1.
River Wear
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The River Wear in North East England rises in the Pennines and flows eastwards, mostly through County Durham to the North Sea in the City of Sunderland. At 60 mi long, it is one of the regions longest rivers, wends in a valley through the cathedral city of Durham and gives its name to Weardale in its upper reach. The Wear rises in the east Pennines, an upland area raised up during the Caledonian orogeny, specifically, the Weardale Granite underlies the headwaters of the Wear. Devonian Old Red Sandstone in age, this Weardale Granite does not outcrop but was surmised by early geologists and it is thought that the course of the River Wear, prior to the last Ice Age, was much as it is now as far as Chester-le-Street. This can be established as a result of boreholes, of which there have been many in the Wear valley due to coal mining, however, northwards from Chester-le-Street, the Wear may have originally followed the current route of the lower River Team. At about 14,000 years ago, retreat of the ice paused for maybe 500 years at the city of Durham and this can be established by the types of glacial deposits in the vicinity of Durham City. The confluence of the River Browney was pushed from Gilesgate, several miles south to Sunderland Bridge, the gorge cut by the river through the Permian Magnesian Limestone can be seen most clearly at Ford Quarry. In the 17th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, reference is made to a pre-Ice Age course of the River Wear outfalling at Hartlepool and this may, in part, be due to the Pennine areas of Upper Weardale and Upper Teesdale being the site of the shrinking ice cap. The glaciation left behind many indications of its presence, including lateral moraines and material from the Lake District and Northumberland, after the Ice Age, the Wear valley became thickly forested, however during the Neolithic period and increasingly in the Bronze Age, were largely deforested for agriculture. Much of the River Wear is associated with the history of the Industrial Revolution and its upper end runs through lead mining country, until this gives way to coal seams of the Durham coalfield for the rest of its length. As a result of quarrying, lead mining and coal mining. The Weardale Railway continues to run services between Stanhope and Wolsingham. Mining of lead ore has been known in the area of the headwaters of the Wear since the Roman occupation, however, abandoned mines and their spoil heaps continue to contribute to heavy metal mineral pollution of the river and its tributaries. This has significance to fishing in times of low flow and infrastructure costs as the River Wear is an important source of drinking water for many of the inhabitants along its course. Fluorspar is another mineral sporadically co-present with Weardale Granite and became important in the manufacture of steel from the late 19th century into the 20th century, in many cases the steel industries were able to take fluorspar from old excavation heaps. Fluorspar explains why iron and steel manufacture flourished in the Wear valley, Consett, overlying are three Carboniferous minerals, limestone, Coal Measures as raw materials for iron and steel manufacture, and sandstone, useful as a refractory material. The last remaining flourspar mine closed in 1999 following legislation re water quality, a mine at Rogerley Quarry, Frosterley, is operated by an American consortium who occasionally work it for specimen minerals. Minco are currently exploring the North Pennines and the upper Wear catchment for potential reserves of zinc at lower levels and these sources were in due course depleted or became uneconomic
2.
Religious order
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The order is composed of initiates and, in some traditions, ordained clergy. Religious orders exist in many of the worlds religions, in Buddhist societies, a religious order is one of the number of monastic orders of monks and nuns, many of which follow under a different school of teaching, such as Zen. A well-known Chinese Buddhist order is the ancient Shaolin order in Chan Buddhism, a Catholic religious institute is a society whose members pronounce vows that are accepted by a superior in the name of the Church and who live a life of brothers or sisters in common. Catholic religious orders and congregations are the two categories of Catholic religious institutes. Religious institutes are distinct from secular institutes, another kind of institute of consecrated life, in the Catholic Church, members of religious institutes, unless they are also deacons or priests in Holy Orders, are not clergy, but belong to the laity. Several religious orders evolved during the Crusades to incorporate a military mission thus became religious military orders, hence they cannot move – nor be moved by their abbot or abbess – to another abbey. An independent house may occasionally make a new foundation which remains a dependent house until it is granted independence by Rome, in the Eastern Orthodox Church, there is only one type of monasticism. The profession of monastics is known as tonsure and is considered by monks to be a Sacred Mystery, the Rite of Tonsure is printed in the Euchologion, the same book as the other Sacred Mysteries and services performed according to need. Religious orders in England were dissolved by King Henry VIII upon the separation of the English church from Roman primacy, with the Catholic Revival in the Church of England and worldwide Anglicanism in the middle of the nineteenth century, several orders appeared. In 1841, the first order for women was established, there are presently thirteen active religious orders for men, fifty-three for women, and eight mixed gender. The Methodist Church of Great Britain, and its ancestors, have established a number of orders of Deaconesses, the Methodist Diaconal Order currently admits both men and women to the Order. Since the functions of a deacon are primarily pastoral, the MDO may therefore be regarded as an order of Regular clerics, the Order of Saint Luke is a religious order in the United Methodist Church dedicated to sacramental and liturgical scholarship, education, and practice. While Martin Luther had concerns with the value of monastic life, there are Lutheran religious orders in the United States. This order has strong ties to Lutheran Benedictine orders in Sweden, in 2011, an Augustinian religious order, the Priestly Society of St. Augustine was established by the Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church. Its headquarters is at Christ Lutheran Church ALCC, jens Bargmann, Ph. D. is the Grand Prior. Among their corporations, the Religious Order of Jehovahs Witnesses cares for matters specific to Jehovahs Witnesses special full-time servants, in a particular branch, traveling overseers, special pioneers, and branch staff are considered members of the Order of Special Full-time Servants and the Bethel Family. Globally, their order is the Worldwide Order of Special Full-Time Servants of Jehovah’s Witnesses, male and female members of such religious orders typically make a formal vow of poverty and are granted certain status and exemptions by many governments. Jehovahs Witnesses do not have a separate class, but consider an adherents qualified baptism to constitute his ordination as a minister
3.
Order of Saint Benedict
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Each community within the order maintains its own autonomy, while the order itself represents their mutual interests. Internationally, the order is governed by the Benedictine Confederation, a body, established in 1883 by Pope Leo XIIIs Brief Summum semper, individuals whose communities are members of the order generally add the initials OSB after their names. The monastery at Subiaco in Italy, established by Saint Benedict of Nursia circa 529, was the first of the monasteries he founded. He later founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino, there is no evidence, however, that he intended to found an order and the Rule of Saint Benedict presupposes the autonomy of each community. It was from the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome that Augustine, the prior, at various stopping places during the journey, the monks left behind them traditions concerning their rule and form of life, and probably also some copies of the Rule. Lérins Abbey, for instance, founded by Honoratus in 375, probably received its first knowledge of the Benedictine Rule from the visit of St. Augustine, in Gaul and Switzerland, it supplemented the much stricter Irish or Celtic Rule introduced by Columbanus and others. In many monasteries it eventually displaced the earlier codes. Largely through the work of Benedict of Aniane, it became the rule of choice for monasteries throughout the Carolingian empire, Monastic scriptoria flourished from the ninth through the twelfth centuries. Sacred Scripture was always at the heart of every monastic scriptorium, as a general rule those of the monks who possessed skill as writers made this their chief, if not their sole active work. In the Middle Ages monasteries were founded by the nobility. Cluny Abbey was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910, the abbey was noted for its strict adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict. The abbot of Cluny was the superior of all the daughter houses, one of the earliest reforms of Benedictine practice was that initiated in 980 by Romuald, who founded the Camaldolese community. The English Benedictine Congregation is the oldest of the nineteen Benedictine congregations, Augustine of Canterbury and his monks established the first English Benedictine monastery at Canterbury soon after their arrival in 597. Many of the sees of England were founded and governed by the Benedictines. Monasteries served as hospitals and places of refuge for the weak, the monks studied the healing properties of plants and minerals to alleviate the sufferings of the sick. Germany was evangelized by English Benedictines, willibrord and Boniface preached there in the seventh and eighth centuries and founded several abbeys. In the English Reformation, all monasteries were dissolved and their lands confiscated by the Crown, during the 19th century they were able to return to England, including to Selby Abbey in Yorkshire, one of the few great monastic churches to survive the Dissolution. St. Mildreds Priory, on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, was built in 1027 on the site of an abbey founded in 670 by the daughter of the first Christian King of Kent, currently the priory is home to a community of Benedictine nuns
4.
Diocese
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The word diocese is derived from the Greek term διοίκησις meaning administration. When now used in a sense, it refers to a territorial unit of administration. This structure of governance is known as episcopal polity. The word diocesan means relating or pertaining to a diocese and it can also be used as a noun meaning the bishop who has the principal supervision of a diocese. An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese, an archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or have had importance due to size or historical significance. The archbishop may have authority over any other suffragan bishops. In the Latter Day Saint movement, the bishopric is used to describe the bishop himself. Especially in the Middle Ages, some bishops held political as well as religious authority within their dioceses, in the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated in a larger unit, the diocese. With the adoption of Christianity as the Empires official religion in the 4th century, a formal church hierarchy was set up, parallel to the civil administration, whose areas of responsibility often coincided. With the collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century, a similar, though less pronounced, development occurred in the East, where the Roman administrative apparatus was largely retained by the Byzantine Empire. In modern times, many dioceses, though later subdivided, have preserved the boundaries of a long-vanished Roman administrative division, modern usage of diocese tends to refer to the sphere of a bishops jurisdiction. As of January 2015, in the Catholic Church there are 2,851 regular dioceses,1 papal see,641 archdioceses and 2,209 dioceses in the world, in the Eastern rites in communion with the Pope, the equivalent unit is called an eparchy. Eastern Orthodoxy calls dioceses metropoleis in the Greek tradition or eparchies in the Slavic tradition, after the Reformation, the Church of England retained the existing diocesan structure which remains throughout the Anglican Communion. The one change is that the areas administered under the Archbishop of Canterbury and Archbishop of York are properly referred to as provinces and this usage is relatively common in the Anglican Communion. Certain Lutheran denominations such as the Church of Sweden do have individual dioceses similar to Roman Catholics and these dioceses and archdioceses are under the government of a bishop. Other Lutheran bodies and synods that have dioceses and bishops include the Church of Denmark, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, the Evangelical Church in Germany, rather, it is divided into a middle judicatory. The Lutheran Church-International, based in Springfield, Illinois, presently uses a traditional diocesan structure and its current president is Archbishop Robert W. Hotes. The Church of God in Christ has dioceses throughout the United States, in the COGIC, each state is divided up into at least three dioceses that are all led by a bishop, but some states as many as seven dioceses
5.
Diocese of Durham
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The Diocese of Durham is a Church of England diocese, based in Durham, and covering the historic County Durham. It was created in AD635 as the Diocese of Lindisfarne, the cathedral is Durham Cathedral and the bishop is the Bishop of Durham who used to live at Auckland Castle, Bishop Auckland, and still has his office there. The dioceses administrative centre, the Diocesan Office, is located at Cuthbert House, the line of bishops of Durham stretches back to the 10th century, when Aldhun, Bishop of Lindisfarne, transferred his see to Durham around 995. The diocese was founded, with its See at Lindisfarne, in 635, until the See was removed from there around 875, the Bishop owes his unique position to the 7th and 8th century Kingdom of Northumbria, which stretched from the Humber estuary to the Firth of Forth. Subsequently the Kingdom came under Danish and English sovereignty and was transformed into an Earldom, when William the Conqueror became king of England in 1066, he soon realised the need to control Northumbria to protect his kingdom from Scottish incursions. He gained the allegiance of both the Bishop of Durham and the Earl of Northumbria by confirming their privileges and acknowledging the independence of Northumbria. To quell rebellions, William installed Robert Comine, a Norman noble, as the Earl of Northumbria, in revenge, the King raided Northumbria in the Harrying of the North. Aethelwine, the Anglo-Saxon Bishop of Durham, tried to flee with Northumbrian treasures and he later died in confinement, leaving his see vacant for William to the King to appoint William Walcher as bishop of Durham in 1071. The King also appointed Waltheof, an Anglo-Saxon of the old Northumbria house, Bishop William was on friendly terms with Earl Waltheof, who built a castle at Durham for the bishop. After another rebellion, Waltheof was executed in 1075 and in his place William Walcher was appointed Earl, Walcher was well-intentioned but proved an incompetent leader. He was murdered in Gateshead in 1081, the lands ruled by the bishops became known as the County Palatine of Durham, a defensive buffer zone between England and the Northumbria-Scottish borderland. Due to its importance and its remoteness from London, the County Palatinate became a virtually autonomous entity. To ensure that episcopal functions continued to be performed while the bishop was playing his part in political affairs of state. For instance, Bishop Thomas Langley served as chancellor to the Kings Henry IV, Henry V and Henry VI and was away in London. In 1536 Henry VIII greatly diminished the Prince-Bishops secular authority, which was reduced during. From 1537 to 1572, there was one suffragan Bishop of Berwick, since 1572, the see has remained in abeyance, and Berwick-upon-Tweed is now in Newcastle diocese. After the Union of the crowns of England and Scotland in 1603, the palatinate was finally abolished on 5 July 1836. In 1844 the Islandshire exclave was transferred to the jurisdiction of Northumberland,1882 saw the Bishop lose the religious leadership for the whole of Northumbria when the part north of the River Tyne became the newly created Diocese of Newcastle
6.
Hugh de Puiset
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Hugh de Puiset was a medieval Bishop of Durham and Chief Justiciar of England under King Richard I. He was the nephew of King Stephen of England and Henry of Blois and he held the office of treasurer of York for a number of years, which led him into conflict with Henry Murdac, Archbishop of York. In 1153, Hugh was elected bishop of Durham despite the opposition of Murdac, Hugh was not involved in the controversy between King Henry II and Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. After the accession of Henrys second son Richard as king, Hugh bought the office of Sheriff of Northumberland and he also acquired the office of Justiciar, which he was supposed to share with William de Mandeville, but with Mandevilles death Hugh shared the office with William Longchamp. Longchamp had managed to secure the office for himself by the middle of 1190, as a bishop, Hugh was noted as a builder, including a stone bridge in the city of Durham and the Galilee Chapel in Durham Cathedral. His administration of the lands included an inquest into the exact holdings of the bishopric. As a patron, Hugh sponsored the career of the medieval chronicler Roger of Hoveden, Hugh had a long-term mistress, by whom he had at least two sons, and possibly two more. Hugh was the nephew of brothers King Stephen of England and Henry of Blois, born as the son of Hugh III, lord of Puiset and Agnes, sister of Stephen. Agnes parents were Stephen, Count of Blois and Adela, a daughter of King William the Conqueror and his paternal family held a lordship in Northern France. Hugh was born in approximately 1125, for in 1153 with his election as bishop he was still under the age limit for bishops of 28. Henry acquired for Hugh the office of archdeacon in the see of Winchester, Hugh afterwards became archdeacon of York and treasurer of York, sometime around 1143, probably through the patronage of William FitzHerbert while he was serving his first term as Archbishop of York. While treasurer, he was a member of the party at York that wanted to elect Hilary as archbishop after William FitzHerberts deposition in 1147. The successful candidate was Henry Murdac, the Abbot of Fountains, Murdac excommunicated Hugh, who returned the gesture. On 22 January 1153 Hugh was elected to the see of Durham by the chapter, in spite of the opposition of Henry Murdac. Because of Murdacs opposition and refusal to confirm the election, Hugh only obtained consecration by making a visit to Rome. He was consecrated on 20 December 1153, by Pope Anastasius IV, Hugh was enthroned, or ceremonially installed as bishop in his cathedral, at Durham on 2 May 1154. King Stephen granted to Puiset as bishop of Durham, the rights at Weardale. Silver was also extracted from the ore mined there
7.
Godric of Finchale
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Saint Godric of Finchale was an English hermit, merchant and popular medieval saint, although he was never formally canonised. He was born in Walpole in Norfolk and died in Finchale in County Durham, Saint Godrics life was recorded by a contemporary of his, a monk named Reginald of Durham. Several other hagiographies are also extant and this encounter changed his life, and he devoted himself to Christianity and service to God thereafter. After many pilgrimages around the Mediterranean, Godric returned to England and he had previously served as doorkeeper, the lowest of the minor orders, at the hospital church of nearby St Giles Hospital in Durham. He is recorded to have lived at Finchale for the sixty years of his life. As the years passed, his reputation grew, and Thomas Becket, Reginald describes Godrics physical attributes, For he was vigorous and strenuous in mind, whole of limb and strong in body. St Godric is perhaps best remembered for his kindness toward animals, according to one of these, he hid a stag from pursuing hunters, according to another, he even allowed snakes to warm themselves by his fire. Reginald of Durham recorded four songs of St Godrics, they are the oldest songs in English for which the musical settings survive. Reginald describes the circumstances in which Godric learnt the first song, in a vision the Virgin Mary appeared to Godric with at her side two maidens of surpassing beauty clad in shining white raiments. They pledged to come to his aid in times of need, the novel Godric by Frederick Buechner is a fictional retelling of his life and travels. It was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize, Reginald of Durham, Life of St. Godric, in G. G. Coulton, ed. Social Life in Britain from the Conquest to the Reformation Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1918, – digital copy Frederick Buechner, Godric,1981, ISBN 0-06-061162-6, a historical novel. Entry for Godric, first edition of the Dictionary of National Biography, victoria M. Tudor, Reginald of Durham and St. Godric of Finchale, a study of a twelfth-century hagiographer and his subject, Reading PhD thesis,1979. Victoria M. Tudor, Reginald of Durham and Saint Godric of Finchale, learning and religion on a personal level, Studies in Church History,17,1981. Susan J. Ridyard, Functions of a Twelfth-Century Recluse Revisited, The Case of Godric of Finchale, in Belief and Culture in the Middle Ages, Studies Presented to Henry Mayr-Harting. Henry Mayr-Harting, Henrietta Leyser and Richard Gameson, pp. Francis Rice, rector of St Godrics The Hermit of Finchdale, Life of Saint Godric Pentland Press ISBN 1-85821-151-4 Trend, J. B. Anglo-Norman Durham, 1093–1193, Boydell & Brewer, ISBN 0-85115-654-1 Medieval SourceBook, Reginald of Durham, Life of Saint Godric, the Hermit in Lore, Frederick Buechners Godric. Santë Marië Virginë performed by the music group La Reverdie
8.
County Durham
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County Durham is a county in North East England. The county town is Durham, a cathedral city, the largest settlement is Darlington, closely followed by Hartlepool and Stockton-on-Tees. It borders Tyne and Wear to the north east, Northumberland to the north, Cumbria to the west, historically, the county included southern Tyne and Wear, including Gateshead and Sunderland. The county has a mixture of mining and farming heritage, as well as a railway industry. Its economy was based on coal and iron mining. It is an area of regeneration and promoted as a tourist destination, in the centre of the city of Durham, Durham Castle and Durham Cathedral are a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site. Many counties are named after their town, and the expected form here would be Durhamshire. Thus County Durham is a form of County of Durham. The situation regarding the name with regards to present-day local government is less clear. The structural change legislation which in 2009 created the present unitary council refers to the county of County Durham, the former postal county was named County Durham to distinguish it from the post town of Durham. The ceremonial county of Durham is administered by four unitary authorities, the ceremonial county has no administrative function, but remains the area to which the Lord Lieutenant of Durham and the High Sheriff of Durham are appointed. The Borough of Hartlepool, until 1 April 1996 the borough was one of four districts in the relatively short-lived county of Cleveland, the part of the Borough of Stockton-on-Tees that is north of the centre of the River Tees. Stockton was also part of Cleveland until that countys abolition in 1996, the remainder of the borough is part of the ceremonial county of North Yorkshire. Durham Constabulary operate in the area of the two districts of County Durham and Darlington. Ron Hogg was first elected the Durham Police and Crime Commissioner for the force on 15 November 2012, the other areas in the ceremonial county fall within the police area of the Cleveland Police. Air Ambulance services are provided by the Great North Air Ambulance, the charity operates 3 helicopters including one at Durham Tees Valley Airport covering the County Durham area. Teesdale and Weardale Search and Mountain Rescue Team, based at the Durham Constabulary base in Barnard Castle, respond to search, Cuthbert between Tyne and Tees or the Liberty of Haliwerfolc. The bishops special jurisdiction rested on claims that King Ecgfrith of Northumbria had granted a substantial territory to St Cuthbert on his election to the see of Lindisfarne in 684
9.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
