1.
Fortification
–
Fortifications are military constructions or buildings designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and also used to solidify rule in a region during peace time. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs, the term is derived from the Latin fortis and facere. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for cities to survive in a changing world of invasion. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified, in ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae. A Greek Phrourion was a collection of buildings used as a military garrison. These construction mainly served the purpose of a tower, to guard certain roads, passes. Though smaller than a fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch. The art of setting out a camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castramentation since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches, permanent fortification and field fortification, there is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble. Roman forts and hill forts were the antecedents of castles in Europe. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb, Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification, steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may be called fortresses, smaller ones were known as fortalices
Fortification
–
Krak des Chevaliers is one of the best-preserved Crusader
castles.
Fortification
–
Bourtange star fort, restored to 1750 situation,
Groningen (province),
Netherlands.
Fortification
–
The well preserved
Bulgarian medieval fort
Baba Vida.
Fortification
–
Fortifications on the Iraq-Iran Border, viewed from the
ISS, 2014
2.
Field Work (poetry)
–
Field Work is the fifth poetry collection by Seamus Heaney, who received the 1995 Nobel Prize in Literature. Field Work can largely be read as record of Heaney’s four years living in rural County Wicklow in the Republic of Ireland after leaving the violence of The Troubles, Heaney had previously been living in Belfast as a professor at Queens University. Denis O’Donoghue has referred to this period as years of only in the religious or monastic sense. Certain themes were sequestered, so that Heaney might start out again from first principles, dr. Rand Brandes tells the story of the title Field Work in The Cambridge Companion to Seamus Heaney. Heaney originally wanted to name the work “Polder. ”His editor, Charles Monteith, Heaney then wanted the title “Easter Water, ” but this name was also discarded in favor of the final name, Field Work. Heaney said of the title, I gave Field Work that title partly because there’s an element of samplings in it. But I think there’s an opener note in it as well, what holds Field Work together—this is only my view of it—is a certain ease of the voice. Heaney also provided his own explanation of how all his titles came about, “What usually happens is that I start to look for one once a ‘critical mass’ of poems gets written. I find that if I have a title at that stage – say when half a volume is in existence – the title itself can help in shaping, or at least inclining and suggesting. Field Work is notably less political than North, O’Donoghue writes, “Readers who want Heaney to go on writing political poems, as in North, may be disappointed with Field Work. He also calls Field Work “one of my favorites, in its own way it was a book of change also, it moved me from the intensity of North to something more measured, in both formal and emotional terms. In the same interview, Heaney also said, “I tried very deliberately in Field Work to turn from a broody, and I think that from Field Work onwards I have been following that direction. Its a very different kind of linguistic ambition now from what I was after in Death of a Naturalist or Wintering Out or North, not all reviews, however, were favorable. In the New York Review of Books, Al Alvarez calls Heaney an “intensely literary writer” and writes that the “reticence, despite complimenting Heaney’s “real strength and originality” in “modest, perfect little poems, the review was notably unfavorable. Alvarez went on to say, “If Heaney really is the best we can do, then the whole troubled, oysters recalls a dinner between the poet and his friends. Like Heaneys earlier poem, Digging, it examines the function of the poet in society, triptych After a Killing begins with the mention of Two young men with rifles on the hill, / Profane and bracing as their instruments. The speaker asks, Whos sorry for our trouble, sibyl At the Waters Edge The Toome Road includes imagery of armored cars, powerful tyres, and headphoned soldiers standing up in turrets. The speaker asks with regard to the soldiers, How long were they approaching down my roads / As if they owned them
Field Work (poetry)
–
First edition (
Faber and Faber)
3.
Qualitative research
–
Qualitative research is a broad methodological approach that encompasses many research methods. Qualitative methods examine the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when, or who, Qualitative research is popular among political science, social work, and special education and education searchers. In the conventional view of statisticians, qualitative methods produce information only on the cases studied. Quantitative methods can then be used to seek support for such research hypotheses. To help navigate the landscape of qualitative research, one can further think of qualitative inquiry in terms of means. In the early 1900s, some researchers rejected positivism, the idea that there is an objective world which we can gather data from. Most theoretical constructs involve a process of analysis and understanding. In the 1970s and 1980s, the ubiquity of computers aided in qualitative analyses, several journals with a qualitative focus emerged. In the late 1980s, questions of identity emerged, including issues of race, class, gender, also, during this time, researchers began to use mixed-method approaches, indicating a shift in thinking of qualitative and quantitative methods as intrinsically incompatible. However, this history is not apolitical, as this has ushered in a politics of evidence and what can count as scientific research in scholarship, Qualitative methods are used in various methodological approaches, such as action research which has sociological basis, or actor-network theory. The most common used to generate data in qualitative research is an interview which may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. Other ways to generate data include group discussions or focus groups, observations, reflective field notes, texts, pictures, to analyse qualitative data, the researcher seeks meaning from all of the data that is available. The data may be categorized and sorted into patterns as the basis for organizing and reporting the study findings. The ways of participating and observing can vary widely from setting to setting as exemplified by Helen Schwartzmans primer on Ethnography in Organizations, or Anne Copeland and Kathleen Whites Studying Families. Participant observation is a strategy of learning, not a single method of observing. And has been described as a continuum of between participation and observation, in participant observation researchers typically become members of a culture, group, or setting, and adopt roles to conform to that setting. In doing so, the aim is for the researcher to gain an insight into the cultures practices, motivations. It is argued that the ability to understand the experiences of the culture may be inhibited if they observe without participating
Qualitative research
–
Sociology
4.
Anthropology
–
Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
Anthropology
–
Forensic anthropologists can help identify skeletonized human remains, such as these found lying in scrub in Western Australia, c. 1900–1910.
Anthropology
–
Anthropology
Anthropology
–
Excavations at the 3800-year-old
Edgewater Park Site,
Iowa
5.
Ethnography
–
Ethnography is the systematic study of people and cultures. It is designed to explore cultural phenomena where the researcher observes society from the point of view of the subject of the study, an ethnography is a means to represent graphically and in writing the culture of a group. The word can thus be said to have a double meaning, the resulting field study or a case report reflects the knowledge and the system of meanings in the lives of a cultural group. The typical ethnography is a study and so includes a brief history, and an analysis of the terrain, the climate. In all cases it should be reflexive, make a contribution toward the understanding of the social life of humans, have an aesthetic impact on the reader. An ethnography records all observed behavior and describes all symbol-meaning relations, the word ethnography is derived from the Greek ἔθνος, meaning a company, later a people, nation and -graphy meaning field of study. Ethnographic studies focus on large groups of people who interact over time. Ethnography is a design, where the researcher explains about shared learnt patterns of values, behaviour, beliefs. The field of anthropology originated from Europe and England designed in late 19th century and it spread its roots to the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. Some of the main contributors like EB Tylor from Britain and Lewis H Morgan, franz Boas, Bronislaw Malinowski, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead, were a group of researchers from United States who contributed the idea of cultural relativism to the literature. He gives the point of the native and this became the origin of field work. Since Malinowski was very firm with his approach he applied it practically and he was interested in learning the language of the islanders and stayed there for a long time doing his field work. The field of ethnography became very popular in the late 19th century, again, in the latter part of the 19th century, the field of anthropology became a good support for scientific formation. Though the field was flourishing it had a lot of threat to encounter, post colonialism, the research climate shifted towards post-modernism and feminism. Therefore, the field of anthropology moved into discipline of social science, gerhard Friedrich Müller developed the concept of ethnography as a separate discipline whilst participating in the Second Kamchatka Expedition as a professor of history and geography. Whilst involved in the expedition, he differentiated Völker-Beschreibung as an area of study. This became known as ethnography, following the introduction of the Greek neologism ethnographia by Johann Friedrich Schöpperlin, there are different forms of ethnography, confessional ethnography, life history, feminist ethnography etc. Two popular forms of ethnography are realist ethnography and critical ethnography, realist ethnography, is a traditional approach used by cultural anthropologists
Ethnography
–
A picture of the Izmir Ethnography Museum (İzmir Etnografya Müzesi) from the courtyard.
Ethnography
–
Ethnography museum
Ethnography
–
Bronisław Malinowski among
Trobriand tribe
Ethnography
–
Part of the ethnographic collection of the
Međimurje County Museum in
Croatia
6.
Archaeology
–
Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
Archaeology
–
Roman ruins,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
Archaeology
–
An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877
Archaeology
–
Artifacts discovered at the 1808
Bush Barrow excavation by Sir
Richard Colt Hoare and
William Cunnington.
Archaeology
–
Mortimer Wheeler pioneered
systematic excavation in the early 20th century. Pictured, are his excavations at
Maiden Castle, Dorset, in October 1937.
7.
Aerial archaeology
–
Aerial archaeology is the study of archaeological remains by examining them from altitude. Early investigators attempted to gain birdseye views of sites using hot air balloons, photographs may be taken either vertically, that is from directly overhead, or obliquely, meaning that they are taken at an angle. In order to provide an effect, an overlapping pair of vertical photographs, taken from slightly offset positions. The advantages of aerial photographs to archaeologists are manifold, large sites could for the first time be viewed accurately, in their entirety and within their landscape. This aided the production of plans and also inspired archaeologists to look beyond the discrete monument. Photos are taken vertically for the purposes of planning and spatial analysis, through the process of photogrammetry, vertical photos can be converted into scaled plans. Archaeological features may also be visible from the air than on the ground. In temperate Europe, aerial reconnaissance is one of the most important ways in which new archaeological sites are discovered and these are referred to as shadow marks. Frost can also appear in winter on ploughed fields where water has naturally accumulated along the lines of buried features, in cases like the Nazca lines, the features are meaningless from the ground but easily visible from the air. Aerial archaeology is used in the processes of research and investigation in aviation archaeology, archaeological field survey Cropmark Shadow marks Xenoarchaeology Bibliography Bourgeois, J. and Meganck, M. Aerial Photography and Archaeology 2003. ISBN 90-382-0782-4 Brophy, K. and Cowley, D, from the air, understanding aerial archaeology. ISBN 0-7524-3130-7 Riley, D. N. Air photography and archaeology, ISBN 0-8122-8087-3 Wilson, D. R. Air photo interpretation for archaeologists, London, The History Press Ltd. ISBN 0-7524-1498-4 Aerial Archaeology Research Group Emporia State University, Aerial Archaeology Aerial and Remote Sensing Archaeology Link, aerialArchaeology. com focuses heavily on near-earth imaging technologies such as kite aerial photography, remote-control powered parachutes, balloons, and model airplanes and helicopters. *** Off-line April 20,2010 *** ACE Foundation Kite Aerial Photographers - Archaeology Sir Henry Wellcome Aerial Archaeology in Northern France
Aerial archaeology
–
Aerial view of an
amphitheatre in
Budapest,
Hungary.
Aerial archaeology
–
Aerial archeological photograph of the
"Nazca monkey" in
Peru.
Aerial archaeology
–
Low-level, near infra-red kite aerial photo of the site of Ogilface Castle, West Lothian. This image shows features not visible to the naked eye, including tyre tracks on this short, grazed grass.
8.
Archaeological site
–
Sites may range from those with few or no remains visible above ground, to buildings and other structures still in use. Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a site can vary widely, depending on the period studied and it is almost invariably difficult to delimit a site. It is sometimes taken to indicate a settlement of some sort although the archaeologist must also define the limits of human activity around the settlement, any episode of deposition such as a hoard or burial can form a site as well. Development-led archaeology undertaken as cultural resources management has the disadvantage of having its sites defined by the limits of the intended development, even in this case however, in describing and interpreting the site, the archaeologist will have to look outside the boundaries of the building site. According to Jess Beck in “How Do Archaeologists find sites. ”The areas with a number of artifacts are good targets for future excavation. The most common person to have found artifacts are farmers who are plowing their fields or just cleaning them up often find archaeological artifacts, many people who are out hiking and even pilots find artifacts they usually end up reporting them to archaeologist to do further investigation. When they find sites, they have to first record the area and if they have the money, there are many ways to find sites, one example can be through surveys. Surveys involve walking around analyzing the land looking for artifacts. ”This helps archaeologists in the future. In case there was no time, or money during the finding of the site, archaeologists can come back, archaeologist can also sample randomly within a given area of land as another form of conducting surveys. Surveys are very useful, according to Jess Beck, “it can tell you where people were living at different points in the past. ”Geophysics is a branch of survey becoming more and more popular in archaeology, because it uses different types of instruments to investigate features below the ground surface. It is not as reliable, because although they can see what is under the surface of the ground it does not produce the best picture, Archaeologists have to still dig up the area in order to uncover the truth. There are also two most common types of survey, which is, magnetometer and ground penetrating radar. Magnetometry is the technique of measuring and mapping patterns of magnetism in the soil and it uses an instrument called a magnetometer which is required to measure and map traces of soil magnetism. The ground penetrating radar is a method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface and it uses electro magnetic radiation in the microwave band of the radio spectrum, and detects the reflected signals from subsurface structures. There are many tools that can be used to find artifacts. This tool is helpful to archaeologists who want to explore in a different area. They can use this tool to see what has already been discovered, with this information available, archaeologists can expand their research and add more to what has already been found. Traditionally, sites are distinguished by the presence of artifacts and features
Archaeological site
–
An archaeological site with human presence dating from 4th century BC, Fillipovka, South Urals,
Russia. This site has been interpreted to be a
Sarmatian Kurgan.
Archaeological site
–
Monte Albán, a
Zapotec site in
Oaxaca,
Mexico
9.
Archaeological illustration
–
Archaeological Illustration is a form of technical illustration that records material derived from an archaeological context graphically. Archaeological Illustration encompasses a number of sub disciplines and these are, Surveying, To produce an accurate record of sites and buildings and to record accurately where the sites and buildings lie within the landscape. Survey data will be gathered on acid free paper, polyvinyl permatrace, photography, To produce a record of archaeological sites, buildings, artifacts and landscapes. Archaeological photographers will uses a range of different formats particularly black-and-white, digital photography is now starting to become more widely used and is especially useful for the recording of historic building. Aerial photography is used as a tool for recording sites and is also used as a prospecting tool to locate new archaeological sites. Artefact illustration, To record objects using agreed conventions to allow study of the objects by specialists on publication. Artefact illustrators will use pen-and-ink as well as graphics and page layout software, interpretation and reconstruction illustration, To visualise the results of archaeological field work in a way that is meaningful and visually appealing to as many as possible. Reconstruction artists work in media from traditional pen-and-ink and painted reconstruction to more modern techniques including 3D, virtual reality. Archaeological field survey Archaeological plan Archaeological record Archaeological section Excavation Post excavation Training excavation Philip Barker, techniques of Archaeological Excavation, Batsford Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. A. Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology, Archaeological Illustration Cambridge University Press John Hodgson, Archaeological reconstruction, illustrating the past, AAI&S & IFA Griffiths, N. Jenner, A. and Wilson, C. Drawing Archaeological Finds, A Handbook Archetype Melanie Steiner, approaches to Archaeological Illustration, A Handbook, Council for British Archaeology The MoLAS archaeological site manual MoLAS, London 1994
Archaeological illustration
–
Pages of Medieval pottery prepared and ready for publication
10.
Geophysical survey (archaeology)
–
In archaeology, geophysical survey is ground-based physical sensing techniques used for archaeological imaging or mapping. Remote sensing and marine surveys are used in archaeology, but are generally considered separate disciplines. Other terms, such as geophysical prospection and archaeological geophysics are generally synonymous, Geophysical survey is used to create maps of subsurface archaeological features. Features are the part of the archaeological record, whether standing structures or traces of human activities left in the soil. Geophysical instruments can detect buried features when their physical properties contrast measurably with their surroundings, in some cases individual artifacts, especially metal, may be detected as well. Readings taken in a systematic pattern become a set that can be rendered as image maps. Survey results can be used to guide excavation and to give insight into the patterning of non-excavated parts of the site. Unlike other archaeological methods, geophysical survey is neither invasive nor destructive, for this reason, it is often used where preservation is the goal, and to avoid disturbance of culturally sensitive sites such as cemeteries. Although geophysical survey has been used in the past with intermittent success and it is most useful when it is used in a well-integrated research design where interpretations can be tested and refined. Interpretation requires a knowledge both of the record, and of the way it is expressed geophysically. Appropriate instrumentation, survey design, and data processing are essential for success, in the field, control of data quality and spatial accuracy are critical. Geophysical methods used in archaeology are largely adapted from those used in exploration, engineering. Archaeological mapping presents unique challenges, however, which have spurred a separate development of methods, in general, geological applications are concerned with detecting relatively large structures, often as deeply as possible. In contrast, most archaeological sites are relatively near the surface, often within the top meter of earth. Instruments are often configured to limit the depth of response to resolve the near-surface phenomena that are likely to be of interest. ”To accomplish this requires not only sensitivity. Most commonly applied to archaeology are magnetometers, electrical meters, ground-penetrating radar. These methods can resolve many types of features, are capable of high sample density surveys of very large areas. While common metal detectors are geophysical sensors, they are not capable of generating high-resolution imagery, other established and emerging technologies are also finding use in archaeological applications
Geophysical survey (archaeology)
–
Electrical resistance map of ancient Aphrodisias
Geophysical survey (archaeology)
–
EM conductivity survey
Geophysical survey (archaeology)
–
Magnetic gradiometer map of Prehistoric fire-hearths
Geophysical survey (archaeology)
–
GPR survey
11.
Excavation (archaeology)
–
In archaeology, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or dig is a site being studied, such a site excavation concerns itself with a specific archaeological site or a connected series of sites, and may be conducted over as little as several weeks to over a number of years. Numerous specialized techniques each with its features are used. Resources and other practical issues do not allow archaeologists to carry out excavations whenever and wherever they choose and these constraints mean many known sites have been deliberately left unexcavated. This is with the intention of preserving them for generations as well as recognising the role they serve in the communities that live near them. Excavation involves the recovery of types of data from a site. These data include artifacts, features, ecofacts and, most importantly, ideally, data from the excavation should suffice to reconstruct the site completely in three-dimensional space. The presence or absence of remains can often be suggested by remote sensing. Indeed, grosser information about the development of the site may be drawn from this work, the history of excavation began with a crude search for treasure and for artifacts which fell into the category of curio. These curios were the subject of interest of antiquarians and it was later appreciated that digging on a site destroyed the evidence of earlier peoples lives which it had contained. Once the curio had been removed from its context, most of the information it held was lost and it was from this realization that antiquarianism began to be replaced by archaeology, a process still being perfected. Archaeological material tends to accumulate in events, a gardener swept a pile of soil into a corner, laid a gravel path or planted a bush in a hole. A builder built a wall and back-filled the trench, years later, someone built a pig sty onto it and drained the pig sty into the nettle patch. Later still, the original wall blew over and so on, each event, which may have taken a short or long time to accomplish, leaves a context. This layer cake of events is referred to as the archaeological sequence or record. It is by analysis of sequence or record that excavation is intended to permit interpretation. As he remarked, waiting for animals to hunt represented 24% of the total man-hours of activity recorded, no tools left on the site were used, and there were no immediate material byproducts of the primary activity. All of the activities conducted at the site were essentially boredom reducers
Excavation (archaeology)
–
Excavations at the site of Gran Dolina, in the
Atapuerca Mountains,
Spain, 2008
Excavation (archaeology)
–
Excavations at the cave of Santa Ana (
Cáceres,
Extremadura,
Spain)
Excavation (archaeology)
–
Stratigraphy in the excavation area in the
Kerameikos Cemetery (
Athens).
Excavation (archaeology)
–
Excavation at the site of the
Battle at the Harzhorn (Germany)
12.
Biology
–
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
Biology
Biology
Biology
Biology
13.
Habitat
–
A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant, or other type of organism. The term typically refers to the zone in which the organism lives and it is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that surrounds a species population. Every organism has certain habitat needs for the conditions in which it will thrive, habitat types include polar, temperate, subtropical and tropical. The terrestrial vegetation type may be forest, steppe, grassland, the word habitat has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the Latin third-person singular present indicative of habitāre, to inhabit, from habēre, to have or to hold. Habitat can be defined as the environment of an organism. It is similar in meaning to a biotope, an area of environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants. Generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities, some plants and animals are generalists, and their habitat requirements are met in a wide range of locations. The small white butterfly for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from Antarctica and its larvae feed on a wide range of Brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. Disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitats, in the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. Lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. Similarly coastal habitats can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm, another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat. Terrestrial habitat types include forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts, within these broad biomes are more specific habitats with varying climate types, temperature regimes, soils, altitudes and vegetation types. Many of these habitats grade into each other and each one has its own communities of plants. A habitat may suit a particular species well, but its presence or absence at any particular location depends to some extent on chance, on its dispersal abilities, freshwater habitats include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, marshes and bogs. Although some organisms are found across most of these habitats, the majority have more specific requirements, similarly, aquatic plants can be floating, semi-submerged, submerged or grow in permanently or temporarily saturated soils besides bodies of water. Marine habitats include brackish water, estuaries, bays, the sea, the intertidal zone. Further variations include rock pools, sand banks, mudflats, brackish lagoons, sandy and pebbly beaches, the benthic zone or seabed provides a home for both static organisms, anchored to the substrate, and for a large range of organisms crawling on or burrowing into the surface. A desert is not the kind of habitat that favours the presence of amphibians, with their requirement for water to keep their skins moist, nevertheless, some frogs live in deserts, creating moist habitats underground and hibernating while conditions are adverse
Habitat
–
This
coral reef in the
Phoenix Islands Protected Area is a rich habitat for sea life.
Habitat
–
Few creatures make the
ice shelves of
Antarctica their habitat.
Habitat
–
Subdisciplines
Habitat
–
General
14.
Animal migration tracking
–
For years scientists have been tracking animals and the ways they migrate. One of the goals of animal migration research has been to determine where the animals are going, however. In the fall of 1803, American Naturalist John James Audubon wondered whether migrating birds returned to the place each year. So he tied a string around the leg of a bird before it flew south, the following spring, Audubon saw the bird had indeed come back. Scientists today still attach tags, such as bands, to track movement of animals. Metal bands require the re-capture of animals for the scientists to gather data, recent technologies have helped solve this problem. Some electronic tags give off repeating signals that are picked up by radio devices or satellites while other electronic tags could include archival tags, scientists can track the locations and movement of the tagged animals without recapturing them using this RFID technology or satellites. These electronic tags can provide a great deal of data, however, they are more expensive than the low-tech tags that arent electronic. Also, because of their size and weight, electronic tags may create drag on some animals, tracking an animal by radio telemetry involves two devices. Telemetry, in general, involves the use of a transmitter that is attached to an animal and sends out a signal in the form of radio waves, a scientist might place the transmitter around an animals ankle, neck, wing, carapace, or dorsal fin. A VHF receiver picks up the signal, just like a home radio picks up a stations signal, the receiver is usually in a truck, an ATV, or an airplane. To keep track of the signal, the scientist follows the animal using the receiver and this approach of using radio tracking can be used to track the animal manually but is also used when animals are equipped with other payloads. The receiver is used to home in on the animal to get the payload back, another form of radio tracking that can be utilized, especially in the case of small bird migration, is the use of geolocators or geologgers. Data is captured and monitored via electronic interrogation antennae, which records the time, pit tags are a humane method of tracking that has little risk of infection or mortality due to the limited contact necessary to monitor the specimens. They are also cost-efficient in that they can be used repeatedly should the need arise to remove the tag from the animal, receivers can be placed in Earth-orbiting satellites such as ARGOS. Networks, or groups, of satellites are used to track animals, each satellite in a network picks up electronic signals from a transmitter on an animal. Together, the signals from all satellites determine the location of the animal. The satellites also track the path as it moves
Animal migration tracking
–
Radio-collared wolf in
Yellowstone National Park
Animal migration tracking
–
A
monarch butterfly shortly after tagging at the
Cape May Bird Observatory. The Observatory is one of the organisation that has a monarch identification tagging program. Plastic stickers are placed on the wing of the insect with identification information. Tracking information is used to study the migration patterns of monarchs, including how far and where they fly.
Animal migration tracking
–
SeaTag-GEO on a turtle carrier platform for turtle tagging
Animal migration tracking
–
Fisheries science
15.
Bird ringing
–
Bird ringing or bird banding is the attachment of a small, individually numbered metal or plastic tag to the leg or wing of a wild bird to enable individual identification. This helps in keeping track of the movements of the bird and it is common to take measurements and examine conditions of feather molt, subcutaneous fat, age indications and sex during capture for ringing. Other methods of marking birds may also be used to allow for field based identification that does not require capture, the earliest recorded attempts to mark birds were made by Roman soldiers. One instance occurred during the Punic Wars, In 218 BC a crow was released by a besieged garrison, quintus Fabius Pictor used a thread on the birds leg to send a message back. In another instance, an interested in chariot races during the time of Pliny took crows to Volterra,135 miles away. Falconers in the Middle Ages would fit plates on their falcons with seals of their owners, from around 1560 or so, swans were marked with a swan mark, a nick on the bill. Storks injured by arrows traceable to African tribes were found in Germany in 1822, Ringing of birds for scientific purposes was started in 1899 by Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen, a Danish schoolteacher, using aluminum rings on European starlings. The first banding scheme was established in Germany by Johannes Thienemann in 1903 at the Rossitten Bird Observatory on the Baltic Coast of East Prussia and this was followed by Hungary in 1908, Great Britain in 1909, Yugoslavia in 1910 and the Scandinavian countries between 1911 and 1914. In North America John James Audubon and Ernest Thompson Seton were pioneers although their method of marking birds was different from modern ringing, Audubon tied silver threads onto the legs of young eastern phoebes in 1803 while Seton marked snow buntings in Manitoba with ink in 1882. Paul Bartsch of the Smithsonian Institution is credited with the first modern banding in the U. S. he banded 23 black-crowned night herons in 1902. Bird ringing is the used in the UK and in some other parts of Europe, while the term bird banding is more often used in the USA. Organised ringing efforts are called ringing or banding schemes, and the organisations that run them are ringing or banding authorities and those who ring or band birds are known as ringers or banders, and they are typically active at ringing or banding stations. Birds may be captured by being taken as young birds at the nest, or as adults, captured in fine mist nets, baited traps, Heligoland traps, drag nets, cannon nets, raptors may be caught by many methods, including bal-chatri traps. When a bird is caught, a ring of size is attached to the birds leg. The bird is often weighed and measured, examined for data relevant to the ringers project, the birds so tagged can then be identified when they are re-trapped, or found dead, later. When a ringed bird is found, and the ring number read and reported back to the ringer or ringing authority, the finder can contact the address on the ring, give the unique number, and be told the known history of the birds movements. Some national ringing/banding authorities also accept reports by phone or on web sites. The organising body, by collating many such reports, can then determine patterns of movements for large populations
Bird ringing
–
An early bird band used by
Jack Miner for geese.
Bird ringing
–
A researcher uses a tool to attach the band to the leg of this
European serin.
Bird ringing
–
A ringed
ruby-crowned kinglet recaptured in a
mist net
Bird ringing
–
A
yellow-throated fulvetta with a numbered aluminum ring on its left tarsus
16.
Animal migration
–
Animal migration is the relatively long-distance movement of individuals, usually on a seasonal basis. It is found in all animal groups, including birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians, insects. The trigger for the migration may be local climate, local availability of food, Migration can take very different forms in different species, and as such there is no simple accepted definition of migration. It depends on some temporary inhibition of station keeping responses but promotes their eventual disinhibition, Migration can be either obligate, meaning individuals must migrate, or facultative, meaning individuals can choose to migrate or not. Within a migratory species or even within a population, often not all individuals migrate. While most migratory movements occur on a cycle, some daily movements are also referred to as migration. Irregular migrations such as irruptions can occur under pressure of famine, overpopulation of a locality, different kinds of animal migrate in different ways. Approximately 1,800 of the worlds 10,000 bird species migrate long distances each year in response to the seasons. Many of these migrations are north-south, with feeding and breeding in high northern latitudes in the summer. Some species extend this strategy to migrate annually between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The Arctic tern is famous for its migration, it flies from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and back each year. Most fish species are limited in their movements, remaining in a single geographical area and making short migrations for wintering, to spawn. A few hundred species migrate long distances, in cases of thousands of kilometres. About 120 species of fish, including species of salmon. Forage fish such as herring and capelin migrate around substantial parts of the North Atlantic ocean. In the sardine run, billions of Southern African pilchard Sardinops sagax spawn in the waters of the Agulhas Bank. Some winged insects such as locusts and certain butterflies and dragonflies with strong flight migrate long distances, exceptionally, swarms of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, flew westwards across the Atlantic Ocean for 4500 km during October 1988, using air currents in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone. In some migratory butterflies, such as the butterfly and the painted lady
Animal migration
–
Mexican free-tailed bats on their long aerial migration
Animal migration
–
A
Christmas Island red crab on its migration
Animal migration
–
Flocks of birds, probably
starlings, assembling before migration southwards
Animal migration
–
Many species of
salmon migrate up rivers to
spawn
17.
Longevity
–
For example, a populations life expectancy at birth is the same as the average age at death for all people born in the same year. Longevity is best thought of as a term for general audiences meaning typical length of life, reflections on longevity have usually gone beyond acknowledging the brevity of human life and have included thinking about methods to extend life. Longevity has been a not only for the scientific community but also for writers of travel, science fiction. There are many difficulties in authenticating the longest human life span ever by modern verification standards, a life annuity is a form of longevity insurance. Various factors contribute to an individuals longevity, record-holding individuals include, Eilif Philipsen, first person to reach the ages of 100,101, and 102 and whose age could be validated. This defines the human life span, which is set by the oldest documented individual who ever lived. Sarah Knauss, the second oldest documented person in modern times, jiroemon Kimura, the oldest man in history whose age has been verified by modern documentation. Evidence-based studies indicate that longevity is based on two factors, genetics and lifestyle choices. Although over 200 gene variants have been associated with longevity according to a US-Belgian-UK research database of genetic variants. A2012 study found that even modest amounts of leisure time physical exercise can extend life expectancy by as much as 4.5 years, lymphoblastoid cell lines established from blood samples of centenarians have significantly higher activity of the DNA repair protein PARP than cell lines from younger individuals. These findings suggest that elevated PARP gene expression contributes to the longevity of centenarians, in a cohort study, the combination of a plant based diet, normal BMI, and not smoking accounted for differences up to 15 years in life expectancy. There are however many other factors potentially affecting longevity, including the impact of high peer competition. In preindustrial times, deaths at young and middle age were more common than they are today, deaths from childbirth were common for women, and many children did not live past infancy. In addition, most people who did attain old age were likely to die quickly from the above-mentioned untreatable health problems and this was also true for poorer people like peasants or laborers. Genealogists will almost certainly find ancestors living to their 70s, 80s, for example, an 1871 census in the UK found the average male life expectancy as being 44, but if infant mortality is subtracted, males who lived to adulthood averaged 75 years. The present male life expectancy in the UK is 77 years for males and 81 for females, Studies have shown that black American males have the shortest lifespans of any group of people in the US, averaging only 69 years. This reflects overall poorer health and greater prevalence of disease, obesity, diabetes. Women normally outlive men, and this was as true in pre-industrial times as today, theories for this include smaller bodies, a stronger immune system, and less tendency to engage in physically dangerous activities
Longevity
–
Old man at a
nursing home in
Norway.
Longevity
–
Comparison of male and female life expectancy at birth for countries and territories as defined in the 2011 CIA Factbook, with selected bubbles labelled. The green dotted line corresponds to equal female and male life expectancy. The apparent 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their population.
18.
Protected area
–
Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the laws of each country or the regulations of the international organisations involved. There are over 161,000 protected areas in the world with more added daily, by contrast, only 1. 17% of the worlds oceans is included in the worlds ~6,800 Marine Protected Areas. Protected areas are essential for biodiversity conservation, often providing habitat, Protection helps maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Generally, protected areas are understood to be those in human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a range of governance types. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged a critical factor in their success, subsequently, the range of natural resources that any one protected area may guard is vast. Of all global terrestrial carbon stock,15. 2% is contained within protected areas, Protected areas in South America hold 27% of the worlds carbon stock, which is the highest percentage of any country in both absolute terms and as a proportion of the total stock. Rainforests,18. 8% of the worlds forest is covered by protected areas, of the 670 ecoregions with forest cover, 54% have 10% or more of their forest cover protected under IUCN Categories I – VI. Mountain protected area coverage has increased globally by 21% since 1990, the categories provide international standards for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their management aims. Protecting places and resources is by no means a modern concept, over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years, moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal, for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific and in parts of Africa. However, the protected areas movement doesnt begin until late nineteenth-century in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. While the idea of protected areas spread around the world in the twentieth century, thus, in North America, protected areas were about safeguarding dramatic and sublime scenery, in Africa, the concern was with game parks, in Europe, landscape protection was more common. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas is recognised not only ecologically, international programmes for the protection of representative ecosystems remain relatively progressive, with less advances in marine and freshwater biomes. There is increasing pressure to take account of human needs when setting up protected areas. Such negotiations are never easy but usually stronger and longer-lasting results for both conservation and people. In some countries, protected areas can be assigned without the infrastructure and networking needed to substitute consumable resources, one of the main concerns regarding protected areas on land and sea is their effectiveness at preventing the ongoing loss of biodiversity
Protected area
–
A poster of Yellowstone from 1938.
Protected area
–
Strict Nature reserve
Belianske Tatras in
Slovakia.
Protected area
–
Black Opal Spring in
Yellowstone National Park in the
United States.
Yellowstone, the world's second official protected area (after Mongolia's
Bogd Khan Mountain), was declared a protected area in 1872, and it encompasses areas which are classified as both a National Park (Category II) and a Habitat Management Area (Category IV).
Protected area
–
Schweizerischer National Park in the
Swiss Alps is a Strict Nature Reserve (Category Ia).
19.
Earth science
–
Earth science or geoscience is a widely embraced term for the fields of science related to the planet Earth. Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science, there are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The Earth sciences can include the study of geology, the lithosphere, and the structure of the Earths interior, as well as the atmosphere, hydrosphere. Typically, Earth scientists use tools from geography, chronology, physics, chemistry, biology, Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earths crust and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology, geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earths core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere, geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earths crust that is subject to soil formation processes, major subdisciplines include edaphology and pedology. Ecology covers the interactions between the biota, with their natural environment and this field of study differentiates the study of the Earth, from the study of other planets in the Solar System, the Earth being the only planet teeming with life. Hydrology is a study revolved around the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involves all the components of the cycle on the earth. Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology. Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth, atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth between the surface and the exosphere. Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics, plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earths crust. Beneath the Earths crust lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures. Through subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere returns to the convecting mantle, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes
Earth science
–
A
volcanic eruption is the release of stored energy from below the surface of Earth, originating from radioactive decay and gravitational sorting in the Earth's core and mantle, and residual energy gained during the Earth's formation
Earth science
–
The
magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the
solar wind. It is compressed on the day (Sun) side due to the force of the arriving particles, and extended on the night side. Image not to scale.
20.
Atmospheric sciences
–
Meteorology includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics with a major focus on weather forecasting. Climatology is the study of changes that define average climates and their change over time. Aeronomy is the study of the layers of the atmosphere. Atmospheric science has been extended to the field of planetary science, experimental instruments used in atmospheric sciences include satellites, rocketsondes, radiosondes, weather balloons, and lasers. The term aerology is sometimes used as a term for the study of Earths atmosphere. Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann, Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earths atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology. Research is increasingly connected with other areas of such as climatology. The composition and chemistry of the atmosphere is of importance for several reasons, the composition of the Earths atmosphere has been changed by human activity and some of these changes are harmful to human health, crops and ecosystems. Examples of problems which have been addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain, photochemical smog, Atmospheric dynamics involves the study of observations and theory dealing with all motion systems of meteorological importance. Common topics studied include diverse phenomena such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, gravity waves, tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones, jet streams, the goal of dynamical studies is to explain the observed circulations on the basis of fundamental principles from physics. Atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere, in the United Kingdom, atmospheric studies are underpinned by the Meteorological Office. Divisions of the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration oversee research projects, the U. S. National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center also carries out studies of the high atmosphere. The Earths magnetic field and the solar wind interact with the atmosphere, creating the ionosphere, Van Allen radiation belts, telluric currents, and radiant energy. In contrast to meteorology, which studies short term weather systems lasting up to a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and it studies the periodicity of weather events over years to millennia, as well as changes in long-term average weather patterns, in relation to atmospheric conditions. Climatologists, those who practice climatology, study both the nature of climates – local, regional or global – and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change, climatology considers the past and can help predict future climate change. Related disciplines include astrophysics, atmospheric physics, chemistry, ecology, physical geography, geology, geophysics, glaciology, hydrology, oceanography, all of the Solar Systems planets have atmospheres. This is because their gravity is enough to keep gaseous particles close to the surface
Atmospheric sciences
–
Atmospheric sciences
Atmospheric sciences
–
Earth's atmosphere
Atmospheric sciences
–
Main fields
21.
VORTEX projects
–
The Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment or VORTEX are field projects that study tornadoes. VORTEX2 utilized enhanced technology allowing scientists to improve forecasting capabilities to improve advanced warnings to residents, VORTEX2 is seeking to explain how tornadoes form, how long they last and why they last that long, and what causes them to dissipate. The field research phase of the VORTEX2 project concluded on July 6,2010, the project has also stated that it is interested in why some supercells, or mesocyclones within such storms, produce tornadoes while others do not. It also concerned itself with why some supercells form violent tornadoes versus weak tornadoes, the original project took place in 1994 and 1995, while several smaller studies, such as SUB-VORTEX and VORTEX-99, were conducted from 1996 to 2008. VORTEX1 documented the life cycle of a tornado for the first time. Severe weather warnings improved after the research collected from VORTEX1 and many believe that VORTEX1 contributed to this improvement, “An important finding from the original VORTEX experiment was that the factors responsible for causing tornadoes happen on smaller time and space scales than scientists had thought. VORTEX had the capability to fly Doppler weather radar above the tornado approximately every five minutes, VORTEX research helped the National Weather Service to provide tornado warnings to residents with a lead time of 13 minutes. A federal research meteorologist, Don Burgess, estimates that the false alarms pertaining to severe weather by the National Weather Service have declined by 10 percent, the movie Twister was at least partially inspired by the VORTEX project. VORTEX2 was an expanded second VORTEX project with field phases from 10 May until 13 June 2009 and 1 May until 15 June 2010. VORTEX2s goals were studying why some thunderstorms produce tornadoes while others do not, how to more accurate and longer lead time tornado forecasts and warnings. VORTEX2 was by far the largest and most ambitious tornado study ever with over 100 scientific participants from different universities. We still do not completely understand the processes that lead to tornado formation, then you can get first responders to be better prepared—police, fire, medical personnel, even power companies. Now, thats not even possible, said Stephan P. Nelson. Maybe they can seek a community shelter instead of just going into their bathtub, maybe they can get their family to better safety if we can give them a longer warning and a more precise warning. Over 100 scientists and crew researched tornadoes and supercell thunderstorms in the Tornado Alley region of the United States Great Plains between Texas and Minnesota, a number of institutions and countries were involved in the US$11. The project included DOW6, DOW7, Rapid-Scan DOW, SMART-RADARs, NOXP, UMASS-X, UMASS-W, the Doppler on Wheels were supplied by the Center for Severe Weather Research, and the SMART-Radars from the University of Oklahoma. National Severe Storms Laboratory supplied the NOXP radar, as well as several other units from the University of Massachusetts Amherst. NSSL and CSWR supplied mobile mesonets, Mobile radiosonde launching vehicles are provided by NSSL, NCAR, and the State University of New York at Oswego
VORTEX projects
–
NSSL vehicles on Project VORTEX, equipped with
surface measurement equipment
VORTEX projects
–
Project Vortex. The
Dimmitt tornado.
National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL)
VORTEX projects
–
VORTEX2 field command vehicle with tornado in sight. Wyoming, LaGrange. 2009
22.
In situ
–
In situ is a Latin phrase that translates literally to on site or in position. It means locally, on site, on the premises or in place to describe an event where it takes place, in the aerospace industry, equipment on-board aircraft must be tested in situ, or in place, to confirm everything functions properly as a system. Individually, each piece may work but interference from nearby equipment may create unanticipated problems, special test equipment is available for this in situ testing. In archaeology, in situ refers to an artifact that has not been moved from its place of deposition. In other words, it is stationary, meaning still, an artifact being in situ is critical to the interpretation of that artifact and, consequently, of the culture which formed it. Once an artifacts find-site has been recorded, the artifact can then be moved for conservation, further interpretation, an artifact that is not discovered in situ is considered out of context and as not providing an accurate picture of the associated culture. However, the out of context artifact can provide scientists with an example of types, when excavating a burial site or surface deposit in situ refers to cataloging, recording, mapping, photographing human remains in the position they are discovered. The label in situ indicates only that the object has not been newly moved. Thus, an archaeological in situ find may be an object that was looted from another place, an item of booty of a past war. Consequently, the in situ find site may not reveal its provenance. It is also possible for archaeological layers to be reworked on purpose or by accident, for example, in a Tell mound, where layers are not typically uniform or horizontal, or in land cleared or tilled for farming. The term in situ is used to describe ancient sculpture that was carved in place such as the Sphinx or Petra. This distinguishes it from statues that were carved and moved like the Colossi of Memnon, which was moved in ancient times. In art, in situ refers to a work of art made specifically for a host site, for a more detailed account see, Site-specific art. The term can refer to a work of art created at the site where it is to be displayed, rather than one created in the artists studio. In architectural sculpture the term is employed to describe sculpture that is carved on a building, frequently from scaffolds. A fraction of the star clusters in our galaxy, as well as those in other massive galaxies. The rest might have been accreted from now defunct dwarf galaxies, in biology and biomedical engineering, in situ means to examine the phenomenon exactly in place where it occurs
In situ
–
Ancient
Hohokam arrowhead in situ.
In situ
–
Live individual of the sea
snail Natica hebraea photographed in situ
In situ
–
In addition to benign tumors, there are in situ tumors and invasive tumors. In situ tumors do not invade the basement membrane, whereas invasive tumors do invade the basement membrane." Diagram of an in
situ carcinoma
23.
Remote sensing
–
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation. It may be split into active remote sensing and passive remote sensing, passive sensors gather radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding areas. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors, examples of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on the hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects. RADAR and LiDAR are examples of remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, speed and direction of an object. Remote sensing makes it possible to data of dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, glacial features in Arctic and Antarctic regions, military collection during the Cold War made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border areas. Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, the basis for multispectral collection and analysis is that of examined areas or objects that reflect or emit radiation that stand out from surrounding areas. For a summary of major remote sensing satellite systems see the overview table, conventional radar is mostly associated with aerial traffic control, early warning, and certain large scale meteorological data. Other types of active collection includes plasmas in the ionosphere, interferometric synthetic aperture radar is used to produce precise digital elevation models of large scale terrain. Laser and radar altimeters on satellites have provided a range of data. By measuring the bulges of water caused by gravity, they map features on the seafloor to a resolution of a mile or so, by measuring the height and wavelength of ocean waves, the altimeters measure wind speeds and direction, and surface ocean currents and directions. Ultrasound and radar tide gauges measure sea level, tides and wave direction in coastal, light detection and ranging is well known in examples of weapon ranging, laser illuminated homing of projectiles. Vegetation remote sensing is an application of LIDAR. Radiometers and photometers are the most common instrument in use, collecting reflected and emitted radiation in a range of frequencies. The most common are visible and infrared sensors, followed by microwave, gamma ray and rarely and they may also be used to detect the emission spectra of various chemicals, providing data on chemical concentrations in the atmosphere. Simultaneous multi-spectral platforms such as Landsat have been in use since the 1970s and these thematic mappers take images in multiple wavelengths of electro-magnetic radiation and are usually found on Earth observation satellites, including the Landsat program or the IKONOS satellite. Landsat images are used by agencies such as KYDOW to indicate water quality parameters including Secchi depth, chlorophyll a density
Remote sensing
–
Synthetic aperture radar image of
Death Valley colored using
polarimetry.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing
–
Illustration of Remote Sensing
Remote sensing
–
The
TR-1 reconnaissance/surveillance aircraft.
24.
Economics
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Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
Economics
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Economists study trade, production and consumption decisions, such as those that occur in a traditional
marketplace.
Economics
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World GDP (PPP) per capita by country (2014)
Economics
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In
Virtual Markets, buyer and seller are not present and trade via intermediates and electronic information. Pictured:
São Paulo Stock Exchange, Brazil.
Economics
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A map showing the main
trade routes for goods within
late medieval Europe.
25.
Deirdre McCloskey
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Deirdre Nansen McCloskey, formerly known as Donald N. McCloskey, is the Distinguished Professor of Economics, History, English, and Communication at the University of Illinois at Chicago. She is also professor of Philosophy and Classics there, and for five years was a visiting Professor of philosophy at Erasmus University. Since October 2007 she has received six honorary doctorates and her main research interests include the origins of the modern world, the misuse of statistical significance in economics and other sciences, and the study of capitalism, among many others. McCloskey earned her undergraduate and graduate degrees in Economics at Harvard University and her dissertation, supervised by Alexander Gerschenkron, on British iron and steel won in 1973 the David A. In 1979, at the suggestion of Wayne Booth in English at Chicago, McCloskey has authored 16 books and nearly 400 articles in her many fields. McCloskey argued that the bourgeoisie, contrary to its faith in prudence only. The third, Bourgeois Equality, How Ideas, Not Capital or Institutions, McCloskey expanded her argument, coining the term Great Enrichment to describe the unprecedented gains in human welfare of the 19th and 20th centuries. She reiterated her argument that the enrichment came from innovation and not from accumulation as argued by many from Karl Marx to Thomas Piketty. McCloskey is the eldest child of Robert G. McCloskey, a professor of government at Harvard University, and the former Helen Stueland and it is an account of her growing recognition of her female identity, and her transition—both surgical and social—into a woman. The book describes her new life, following sex-reassignment surgery, continuing her career as an academic economist. McCloskey advocates on behalf of the rights of persons and organizations in the LGBT community, McCloskey has described herself as a literary, quantitative, postmodern, free-market, progressive Episcopalian, Midwestern woman from Boston who was once a man. Bourgeois Dignity, Why Economics Cant Explain the Modern World, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226556659 The Cult of Statistical Significance, How the Standard Error Costs Us Jobs, Justice, and Lives, University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472050079 The Bourgeois Virtues, Ethics for an Age of Commerce, ISBN 978-0226556635 Bourgeois Equality, How Ideas, Not Capital or Institutions, Enriched the World, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226333991 The Economic Conversation The Secret Sins of Economics, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0521436038 Second Thoughts, Myths and Morals of U. S. Review of Stratton and Browns agricultural records in Britain, the loss function has been mislaid, The rhetoric of significance tests. The American Economic Review, special issue, Papers and Proceedings of the Ninety-Seventh Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association, the rhetoric of law and economics. University of Michigan Law School via JSTOR, Modern epistemology against analytic philosophy, A reply to Mäki. Size matters, The standard error of regressions in the American Economic Review, rhetoric matters, Ethical standards in a humanistic science of economics
Deirdre McCloskey
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McCloskey in 2014
26.
Elinor Ostrom
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Elinor Claire Lin Ostrom was an American political economist whose work was associated with the New Institutional Economics and the resurgence of political economy. In 2009, she shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Oliver E. Williamson for her analysis of economic governance, to date, she remains the only woman to win The Nobel Prize in Economics. After graduating with a B. A. and Ph. D. from UCLA, Ostrom lived in Bloomington, Indiana and she was Distinguished Professor at Indiana University and the Arthur F. She was a researcher for the Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management Collaborative Research Support Program, managed by Virginia Tech. Beginning in 2008, she and her husband Vincent Ostrom advised the journal Transnational Corporations Review, Elinor Claire Awan was born in Los Angeles, California as the only child of Leah Hopkins, a musician, and Adrian Awan, a set designer. Her parents separated early in her life, and Elinor lived with her mother most of the time and she attended a Protestant church with her mother and often spent weekends with her fathers Jewish family. Growing up in the era to divorced artisans, Ostrom described herself as a poor kid. Ostrom graduated from Beverly Hills High School in 1951 and then received a B. A. in political science at UCLA in 1954 and she married a classmate, Charles Scott, and worked at General Radio in Cambridge, Massachusetts while Scott attended Harvard Law School. They divorced several years later when Ostrom began contemplating a PhD, as a high school student, Elinor Ostrom had been discouraged from studying Trigonometry, as girls without top marks in Algebra and Geometry were not allowed to take the subject. She was consequently rejected for an economics PhD at UCLA and she was admitted to UCLAs graduate program in political science, where she was awarded an M. A. in 1962 and a PhD in 1965. She married political scientist Vincent Ostrom in 1963, whom she met while assisting his research on water resource governance in Southern California and they moved to Bloomington, Indiana, in 1965 when Vincent accepted a political science professorship at Indiana University. She joined the faculty as Visiting Assistant Professor, teaching a course in American Government, in 1973, Ostrom and her husband founded the Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis at Indiana University. She authored many books in the fields of organizational theory, political science, Ostroms early work emphasized the role of public choice on decisions influencing the production of public goods and services. Among her better known works in area is her study on the polycentricity of police functions in the Greater St. Louis areas. Her later, and more famous, work focused on how humans interact with ecosystems to maintain long-term sustainable resource yields, common pool resources include many forests, fisheries, oil fields, grazing lands, and irrigation systems. She conducted her field studies on the management of pasture by locals in Africa and her work emphasized the multifaceted nature of human–ecosystem interaction and argues against any singular panacea for individual social-ecological system problems. Partly, this is due to their complexity, and partly to the diversity of actors involved and her proposal was that of a polycentric approach, where key management decisions should be made as close to the scene of events and the actors involved as possible. Ostroms Law is an adage that represents how Elinor Ostroms works in economics challenge previous theoretical frameworks and assumptions about property, Ostroms detailed analyses of functional examples of the commons create an alternative view of the arrangement of resources that are both practically and theoretically possible
Elinor Ostrom
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Elinor Ostrom
27.
Oliver Williamson
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Oliver Eaton Williamson is an American economist, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, and recipient of the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. A student of Ronald Coase, Herbert A. Simon and Richard Cyert, Williamson attended Central High School in Superior, Wisconsin. He received his B. S. in management from the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1955, MBA from Stanford University in 1960, from 1965 to 1983 he was a professor at the University of Pennsylvania and from 1983 to 1988, Gordon B. Tweedy Professor of Economics of Law and Organization at Yale University, as a Fulbright Distinguished Chair, in 1999 he taught Economics at the University of Siena. In 2009, he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for his analysis of economic governance, especially the boundaries of the firm, sharing it with Elinor Ostrom. His focus on the costs of transactions has led Williamson to distinguish between repeated case-by-case bargaining on the one hand and relationship-specific contracts on the other. For example, the purchasing of coal from a spot market to meet the daily or weekly needs of an electric utility would represent case-by-case bargaining. But over time, the utility is likely to form ongoing relationships with a supplier. Other economists have tested Williamsons transaction-cost theories in empirical contexts, one important example is a paper by Paul L. Joskow, Contract Duration and Relationship-Specific Investments, Empirical Evidence from Coal Markets, in American Economic Review, March 1987. The incomplete contracts approach to the theory of the firm and corporate finance is based on the work of Williamson. Williamson is credited with the development of the term information impactedness, as he explains in Markets and Hierarchies, it exists mainly because of uncertainty and opportunism, though bounded rationality is involved as well. Williamson, in the BBCs paraphrase of the reasoning, developed a theory where business firms served as structures for conflict resolution. The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel,2009 Distinguished Fellow, horst Claus Recktenwald Prize in Economics,2004. Fellow, American Academy of Political and Social Science,1997, member, National Academy of Sciences,1994. Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences,1983, doctoris Honoris Causa in Economics, Université Paris-Dauphine,2012. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Economics, Nice University,2005, doctoris Honoris Causa in Economics, University of Valencia,2004. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Economics, University of Chile,2000, honorary Doctorate in Economics and Business Administration, Copenhagen Business School,2000. Doctoris Honoris Causa, HEC Paris,1997, doctoris Honoris Causa in Business Administration, St. Petersburg University,1997
Oliver Williamson
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Oliver E. Williamson
28.
Public health
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It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, Public health incorporates the interdisciplinary approaches of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health and occupational safety, the focus of public health intervention is to improve health and quality of life through prevention and treatment of disease and other physical and mental health conditions. This is done through surveillance of cases and health indicators, there is a great disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming, many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations, Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization is the agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, for example, in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response. The Public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state-owned health care facilities. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011. Although the prioritization of pressing public health issues is important, Laurie Garrett argues that there are following consequences, when foreign aid is funnelled into disease-specific programs, the importance of public health in general is disregarded. This public health problem of stovepiping is thought to create a lack of funds to other existing diseases in a given country. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people suffer from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by the year 2030, the risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO’s latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1.5 billion adults were overweight in 2008, the United States is the leading country with 30. 6% of its population being obese
Public health
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Newspaper headlines from around the world about
polio vaccine tests (13 April 1955)
Public health
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Three former directors of the
Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980
Public health
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Emergency Response Team in
Burma after
Cyclone Nargis in 2008
Public health
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The primitive nature of
medieval medicine rendered Europe helpless to the onslaught of the
Black Death in the 14th century. Fragment of a miniature from "The Chronicles of Gilles Li Muisis" (1272-1352). Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, MS 13076-77, f. 24v.
29.
Epidemiology
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Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease, epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results. Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in research, public health studies. However, the term is used in studies of zoological populations, although the term epizoology is available. The distinction between epidemic and endemic was first drawn by Hippocrates, to distinguish between diseases that are visited upon a population from those that reside within a population. The term epidemiology appears to have first been used to describe the study of epidemics in 1802 by the Spanish physician Villalba in Epidemiología Española, epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in a population, a condition known as a syndemic. Therefore, this epidemiology is based upon how the pattern of the disease cause changes in the function of everyone, Hippocrates believed sickness of the human body to be caused by an imbalance of the four humors. The cure to the sickness was to remove or add the humor in question to balance the body and this belief led to the application of bloodletting and dieting in medicine. He coined the terms endemic and epidemic, in the middle of the 16th century, a doctor from Verona named Girolamo Fracastoro was the first to propose a theory that these very small, unseeable, particles that cause disease were alive. They were considered to be able to spread by air, multiply by themselves, in this way he refuted Galens miasma theory. In 1543 he wrote a book De contagione et contagiosis morbis, the development of a sufficiently powerful microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1675 provided visual evidence of living particles consistent with a germ theory of disease. Wu Youke developed the concept that some diseases were caused by transmissible agents and his book Wenyi Lun can be regarded as the main etiological work that brought forward the concept, ultimately attributed to Westerners, of germs as a cause of epidemic diseases. His concepts are considered in current scientific research in relation to Traditional Chinese Medicine studies. Another pioneer, Thomas Sydenham, was the first to distinguish the fevers of Londoners in the later 1600s and his theories on cures of fevers met with much resistance from traditional physicians at the time. He was not able to find the cause of the smallpox fever he researched and treated. John Graunt, a haberdasher and amateur statistician, published Natural and Political Observations, upon the Bills of Mortality in 1662. In it, he analysed the mortality rolls in London before the Great Plague, presented one of the first life tables and he provided statistical evidence for many theories on disease, and also refuted some widespread ideas on them. John Snow is famous for his investigations into the causes of the 19th century cholera epidemics and he began with noticing the significantly higher death rates in two areas supplied by Southwark Company
Epidemiology
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Original map by
John Snow showing the
clusters of cholera cases in the
London epidemic of 1854.
30.
Mintzberg
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Henry Mintzberg, OC OQ FRSC is an internationally renowned academic and author on business and management. He is currently the Cleghorn Professor of Management Studies at the Desautels Faculty of Management of McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Mintzberg completed his undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering at the Faculty of Engineering of McGill University. He completed his Masters degree in Management and PhD from the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1965 and 1968 respectively, henry Mintzberg writes prolifically on the topics of management and business strategy, with more than 150 articles and fifteen books to his name. His seminal book, The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning, in 2004 he published a book entitled Managers Not MBAs which outlines what he believes to be wrong with management education today. Mintzberg advocates more emphasis on post graduate programs that educate practicing managers by relying upon action learning and insights from their own problems and experiences. Ironically, although Professor Mintzberg is quite critical about the strategy consulting business, also, he is credited with co-creating the organigraph, which is taught in business schools. From 1991 to 1999, he was a professor at INSEAD. In 1997 he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada, in 1998 he was made an Officer of the National Order of Quebec. He is now a member of the Strategic Management Society, with Phil LeNir, he owns Coaching Ourselves International, a private company using his alternative approach for management development directly in the workplace. He has been critical of the stream of strategy literature which focuses predominantly on deliberate strategy. Mintzberg is cited in Chamberlains Theory of Strategy as providing one of the four main foundations on which the theory is based
Mintzberg
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Henry Mintzberg
