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
23.
Dress uniform
–
See military uniform and full dress for wider coverage of dress uniforms. Dress uniform, is the most formal uniform, typically worn at ceremonies, official receptions. The dress uniform correspond to the white tie dress code. Uniform design may be distinct to a service, or to a Regiment or Branch of Service and they are a reminder of the military and law enforcement history of Argentina, especially during the early years of nationhood and the wars of independence that the country was a part. But the full uniform of the Argentine Army as a whole is green with a visor cap, epaulettes, sword set and scabbard, long green pants, a black belt. Marines wear peaked caps with the dress uniform, epaulettes are only worn with the dress uniform. For the Argentine Air Force, a uniform to one used by the Royal Air Force is used however the color used is much brighter. Regardless of service branch military police personnel wear helmets with their dress uniforms, Dress uniforms for regiments in the Canadian Army vary depending on the regiment. Regulations for the wear of uniforms are contained in the Canadian Forces publication Canadian Forces Dress Instructions, Dress uniforms in the Royal Canadian Navy follow protocols outlined in the Distinct Environmental Uniform introduced in the 1980s. The pith helmet remains in use for ceremonial parade positions only, the youth cadet programs in Canada, the Royal Canadian Army Cadets, Royal Canadian Sea Cadets and the Royal Canadian Air Cadets each maintain their own dress uniforms. The German Feldgrau uniforms are the full dress of the Chilean Army while cadets of the Army Military School Bernardo OHiggins Riquelme wear the Prussian blue uniform with a Pickelhaube helmet. Some Chilean Army units wear the Army uniform during the War of the Pacific during parades, the Chilean Navys officers dress uniform is naval blue with a visor hat, sword strap black pants and boots. The uniforms of the Naval School Arturo Prat is also blue with pants, but with a hat design, similar to those worn by Prat. The 2001 Air Force uniform is a blue polo and pants, black belt, sword strap, visor hat. As with many European countries, the French military used in the 19th, many traditional and heavily-decorated dress uniforms. Since World War Two, they are not in use and usually restricted to special Army. In the Army, only bands and schools have a dress uniform, the Republican Guard is the last unit to wear dress uniform as service uniform, as honor guard detachments are required to wear it while on duty. The cavalry regiment wear a 19th century dragoon uniform, with helmet and white riding trousers
24.
Iraq War
–
The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that toppled the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3–4 years of conflict and it became re-involved in 2014 at the head of a new coalition, the insurgency and many dimensions of the civil armed conflict continue. The invasion began on 20 March 2003, with the U. S. joined by the United Kingdom and several allies, launching a shock. Iraqi forces were overwhelmed as U. S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Baathist government, President Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year, the United States responded with a troop surge in 2007. The winding down of U. S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama, the U. S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011. Select U. S. officials accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship, after the invasion, no substantial evidence was found to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced heavy criticism within the U. S. in the aftermath of the invasion, Iraq held multi-party elections in 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014, the al-Maliki government enacted policies that were widely seen as having the effect of alienating the countrys Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. The Iraq War caused hundreds of thousands of civilian, and thousands of military casualties, the majority of casualties occurred as a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. A1990 Frontline report on The arming of Iraq said, Officially, most Western nations participated in an arms embargo against Iraq during the 1980s. Western companies, primarily in Germany and Great Britain, but also in the United States, sold Iraq the key technology for its chemical, missile, any Western governments seemed remarkably indifferent, if not enthusiastic, about those deals. N Washington, the government consistently followed a policy which allowed and perhaps encouraged the growth of Saddam Husseins arsenal. The Western arming of Iraq took place in the context of the Iran-Iraq War, prior to September 2002, the CIA was the George W. Bush administrations main provider of intelligence on Iraq. The agency was out to disprove linkage between Iraq and terrorism the Pentagon adviser told me, the U. N. had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance. This was confirmed by The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, during 2002, Bush repeatedly warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with U. N. Security Council Resolution 1441, Iraq agreed to new inspections under United Nations Monitoring, as part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons capabilities and manufacturing
25.
Major general (United States)
–
In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general, a major general typically commands division-sized units of 10,000 to 15,000 soldiers. Major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the United States Navy. The United States Code explicitly limits the number of general officers that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active duty general officers is capped at 231 for the Army,61 for the Marine Corps, some of these slots are reserved or finitely set by statute. This promotion board then generates a list of officers it recommends for promotion to general rank and this list is then sent to the service secretary and the Joint Chiefs of Staff for review before it can be sent to the President, through the Secretary of Defense for consideration. The President nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the Secretary of Defense, the secretary, and if applicable. The President may nominate any eligible officer who is not on the recommended list if it serves in the interest of the nation, the Senate must then confirm the nominee by a majority vote before the officer can be promoted. Once confirmed, the nominee is promoted to rank on assuming a position of office that requires an officer to hold the rank. For positions of office that are reserved by statute, the President nominates an officer for appointment to fill that position, since the grade of major general is permanent, the rank does not expire when the officer vacates a two-star position. Tour length varies depending on the position, by statute, and/or when the officer receives a new assignment or a promotion, in the case of the Air National Guard, they may also serve as The Adjutant General for their state, commonwealth or territory. Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement of general officers, all major generals must retire after five years in grade or 35 years of service, whichever is later, unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer. Otherwise, all officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the Secretary of Defense may defer a general officers retirement until the officers 66th birthday, because there are a finite number of General Officer positions, one officer must retire before another can be promoted. As a result, general officers typically retire well in advance of the age and service limits. The rank of general was abolished in the U. S. Army by the Act of March 16,1802. Major general has been a rank in the U. S. Army ever since, to address this anomaly, Washington was posthumously promoted by Congress to the rank of General of the Armies of the United States in 1976. The position of Major General Commanding the Army was entitled to three stars according to General Order No.6 of March 13,1861
26.
Army Ground Forces
–
The Army Ground Forces were one of the three autonomous components of the Army of the United States during World War II, the others being the Army Air Forces and Army Service Forces. Throughout their existence, Army Ground Forces were the largest training organization ever established in the United States and its strength of 780,000 troops on 1 May 1942 grew to a peak of 2,200,000 by 1 July 1943. Thereafter its strength declined as units departed for overseas theaters, Army Ground Forces traces their origins back to General Headquarters, United States Army, which were activated on 26 July 1940. This was not realized in practice because the war was fought in many theaters, nor did GHQ become the equivalent of a theater command for the Zone of Interior, administrative authority was exercised by G-4 of the War Department General Staff through the Corps Area Commands. Instead, GHQ was drawn into the task of raising and training a mass army. Nominally, the U. S. Army Chief of Staff, Marshall, was the commanding general of GHQ, while his Chief of Staff was Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair, who had been Commandant of the Command and General Staff School. However, since Marshall saw him infrequently and seldom visited GHQ, located at the Army War College, in March 1942, there was a sweeping reorganization of the Army that reduced the number of officers reporting to the Chief of Staff. McNair also became responsible for four new pseudo-arms – airborne, armor, anti-aircraft and he had the power to reorganize the ground army, cutting across traditional lines without branch rivalries. In 1942, it was estimated that between 200 and 350 divisions would be required to defeat Germany and Japan, however, only 89 divisions were ultimately readied. This was partially because requirements for service troops and overhead was greater than anticipated, Army strength was fixed at 7,500,000 enlisted men in 1942 and was subsequently cut to 7,004,000 enlisted men in 1943. Further cuts of 433,000 men were made by March 1945, as a result, divisions scheduled for activation in the second half of 1943 were postponed to 1944, then canceled entirely, and no new divisions were formed after June 1943. By May 1945, 96% of all troops were overseas. No new units were forming and there were no reserves, fortunately, these sufficed to bring about the defeat of Germany and Japan, largely because the Soviet Union carried most of the burden of fighting the German Army on the Eastern Front. However, it meant that divisions were kept in the line longer than anticipated. In three months of combat, an infantry division could expect 100% casualties in its three infantry regiments. Units were maintained by a flow of individual replacements. Such conditions placed great strain on the soldier who remained in action until he became a casualty. Energetic and painstaking efforts were made by Army Ground Forces to optimize the divisions for combat operations, non-essential troops and equipment were eliminated
27.
Combined arms
–
Combined arms is an approach to warfare which seeks to integrate different combat arms of a military to achieve mutually complementary effects. The mixing of arms is sometimes pushed down below the level where homogeneity ordinarily prevails, combined arms operations dates back to antiquity, where armies would usually field a screen of skirmishers to protect their spearmen during the approach to contact. Especially in the case of the Greek hoplites however, the focus of military thinking lay almost exclusively on the heavy infantry. Philip II of Macedon greatly improved upon the combined arms tactics of the Greek city-states and combined the newly created Macedonian Phalanx with heavy cavalry. The Phalanx would hold the line in place, until the heavy cavalry could smash. The pre-Marian Roman Legion was a combined force and consisted of five classes of troops. Lightly equipped velites acted as skirmishers armed with light javelins, the fifth class were the equites, the cavalry, used for scouting, pursuit and to guard the flanks. The army of the Han Dynasty is also an example, fielding mêlée infantry, crossbowmen, civilizations such as the Carthaginians and Sassanids also were known to have fielded a combination of infantry supported by powerful cavalry. At the Battle of Hastings English infantry fighting from behind a wall were defeated by a Norman army consisting of archers, infantry. One of the used by the Normans was to tempt the English to leave the shield wall to attack retreating Norman infantry only to destroy them in the open with cavalry. Both Hastings and Falkirk showed how combined arms could be used to defeat enemies relying on one arm. The lightly protected longbowmen could down their French opponents at a distance and this is the crux of combined arms, to allow a combination of forces to achieve what would be impossible for its constituent elements to do alone. During the Middle Ages military forces used combined arms as a method of winning battles, some historians claim that during the Middle Ages there was no strategic or tactical art to military combat. Kelly DeVries uses the Merriam-Webster definition of combat “as a general military engagement. ”In the pursuit of a leaders goals and self-interest tactical and strategic thinking was used along with taking advantage of the terrain and weather in choosing when and where to give battle. The simplest example is the combination of different specialties such as archers, infantry, cavalry, at times, each force fought on its own and won or lost depending on the opposing military competence. During the Middle Ages leaders utilized a combination of skilled and unskilled forces to win battles. An army that has multiple skills available can engage a force that is comprised mainly of one or two types of troops. Each type of military formation –infantry, archers, cavalry, or peasant –has certain advantages that the other does not have
28.
Brigadier general (United States)
–
In the United States Armed Forces, brigadier general is a one-star general officer with the pay grade of O-7 in the U. S. Army, U. S. Marine Corps, and U. S. Air Force. Brigadier general ranks above a colonel and below major general, the rank of brigadier general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other uniformed services. The rank of brigadier general has existed in the U. S. military since the inception of the Continental Army in June 1775, later, on June 18,1780, it was prescribed that brigadier generals would instead wear a single silver star on each epaulette. At first, brigadier generals were infantry officers who commanded a brigade, however, over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, the responsibilities of the rank expanded significantly. During the period from March 16,1802, to January 11,1812, foreseeing the need for an expanded general staff in case of war, which seemed imminent, Congress restored the rank of major general in January 1812. The first brigadier general in the U. S. Marine Corps was Commandant Archibald Henderson, the insignia for a brigadier general is one silver star worn on the shoulder or collar, and has not changed since the creation of the rank two centuries ago. Since the Mexican-American War, however, the rank of colonel has been the normal rank appointed to command a brigade that is organic to a division. In an infantry brigade not organic to a division, a brigadier general serves as the units commander, an Air Force brigadier general typically commands a large wing. Additionally, one-star officers of all services may serve as staff officers in large military organizations. U. S. Code of law explicitly limits the number of general officers who may be on active duty. The total of active duty general officers is capped at 230 for the Army,60 for the Marine Corps, the President or Secretary of Defense may increase the number of general slots in one branch, so long as they subtract an equal number from another. Some of these slots are reserved by statute, for promotion to the permanent grade of brigadier general, eligible officers are screened by a promotion board consisting of general officers from their branch of service. This promotion board then generates a list of officers it recommends for promotion to general rank and this list is then sent to the service secretary and the joint chiefs for review before it can be sent to the President, through the defense secretary, for consideration. The President nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the Secretary of Defense, the secretary, and if applicable. The President may nominate any eligible officer who is not on the recommended list if it serves in the interest of the nation, the Senate must then confirm the nominee by a majority vote before the officer can be promoted. Once the nominee is confirmed, they are promoted to that once they assume or hold an office that requires or allows an officer of that rank. For positions of office reserved by statute, the President nominates an officer for appointment to fill that position, for all three uniformed services, because the grade of brigadier general is a permanent rank, the nominee may still be screened by an in-service promotion board. The rank does not expire when the officer vacates a one-star position, tour length varies depending on the position, by statute, or when the officer receives a new assignment
29.
Wallace F. Randolph
–
General Randolph was born in Pennsylvania on June 11,1841, to Dr. Charles Fitz and Margaret Gooch Randolph. His older brother was Edmund Dutilh Randolph, a prominent New York banker, on April 18,1861, enlisted as a private in Company F of the 17th Pennsylvania Infantry. He remained in that unit until June 28,1861 when he was transferred to the newly formed Fifth United States Field Artillery and his cousin Colonel Lorenzo Thomas arranged for his promotion. The unit was formed by proclamation of President Lincoln on May 4,1861, all appointees of the unit, including Randolph, had their ranks dated from May 14,1861. His gallantry and display of good judgment in action near Winchester, Virginia, during the Second Battle of Winchester and it was during this time, Confederate forces captured Lieutenant Randolphs artillery battery and he was wounded. Over the week following, he was able to make his way through the city and into the swamps, avoiding capture until finally making his way to Federal troop positions near Williamsburg and he quickly returned to action, and was commended on many occasions for his bravery and efficiency. In 1864, during the Battle of Fair Oaks & Darbytown Road, on March 13,1865, at the close of the war, he was made a brevet Major of Volunteers for good conduct and meritorious services during the war. After the Civil War, Randolph continued to serve in light artillery units within the 5th Artillery, primarily stationed at Fort Hamilton, in 1876, when his company was ordered to Charleston, South Carolina, he moved with it. In 1877, during the strikes, he took his battery to various towns in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Maryland to aid in suppressing violence. By November 1881, the 5th Artillery was back in garrison in the forts in New York Harbor, notable amongst ceremonial details in which he participated were funerals for Ulysses S. Grant, and General Winfield Scott Hancock. He also participated in the unveiling of the Statue of Liberty, in 1888, after promotion to Major, he was assigned to the 3rd Artillery. By 1892, he was artillery sub-post and artillery commander at Fort Riley. In 1892, he participated in the ceremony for the Worlds Columbian Exposition. Almost two years later, he was back in Chicago, commanding a Federal artillery battalion in support of government activities during the strike there. Following his promotion to Lieutenant Colonel in March 1898, Randolph received orders to go to San Francisco. At the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Randolph was promoted to Brigadier General, United States Volunteers and he commanded all light artillery units throughout the war and participated in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba. The Chief of Artillery was created by act February 2,1901, the position would last until 1908, when the Field Artillery and Coast Artillery were made separate. He retired in January 1904 to his home in Washington, DC, in 1899, he was elected as a principal officer in the Naval and Military Order of the Spanish–American War, representing the United States Volunteers
30.
Field Artillery (magazine)
–
Field Artillery is a discontinued bimonthly magazine on the subject of field artillery, published from 1911 to 2007. It was published by the US Field Artillery Association, Fort Sill and its intended readership included active and reserve U. S. Army and Marine field artillerymen stationed around the world. In its final years, FA included much discussion of the operations in both Afghanistan and Iraq. The magazine was first published as the Field Artillery Journal in 1911 and it has gone through several name changes. Due to low subscriptions it merged with the Infantry Journal in 1950, the US Army Artillery and Missile School began the in-house publication of Tactical and Technical Trends in Artillery for Instruction in 1957 that was renamed to Artillery Trends in 1958. After the Artillery branch split into the Field Artillery and Air Defense Artillery branches in 1969, Field Artillery Journal restarted in 1973 as an official Field Artillery branch publication. Field Artillery ceased publication with its edition of March–April 2007. The successor is Fires, a merger of Field Artillery and Air Defense Artillery magazines
31.
M119 howitzer
–
The M119 howitzer is the US designation for the L119 light gun, a lightweight British 105 mm howitzer also used by the United States Army. It can be airlifted by helicopter, or dropped by parachute. It does not need a recoil pit, the howitzer was designed and produced by the British Royal Ordnance Factories as the L118 light gun. In the L118 configuration, the 105 mm ammunition is cased separate loading ammunition, the L118 entered service with the British Army in 1976 and is used by parachute and commando field artillery regiments. It saw combat during the Falklands War, where the 30 guns in action fired up to 400 rounds per gun per day, the most powerful propellant charge available. The L119 is the L118 reconfigured to fire NATO-standard US/Nato 105 mm semi-fixed ammunition, in 1987 an agreement was reached to produce the L119 under license by the US as the M119, to replace the M102 howitzer. It entered service with 7th Infantry Division, Fort Ord, California, some improvements were made to produce the M119A1, including increasing its extreme low temperate envelope from −30 °C to −45 °C, improving maintainability. The Army renewed contracts for the M119 to be produced by the Rock Island Arsenal-Joint Manufacturing & Technology Center at Rock Island, the 105 mm M20A1 cannon was produced by US Army Watervliet Arsenal. Other divisions may be of mixed composition between armor, Stryker, and infantry brigade combat teams, with armor having M109A6s Paladins, for example, two of four are IBCTs with M119s in the 25th Infantry Division. National guard light field artillery battalions assigned to IBCTs also have M119s and it is routinely airdropped in airborne operations and sling-loaded under CH-47 Chinook or UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters in air assault operations. In April 2009, the M119A2 howitzer was being fielded by the 4th Infantry Combat Brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division to provide support in operations in Afghanistan. It was the brigade in the division equipped with it. Firing platoons were equipped with larger, also digital M777A2 howitzers, and the M119A3 was more admired for being faster, lighter. Project Manager for Towed Artillery Systems has developed several upgrades for the M119A3 including digital fire control, increased low temperature capability from −25 to −51 °F, and the M20 breech
32.
M777 howitzer
–
The M777 howitzer is a towed 155 mm artillery piece. It succeeded the M198 howitzer in the United States Marine Corps, the M777 is also used by the ground forces of Australia, Canada, India and Saudi Arabia. It made its debut in the War in Afghanistan. The M777 is manufactured by BAE Systems Global Combat Systems division, prime contract management is based in Barrow-in-Furness in the United Kingdom as well as manufacture and assembly of the titanium structures and associated recoil components. Final integration and testing of the weapon is undertaken at BAEs facility in Hattiesburg, the M777 began as the Ultralight-weight Field Howitzer, developed by Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineerings armaments division in Barrow-in-Furness, United Kingdom. This company was bought by BAE Systems which ended up responsible for design, construction and assembly through its US-based, BAE Systems Land, the M777 uses about 70% US-built parts including the gun barrel manufactured at the Watervliet Arsenal. With a weight of 4,200 kg, the M777 is 41% lighter than the 7,154 kg M198 howitzer it replaces, much of the weight reduction is due to the extensive use of titanium. The M777 can be transported by helicopter sling-load, transporter aircraft such as the C-130, or towed by air-braked vehicles weighing over 2.5 tonnes, such as the FMTV, the minimal gun crew required is five, compared to a previous nine. The SELEX portion of the system, known as LINAPS, had been proven previously through earlier fielding on the British Army Royal Artillerys L118 Light Gun. The M777 may be combined with the M982 Excalibur GPS-guided munition and this almost doubles the area covered by a single battery to about 1,250 km2. Testing at the Yuma Proving Ground by the US Army placed 13 of 14 Excalibur rounds, fired from up to 24 kilometres, within 10 m of their target, suggesting a circular error probable of 5 m. In June 2012, Golf Battery, 2nd Battalion, 11th Marines, out of Camp Pendleton, California, dropped the M982 Excalibur round on insurgents at a range of 36 km in Helmand Province, Afghanistan. This marked the longest operational shot in the history of the M777 howitzer, future upgrades include a touchscreen Chief Section Display, a new Mission System Computer, and a digital radio. M777A2 – Block 1A software upgrade, addition of an Enhanced Portable Inductive Artillery Fuze Setter to enable Excalibur and precision munition compatibility. Gun Section 2, 2nd Platoon Bravo Battery, 2–11th Field Artillery was the first US Army unit to fire the M777A2 in combat at 08,23 on 2 January 2008 in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. 2–11 FA deployed December 2007 with 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 25th Infantry Division out of Schofield Barracks, in June 2007, the M777 in its A2 configuration was assigned to the U. S. Armys 3rd Battalion, 321st Field Artillery Regiment. In April 2008, the M777 was deployed for testing with the 2nd battalion, 8th Field Artillery of the U. S. Army at Fort Wainwright in Fairbanks, C Battery 1–108th FA was the first National Guard Unit to Shoot the M777 at Camp Shelby, Mississippi. In May 2005, 3rd Battalion, 11th Marines, based at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms, five hundred and eighty systems will be supplied to the Marines, and 421 to the U. S. Army and National Guard
33.
M109 howitzer
–
The M109 is an American 155mm turreted self-propelled howitzer, first introduced in the early 1960s. It has been upgraded a number of times, most recently to the M109A7, the M109 family is the most common western indirect-fire support weapon of maneuver brigades of armored and mechanized infantry divisions. The M109 has a crew of six, the chief, the driver, the gunner. The gunner aims the cannon left or right, the assistant gunner aims the cannon up, the M109A6 Paladin needs only a crew of four, the commander, driver, gunner and an ammunition loader. The British Army replaced its M109s with the AS-90, several European armed forces have or are currently replacing older M109s with the German PzH2000. Upgrades to the M109 were introduced by the U. S. with the cancellation of the U. S. Crusader and Non-Line-of-Sight Cannon, the M109A6 will remain the principal self-propelled howitzer for the U. S. for the foreseeable future. The M109 was the variant of a U. S. program to adopt a common chassis for its self-propelled artillery units. The light version, the M108 Howitzer, was phased out during the Vietnam War, the M109 saw its combat debut in Vietnam. Israel used the M109 against Egypt in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, iran used the M109 in the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s. The M109 saw service with the British, Egyptian and Saudi Arabian Armies in the 1991 Gulf War, the M109 also saw service with the U. S. Army in the Gulf War, as well as in the Iraq War from 2003-2011. The M109 was developed by the Ground System Division of United Defense LP, the HVP costs $25,000 per round and is capable of being fired out to 50 nautical miles from a conventional cannon. It weighs 68 lb with a 23 lb flight body containing its guidance and warhead, less powerful but more agile to hit small and it had a 23 caliber 155 mm M126 gun in an M127 Howitzer Mount, and carried 28 rounds of 155 mm ammunition. It was also armed with a. 50cal M2HB machine gun with 500 rounds of ammunition, easily identified by its short barrel and a double baffle muzzle brake with a large fume extractor just behind it. Maximum range of 14600 m, replaced the M126 gun with a longer barreled,39 caliber M185 gun, increasing maximum range to 18100 m. Incorporated 27 Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability mid-life improvements, stowage increased from 28 rounds of 155 mm, to 36 rounds. 50cal ammunition remained at 500 rounds. During M109A2 production, a simplified version was also produced for export. This had minor changes and deleted the hull flotation feature. M109A1s and M109A1Bs rebuilt to M109A2 standard respectively, some A3s feature three contact arm assemblies, while all A2s have five
34.
HIMARS
–
The M142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System is a U. S. light multiple rocket launcher mounted on a standard Army Medium Tactical Vehicle truck frame. HIMARS ammunition is interchangeable with the MLRS M270A1, however it is able to carry one pod rather than the standard two for the M270A1 and A2 variants. The chassis is produced by BAE Systems Mobility & Protection Systems, the rocket launching system is produced by Lockheed Martin Missiles & Fire Control. The M142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System is the light, wheeled version of the M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System, the HIMARS utilizes the same pod as the M270 MLRS uses. A pod can hold six rockets or a single missile, the windows are made of glass and layers of sapphire. 18th Field Artillery Brigade at Fort Bragg, North Carolina was the army test bed unit for the M142 HIMARS. In 2002, the United States Marine Corps arranged with the United States Army to acquire 40 of the systems, in July 2007, Marines from Fox Battery 2nd Battalion 14 Marine Regiment from Oklahoma City, Oklahoma were deployed to the Al Anbar province of Iraq. This is the first Marine unit to use the HIMARS in combat, HIMARS was also tested as a common launcher for both artillery rockets and the surface-launched variant of the AMRAAM anti-aircraft missile. As of September 2007, the Singapore Army proposed to acquire HIMARS systems, the package includes 18 HIMARS launchers,9 FMTV 5-Ton Trucks and XM31 unitary HE GMLRS pods, plus associated support and communications equipment and services. This proposed package is notable for not involving the M-26 unguided MLRS rockets, in late 2009, Singapore took delivery of the first HIMARS firing unit and achieved Full Operational Capability. The 23rd Battalion, Singapore artillery commissioned its HIMARS battery on 5 September 2011 and it marks the first fully GPS-guided HIMARS unit. ISAF suspended the use of the HIMARS until a review of the incident was completed. A British officer later said that the rockets were on target, that the target was in use by the Taliban, and use of the system has been reinstated. Reports indicate that the deaths were due to the Talibans use of an occupied dwelling. In November 2015, the United States Army revealed they had deployed the HIMARS to Iraq, HIMARS detachments were sent to Al Asad Airbase and Al-Taqaddum Air Base in Anbar province. On 4 March 2016, Army HIMARS systems fired rockets into Syria in support of Syrian rebels fighting ISIL for the first time, with the launchers based in neighboring Jordan. In January 2016, Lockheed announced the HIMARS had reached 1 million operational hours with U. S. forces, achieving a 99 percent operational readiness rate. On April 26,2016, it was announced that the U. S. would be deploying the HIMARS in Turkey near the border with Syria as part of the battle with ISIL
35.
MGM-140 ATACMS
–
The MGM-140 Army Tactical Missile System is a surface-to-surface missile manufactured by Lockheed Martin. It has a range of over 160 kilometres, with solid propellant, the ATACMS can be fired from multiple rocket launchers, including the M270 MLRS, and HIMARS. An ATACMS launch container has a lid patterned with six circles like a standard MLRS rocket lid, the first use of the ATACMS in a combat capability was during Operation Desert Storm, where a total of 32 were fired from the M270 MLRS. During the Operation Iraqi Freedom more than 450 missiles were fired, as of early 2015, over 560 ATACMS missiles had been fired in combat. Previously M39, unguided missile contains 950 M74 anti-personnel/anti-materiel submunitions with a range of 128 kilometres, previously M39A1, missile uses GPS/INS guidance, carries 275 M74 submunitions and has a 165 kilometres range. A Block II variant was designed to carry a payload of 13 Brilliant Anti-Tank munitions manufactured by Northrop Grumman, however, in late 2003 the U. S. Army terminated the funding for the BAT-equipped ATACMS and therefore the MGM-164A never became fully operational. Originally designated Block IA Unitary, the new Block IVA variant substitutes a 230 kilograms unitary HE warhead for M74 bomblets and it uses the same GPS/INS guidance as the MGM-140B. The development contract was placed in December 2000, and flight-testing began in April 2001, the first production contract was awarded in March 2002. The range has increased to some 300 kilometres, limited more by the legal provisions of the Missile Technology Control Regime than technical considerations. In 2007, the Army terminated the ATACMS program due to cost, the ATACMS SLEP is a bridging initiative to provide time to complete analysis and development of a successor capability to the aging ATACMS stockpile, which could be ready around 2022. In January 2015, Lockheed Martin received a contract to develop, in October 2016, it was revealed that the ATACMS would be upgraded with an existing seeker to enable it to strike moving targets on land and at sea. In March 2016, Lockheed Martin, Boeing, and Raytheon announced they would offer a missile to meet the U. S. Armys Long-Range Precision Fires requirement to replace the ATACMS, one contractor is to be downselected in 2018-19 to begin production in 2021-22. Bahrain, Royal Bahraini Army Greece, Hellenic Army is also a user of the ATACMS. On 20 December 2010, Lockheed Martin was awarded a contract for $916 million for 226 tactical missiles and 24 launcher modification kits for the UAE and Taiwan. South Korea, In 2002, the South Korean Army purchased 111 ATACMS Block I and 110 ATACMS Block IA missiles, an affiliated company of the Hanwha Group of Korea produces munitions for the missile systems under license from Lockheed Martin. Turkey, Turkish Army is also a user of the ATACMS. United Arab Emirates, United Arab Emirates Army, on 20 December 2010, Lockheed Martin was awarded a contract for $916 million for 226 tactical missiles and 24 launcher modification kits for the UAE and Taiwan. Rogers III, Henry T. Army Tactical Missile System and Fixed-Wing Aircraft Capabilities in the Joint Time Sensitive Targeting Process, US Army Command and General Staff College
36.
M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System
–
The M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System is an armored, self-propelled, multiple rocket launcher, a type of rocket artillery. Since the first M270s were delivered to the U. S. Army in 1983, some 1,300 M270 systems have been manufactured in the United States and in Europe, along with more than 700,000 rockets. The production of the M270 ended in 2003, when a last batch was delivered to the Egyptian Army, the weapon can fire guided and unguided projectiles up to 42 km. Firing ballistic missiles, such as the U. S. Army Tactical Missile System, it can hit targets 300 km away, the M270 can be used in shoot-and-scoot tactics, firing its rockets rapidly, then moving away to avoid counter-battery fire. MLRS was developed jointly by the United Kingdom, United States, West Germany, France and it was developed from the older General Support Rocket System. The M270 MLRS weapons system is known as the M270 MLRS Self-propelled Loader/Launcher. The SPLL is composed of three subsystems, the M269 Loader Launcher Module, which also houses the electronic Fire Control System, is mated to the M993 Carrier Vehicle. The M993 is a derivative of the Bradley Fighting Vehicle chassis, the rockets and ATACMS missiles are contained in interchangeable pods. Each pod contains six standard rockets or one guided ATACMS missile, the LLM can hold two pods at a time, which are hand-loaded using an integrated winch system. All twelve rockets or two ATACMS missiles can be fired in under a minute, one launcher firing twelve rockets can completely blanket one square kilometer with submunitions. For this reason, the MLRS is sometimes referred to as the Grid Square Removal System, a typical MLRS cluster salvo consisted of three M270 vehicles each firing all 12 rockets. With each rocket containing 644 M77 grenades, the salvo would drop 23,184 grenades in the target area. However, with a two percent dud rate, that would leave approximately 400 undetonated bombs scattered over the area, in 2006, MLRS was upgraded to fire guided rounds. Phase I testing of a guided unitary round was completed on a schedule in March 2006. Due to an Urgent Need Statement, the guided unitary round was quickly fielded and used in action in Iraq, Lockheed Martin also received a contract to convert existing M30 DPICM GMLRS rockets to the XM31 unitary variant. The M31 GMLRS Unitary rocket transformed the M270 into a point target system for the first time. The unitary warhead also made the MLRS able to be used in urban environments, the GMLRS has a minimum engagement range of 15 km and can hit a target out to 70 km, impacting at a speed of Mach 2.5. A German developmental artillery system, called the Artillery Gun Module, has used the MLRS chassis on its developmental vehicles, in 2012, a contract was issued to improve the armor of the M270s and improve the fire control to the standards of the HIMARS
United States of America
United States Army
