1.
Taj Mahal
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The Taj Mahal is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the south bank of the Yamuna river in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan, to house the tomb of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The tomb is the centrepiece of a 17-hectare complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643 but work continued on other phases of the project for another 10 years. The construction project employed some 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by the architect to the emperor. The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 for being the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the worlds heritage. Described by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore as the tear-drop on the cheek of time, it is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal attracts 7–8 million visitors a year. In 2007, it was declared a winner of the New7Wonders of the World initiative. The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1631, to be built in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. The imperial court documenting Shah Jahans grief after the death of Mumtaz Mahal illustrate the story held as the inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1643 and the surrounding buildings, the Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including the Gur-e Amir, Humayuns Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulahs Tomb, while earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement, the tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan topped by a large dome. Like most Mughal tombs, the elements are Persian in origin. The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side and this motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners, the main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan, the actual graves are at a lower level. The most spectacular feature is the dome that surmounts the tomb
2.
Ordos culture
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The Ordos culture was a culture occupying a region centered on the Ordos Loop during the Bronze and early Iron Age from the 6th to 2nd centuries BCE. The Ordos culture is known for significant finds of Scythian art and is thought to represent the easternmost extension of Indo-European Eurasian nomads, under the Qin and Han dynasties, from the 6th to 2nd centuries BCE, the area came under at least nominal control of contemporaneous Chinese states. Equestrian nomads occupied the previously settled by the Zhukaigou culture from the 6th to the 2nd century BCE before being driven away by the Xiongnu. The Ordos Plateau was covered by grass, bushes, and trees and was sufficiently watered by numerous rivers, at the time, it contained the best pasture lands on the Asian Steppe. However, it has now turned to the Ordos Desert through a combination of overgrazing and climatic change. The Ordos are mainly known from their remains and artifacts. Its relationship with the Xiongnu is controversial, for some scholars they are the same, many buried metal artefacts have emerged on the surface of the land as a result of the progressive desertification of the region. According to Iaroslav Lebedynsky, they are thought to be the easternmost people of Scythian affinity to have settled here, just to the east of the better-known Yuezhi. Because the people represented in archaeological finds tend to display Europoid features, also noted by Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen. Other scholars have associated it with the Yuezhi, the weapons found in tombs throughout the steppes of the Ordos are very close to those of the Scythians, who known on the Asian Steppes as the Saka. While the ethnolinguistic origins and character of the Ordos culture are unknown, however, the art of the Ordos culture appears to have influenced that of the Donghu people, a Mongolic-speaking nomadic tribe located to the east, suggesting that the two had close ties. The Ordos population was also in contact – and reportedly often at war – with the pre-Han and Han peoples. The Ordos culture covered, geographically, regions later occupied by the Han, including areas just north of the later Great Wall of China, to the west of the Ordos culture was another Indo-European people, the Yuezhi, although nothing is known of relations between the two. In Chinese accounts, the Xiongnu first appear at Ordos in the Yi Zhou Shu and Classic of Mountains and Seas during the Warring States period before it was occupied by the states of Qin and Zhao. As the Xiongnu expanded southward into Yuezhi territory around 160 BCE under Modun and it is thought the Xiongnu also occupied the Ordos area during the same period, when they came in direct contact with the Chinese. From there, the Xiongnu conducted numerous devastating raids into Chinese territory, the Han–Xiongnu War began with Emperor Wu of Han, and the Han colonized the area of the Ordos as the commandery of Shuofang in 127 BCE. Prior to this campaign, there were already earlier established by Qin. Ordos bronzes from the British Museum, Beckwith, Christopher I, empires of the Silk Road, A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present
3.
Mongolia
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Mongolia /mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ is a landlocked unitary sovereign state in East Asia. Its area is equivalent with the historical territory of Outer Mongolia. It is sandwiched between China to the south and Russia to the north, while it does not share a border with Kazakhstan, Mongolia is separated from it by only 36.76 kilometers. At 1,564,116 square kilometers, Mongolia is the 18th largest and it is also the worlds second-largest landlocked country behind Kazakhstan and the largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea. The country contains very little land, as much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with mountains to the north and west. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to about 45% of the countrys population, approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic, horse culture is still integral. The majority of its population are Buddhists, the non-religious population is the second largest group. Islam is the dominant religion among ethnic Kazakhs, the majority of the states citizens are of Mongol ethnicity, although Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic, the area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Turkic Khaganate, and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China to establish the Yuan dynasty, after the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan. In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in Mongolia, being led by the Manchu-founded Qing dynasty. By the early 1900s, almost one-third of the male population were Buddhist monks. After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence from the Qing dynasty, shortly thereafter, the country came under the control of the Soviet Union, which had aided its independence from China. In 1924, the Mongolian Peoples Republic was declared as a Soviet satellite state, after the anti-Communist revolutions of 1989, Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system, a new constitution of 1992, homo erectus inhabited Mongolia from 850,000 years ago. Modern humans reached Mongolia approximately 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic, the Khoit Tsenkher Cave in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, and ostriches, earning it the nickname the Lascaux of Mongolia. The venus figurines of Malta testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia, the wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC
4.
Apex (geometry)
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In geometry, an apex is the vertex which is in some sense the highest of the figure to which it belongs. The term is used to refer to the vertex opposite from some base. In an isosceles triangle, the apex is the vertex where the two sides of equal length meet, opposite the third side. In a pyramid or cone, the apex is the vertex at the top, in a pyramid, the vertex is the point that is part of all the lateral faces, or where all the lateral edges meet
5.
Dome
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A dome is an architectural element that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. The precise definition has been a matter of controversy, there are also a wide variety of forms and specialized terms to describe them. A dome can rest upon a rotunda or drum, and can be supported by columns or piers that transition to the dome through squinches or pendentives, a lantern may cover an oculus and may itself have another dome. Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into prehistory and they have been constructed from mud, snow, stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plastic over the centuries. The symbolism associated with domes includes mortuary, celestial, and governmental traditions that have developed over time. Domes have been found from early Mesopotamia, which may explain the forms spread and they are found in Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, and Chinese architecture in the Ancient world, as well as among a number of contemporary indigenous building traditions. They were popular in Byzantine and medieval Islamic architecture, and there are examples from Western Europe in the Middle Ages. The Renaissance style spread from Italy in the Early modern period, advancements in mathematics, materials, and production techniques since that time resulted in new dome types. The domes of the world can be found over religious buildings, legislative chambers, sports stadiums. The English word dome ultimately derives from the Latin domus —which, up through the Renaissance, labeled a revered house, such as a Domus Dei, or House of God, the French word dosme came to acquire the meaning of a cupola vault, specifically, by 1660. A dome is a rounded vault made of either curved segments or a shell of revolution, sometimes called false domes, corbel domes achieve their shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones inward slightly farther than the lower one until they meet at the top. A false dome may also refer to a wooden dome, true domes are said to be those whose structure is in a state of compression, with constituent elements of wedge-shaped voussoirs, the joints of which align with a central point. The validity of this is unclear, as domes built underground with corbelled stone layers are also in compression from the surrounding earth, as with arches, the springing of a dome is the level from which the dome rises. The top of a dome is the crown, the inner side of a dome is called the intrados and the outer side is called the extrados. The haunch is the part of an arch that lies halfway between the base and the top. The word cupola is another word for dome, and is used for a small dome upon a roof or turret. Cupola has also used to describe the inner side of a dome. Drums, also called tholobates, are cylindrical or polygonal walls with or without windows that support a dome, a tambour or lantern is the equivalent structure over a domes oculus, supporting a cupola
6.
Gable
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A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of intersecting roof pitches. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the system used, which reflects climate, material availability. A gable wall or gable end more commonly refers to the wall, including the gable. A variation of the gable is a gable, which has a stairstep design to accomplish the sloping portion. Gable ends of more recent buildings are often treated in the way as the Classic pediment form. But unlike Classical structures, which operate through trabeation, the ends of many buildings are actually bearing-wall structures. Thus, the detailing can be ambiguous or misleading, gable style is also used in the design of fabric structures, with varying degree sloped roofs, dependent on how much snowfall is expected. Sharp gable roofs are a characteristic of the Gothic and classical Greek styles of architecture, the opposite or inverted form of a gable roof is a V-roof or butterfly roof. While a front-gabled building faces the street with its gable, a building faces it with its cullis. The terms are used in architecture and city planning to determine a building in its urban situation, front-gabled buildings are considered typical for German city streets in the medieval gothic period, while later Renaissance buildings, influenced by Italian architecture are often side-gabled. In America, front-gabled houses, such as the Gablefront house, were primarily between the early 19th century and 1920. A wimperg is a German and Dutch word for a Gothic ornamental gable with tracery over windows or portals and it was a typical element in Gothic Architecture especially in cathedral architecture. Wimpergs often had crockets or other elements in the Gothic style. The intention behind the wimperg was the perception of increased height, the gable end roof is a poor design for hurricane regions, as it easily peels off in strong winds. The part of the roof overhangs the triangular wall very often creates a trap that can catch wind like an umbrella. A series of ornamental timber gables, from existing examples in England and France of the 16th Century
7.
Lampshade
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A lampshade is a fixture that covers the lightbulb on a lamp to diffuse the light it emits. Conical, cylindrical and other forms on floor-, desk- or table top-mounted as well as suspended lamp models are the most common and are made in a range of materials. The term can apply to the glass hung under many designs of ceiling lamp. Beyond its practical purpose, significant emphasis is usually given to decorative. In the late 17th-century in Paris the first public lanterns made their appearance in the centre of the streets and they lit the road during the night. In 1763, the made their appearance. These were oil lamps with reflectors which were hung above the center of streets, the first public oil lamps in Milan, financed by revenues from a lottery, date from 1785. These were lanterns containing an oil lamp with a number of wicks, a semi-spherical reflector above the flame projected the light downwards, while another reflector, slightly concave and near the flame, served to direct the light latterly. Friedrich Albert Winsor first had the idea of industrializing lighting by producing gas in a factory, in the first decades of the 19th century, competing gas companies laid the first gas mains in major cities. But there were fears of explosion and toxicity, the flame fed by the gas coming out of the nozzle was intense, uniform and adjustable, white and brilliant instead of the reddish or orange of oil lamps or candles. Theatre audiences regularly suffered from headaches and the sulphur and ammonia formed during combustion of the gas ruined furniture, gas light had to be filtered by opal glass or light fabric shades. Lampshades were no longer used to direct the light but to attenuate it, to disguise the intense electric light, lampshades were used. Some were made by Tiffany in colored glass, the great advantage of the electric light bulb was the absence of flame and traces of combustion, thus avoiding all risks of intoxication, explosion or fire. Modern lampshades can be classified by Shape, by Material, by Fitter, or by Function Lampshades are classified in 4 basic shapes, drum, empire, beyond the basics, lampshade shapes also include square, cut-corner, hexagon, gallery, oval, or scalloped shapes. Lampshades are made of fabric, parchment, glass, Tiffany glass, common fabric materials include silk, linen, cotton, or even paper. Fabric shades are reinforced by metal frames to give the lampshades their shape, for this reason, paper shades can be more fragile than fabric shades. Darker shades sometimes add a reflective liner such as gold or silver in order to light output. A fitter describes how the lampshade connects to the lamp base, the most common lampshade fitter is a Spider fitter
8.
Souvenir spoon
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A souvenir spoon is a decorative spoon used to signify or hold a memory of a place or event, or to display as a trophy of having been there. The spoons may be made from a number of different materials such as sterling silver, nickel, steel and they are often hung on a spoon rack and are typically ornamental, depicting sights, coat of arms, associated characters, etc. The year the spoon was made may be inscribed in the bowl, the entire spoon, including the bowl, handle, and finial may be used to convey the theme. The first souvenir spoons in the United States were made in 1890 by Galt & Bros. Inc. of Washington D. C. featuring the profile of George Washington, one year later, a souvenir Salem Witch spoon was made, and sold seven thousand copies. It was created by Daniel Low, a jeweler in Salem, Massachusetts, the Witch Spoon is given credit for starting the souvenir spoon hobby in the U. S. Media related to Souvenir spoons at Wikimedia Commons
9.
Pullstring
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A pullstring, pullcord, or pullchain is a string, cord, or chain wound on a spring-loaded spindle that engages a mechanism when it is pulled. It is most commonly used in toys and motorized equipment, more generally and commonly, a pullstring can be any type of string, cord, rope, chain, or cable attached to an object in some way used to pull or mechanically manipulate part of it. Toys Perhaps the simplest pullstring toy is the yo-yo, the jumping jack is a more complicated animated puppet paperdoll that uses a pullstring to move its arms and legs up and down. Trompos and some spinning tops use a string that is wound around the top, the Blythe doll has a pullstring that changes the dolls eye color. Other non-doll toys like See n Say, the earliest patent with a pullstring included in it is an 1886 Toy Bowling-Alley. Engines Many motorized lawn mowers, chainsaws, portable generators, Some vehicle engines are also started with pullchains, such as the early-1900s Puckridge, or pullcords, like the pre-release version of the Citroën 2CV car, and the DKW RT125 scooter. Weapons Some grenades like the German Models 24,39, and 43 have pullcords, Some machine guns such as the M73 machine gun and M85 machine gun use a pullchain to charge and/or fire them. Other Some types of blinds and curtains use a cord pull to open, close, raise. Some types of ladders like the extension ladder and attic ladder can have a pullstring that pulls it down from the ceiling, a dock plate can use a pullchain to move it. Some gates have a pullstring on its latch, a pull switch uses a chain or string to actuate a switch, commonly used in lighting and ceiling fans. Modern flush toilets use a pullchain attached to a lever that lifts the plunger to release water into the toilet bowl, the photoplayer uses pullchains to generate sound effects for silent films. Pre-1990s North American diesel locomotive train horns used a lever or pull cord to actuate an air valve, older steam whistles were almost always actuated with a pull cord. A trains emergency brake can be a cord or chain that will stop the train when pulled, older transit buses and trams/trolleys have a pullcord that a passenger can pull to signal the driver that they are requesting a stop. The Jaguar XK120 sports cars doors have no external handles so it uses an interior pullcord instead, Some grandfather clocks have a pullchain to raise the weights in order to wind the clocks gears. A lifejacket has a used to inflate it. Variants A bow string is perhaps the simplest type of pullstring that pulls a bows ends together, a ripcord is a type of pullstring used to release a parachute. A drawstring is a type of pullstring used in many aspects of the fashion industry, bell pull Drawer pull Drawstring Hoist Pull switch
10.
Ceiling fan
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A ceiling fan is a mechanical fan, usually electrically powered, suspended from the ceiling of a room, that uses hub-mounted rotating paddles to circulate air. Most ceiling fans rotate much more slowly than most electric desk fans and they cool people effectively by introducing slow movement into the otherwise still, hot air of a room. Fans never actually cool air, unlike air-conditioning equipment, but use less power. The first ceiling fans appeared in the early 1860s and 1870s, at that time, they were not powered by any form of electric motor. Instead, a stream of running water was used, in conjunction with a turbine and these systems could accommodate several fan units, and so became popular in stores, restaurants, and offices. Some of these still survive today, and can be seen in parts of the southern United States where they originally proved useful. The electrically powered ceiling fan was invented in 1882 by Philip Diehl and he had engineered the electric motor used in the first electrically powered Singer sewing machines, and in 1882 he adapted that motor for use in a ceiling-mounted fan. Each fan had its own self-contained motor unit, with no need for belt drive, almost immediately he faced fierce competition due to the commercial success of the ceiling fan. He continued to make improvements to his invention and created a light kit fitted to the fan to combine both functions in one unit. By World War I most ceiling fans were made with four instead of the original two, which made fans quieter and allowed them to circulate more air. By the 1920s ceiling fans were commonplace in the United States, in 1973, Texas entrepreneur H. W. Markwardt began importing highly efficient ceiling fans to the United States that were manufactured in India by Crompton Greaves, Ltd. Fans used for comfort create a wind chill by increasing the heat transfer coefficient, in addition to the imported Encon ceiling fans, the Casablanca Fan Company was founded in 1974. Other American manufacturers of the time included the Hunter Fan Co, FASCO, Emerson Electric, and Lasko, the latter two were often branded as Sears-Roebuck. Through the 1980s and 1990s, ceiling fans remained popular in the United States, many small American importers, most of them rather short-lived, started importing ceiling fans. Even the most basic U. S-made fans sold at $200 to $500, since 2000 important inroads have been made by companies such as Monte Carlo, Minka Aire, Quorum, Craftmade, Litex and Fanimation - offering higher price ceiling fans with more decorative value. In 2001, Washington Post writer Patricia Dane Rogers wrote, “Like so many other household objects. Therefore, ceiling fans that have a mechanism for reversing the direction in which the blades push air can help in both heating and cooling, some ceiling fans are mechanically reversible instead of an electrically reversible motor. In this case, the blade should be pitched to the right for downdraft, Hunter Hotel Original is one example
11.
Light fixture
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A light fixture, light fitting, or luminaire is an electrical device used to create artificial light by use of an electric lamp. All light fixtures have a body and a light socket to hold the lamp. Fixtures may also have a switch to control the light, either attached to the body or attached to the power cable. Permanent light fixtures, such as dining room chandeliers, may use a switch to turn them on and off, as such. Fixtures require a connection to a power source, typically AC mains power. Permanent lighting fixtures may be directly wired, moveable lamps have a plug and cord so that they can be plugged into a wall socket. A wide variety of light fixtures are created for use in the automotive lighting industry, aerospace. Portable light fixtures are often called lamps, as in table lamp or desk lamp, in technical terminology, the lamp is the light source, which is typically called the light bulb. The term luminaire is recommended by the International Electrotechnical Commission for technical use, fixture manufacturing began soon after production of the incandescent light bulb. Light fixtures are classified by how the fixture is installed, the function or lamp type. Table lamp fixtures, standard lamp fixtures, and office task light luminaires, balanced-arm lamp is a spot light with an adjustable arm such as anglepoise or Luxo L1. Gooseneck lamp Nightlight Floor Lamp Torch lamp or torchières are floor lamps with an upward facing shade and they provide general lighting to the rest of the room. These can be flush mount fixtures which are mounted right up against the ceiling, the ceiling-mounted version is often called a downlight. Cans with a variety of lamps — this term is jargon for inexpensive downlighting products that are recessed into the ceiling, the name comes from the shape of the housing. The term pot lights is often used in Canada and parts of the US, cove light — recessed into the ceiling in a long box against a wall. Troffer — recessed fluorescent light fixtures, usually rectangular in shape to fit into a drop ceiling grid, track lighting fixture — individual fixtures can be positioned anywhere along the track, which provides electric power. Under-cabinet light — mounted below kitchen wall cabinets Display Case or Showcase light — shows merchandise on display within a case such as jewelry, grocery stores. Ceiling fan - May sometimes have a light, often referred to as a light kit mounted to it
12.
Balinese temple
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A Pura is a Balinese Hindu temple. And the place of worship for the adherents of Balinese Hinduism in Indonesia, Puras are built in accordance to rules, style, guidance and rituals found in Balinese architecture. Mother Temple of Besakih is the most important, the largest and holiest temple in Bali, a large number of puras have been built in Bali, leading it to be titled the Island of a Thousand Puras. The term pura originates from the Sanskrit word, meaning city, walled city, towered city and this walled compounds contains several shrines, meru, and bale. The design, plan and layout of the pura follows the concept of Balinese space allocation. Three mandala zones arranged according to a hierarchy, Nista mandala, the outer zone, which directly connects the pura compound with the outer realm. This zone usually takes the form of a field or a garden that can be used for religious dance performances. Madya mandala, the zone of the temple, where the activity of adherents takes place. In this zone usually several pavilions are built, such as the bale kulkul, bale gong, wantilan, bale pesandekan, and bale perantenan, Utama mandala, the holiest and the most sacred zone within the pura. However, the rules for arrangements the facilities of the two outer zones, nista mandala and madya mandala, are somewhat flexible. Several structures, such as the bale kulkul, could be built as outer corner tower, also, there are two types of gates within Balinese architecture, the split gate, known as candi bentar, and the roofed tower gate known as paduraksa or kori agung. Both types of gates have specific roles in Balinese architectural design, Candi bentar is the gate used in the nista mandala, while the kori agung is employed as the gate between the madya mandala and Utama mandala inner compounds. The rules for gate types are valid for non-religious compounds such as puri, nobles. There are several types of pura, each serving certain functions of Balinese rituals throughout the Balinese calendar, Pura kahyangan jagad, pura that are located in the mountainous region of the island, built upon mountain or volcano slopes. The mountains are considered as the realm, the abode of gods or hyang. The most important pura kahyangan in Bali is Mother Temple of Besakih complex on the slopes of Mount Agung, Pura tirta, water temples, a type of pura that other than religious function, also have water management function as part of Subak irrigation system. The priests in these temples have authority to manage the water allocation among rice paddies in the villages surrounds the temple, some tirta temples are noted for its sacred water and having petirtaan or sacred bathing pool for cleansing ritual. Other water temple are built within lakes, such as Pura Ulun Danu Bratan, the example of this type of temple are Pura Taman Ayun and Pura Tirta Empul
13.
Flagpole
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A flag is a piece of fabric with a distinctive design that is used as a symbol, as a signaling device, or as decoration. National flags are patriotic symbols with varied wide-ranging interpretations, often including strong military associations due to their original, flags are also used in messaging, advertising, or for other decorative purposes. The study of flags is known as vexillology, from the Latin word vexillum, due to the use of flags by military units, flag is also used as the name of some military units. A flag is equivalent to a brigade in Arab countries, and in Spain, in antiquity, field signs or standards were used in warfare that can be categorized as vexilloid or flag-like. During the High Middle Ages flags came to be used primarily as a device in battle. Already during the medieval period, and increasingly during the Late Middle Ages. Regimental flags for individual units became commonplace during the Early Modern period, flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals, see, International maritime signal flags. One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolize a nation or country, some national flags have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags. Some prominent examples include, The flag of Denmark, the Dannebrog, is attested in 1478, the flag of the Netherlands is the oldest tricolour. Its three colours of red, white and blue go back to Charlemagnes time, the 9th century, the coastal region of what today is the Netherlands was then known for its cloth in these colours. Maps from the early 16th century already put flags in these colours next to this region, a century before that, during the 15th century, the three colours were mentioned as the coastal signals for this area, with the three bands straight or diagonal, single or doubled. As state flag it first appeared around 1572 as the Princes Flag in orange–white–blue, soon the more famous red–white–blue began appearing, becoming the prevalent version from around 1630. Orange made a comeback during the war of the late 18th century. During World War II the pro-Nazi NSB used it, any symbolism has been added later to the three colours, although the orange comes from the House of Orange-Nassau. This use of orange comes from Nassau, which today uses orange-blue, not from Orange, however, the usual way to show the link with the House of Orange-Nassau is the orange pennant above the red-white-blue. It is said that the Dutch Tricolour has inspired many flags but most notably those of Russia, New York City, the national flag of France was designed in 1794. As a forerunner of revolution, Frances tricolour flag style has been adopted by other nations, examples, Italy, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ireland, Haiti, Romania and Mexico. The Union Flag of the United Kingdom is the most commonly used, british colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history
14.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
15.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
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United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
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United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S
18.
Guard rail
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Guard rail or guardrail, sometimes referred to as guide rail or railing, is a system designed to keep people or vehicles from straying into dangerous or off-limits areas. A handrail is less restrictive than a rail and provides both support and the protective limitation of a boundary. Most public spaces are fitted with guard rails as a means of protection against accidental falls, any abrupt change in elevation where the higher portion is accessible makes a fall possible. Due to this responsibility and liability, rails are placed to protect people using the premises, guardrails are generally required by code where there is a drop of 30 or more. Examples of this are both architectural and environmental, environmental guard rails are placed along hiking trails where adjacent terrain is steep. Railings may also be located at scenic overlooks, guard rails in buildings are numerous, and are required by building codes in many circumstances. Guard rails along stairways are common, and catwalks and balconies are also lined with them, the most common residential guard rail is usually a wood railing around the deck. This typically is built on-site from pressure treated lumber, featuring a design of vertical baluster spaced every 3.5 to comply with building code. Other guard rail construction options are available, cable railings typically use stainless steel cables strung horizontally. Glass balusters and glass panels open the view while still providing safety, with the increasing popularity of composite lumber for decking, manufacturers, like TimberTech are providing composite railing components. Wrought iron is another choice that is traditional and sturdy, Building codes also require that no opening in a guard be of a size such that a 4 sphere may pass. There are three exceptions according to the 2003 International Building Code Section 1012.3 which allow openings to not exceed 8 or 21 depending on occupancy groups or special areas, an architect who was famous for creative use of handrails for social stability was Alvar Aalto. The guard rails of a tower such as the Space Needle or Eiffel Tower become exaggerated to the point of becoming a fence or cage. This is also done on bridges and overpasses to prevent accidents, guardrails are used in a facility setting to protect a companys greatest assets which include their people and expensive equipment. The strongest guardrail option is utilizing a manufacturer who produces industrial strength guardrail and this guardrail is constructed out of 4 Schedule 806 Schedule 40. It is then sleeved in Hi-Density Thermoplastic Polyethylene which makes it maintenance free and it can be mounted using a base-plate or cored into cement to enhance the strength. Guardrail can also be constructed of 10 gauge high-tensile steel formed into a two-rib corrugated design with two secondary ribs and this guardrail is similar in appearance to guardrails in an outdoor setting, but is often used in facilities. Once it is impacted, it must be repaired and replaced, guardrails were being used for the first time in Germany
19.
Gothic architecture
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Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
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Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
21.
Screw thread
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A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being called a straight thread, a screw thread is the essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener. The mechanical advantage of a screw depends on its lead. This characteristic is essential to the vast majority of its uses, the tightening of a fasteners screw thread is comparable to driving a wedge into a gap until it sticks fast through friction and slight elastic deformation. Screw threads have several applications, Fastening, Fasteners such as screws, machine screws, nuts. Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps, gear reduction via worm drives Moving objects linearly by converting rotary motion to linear motion, as in the leadscrew of a jack. Measuring by correlating linear motion to rotary motion, as in a micrometer, both moving objects linearly and simultaneously measuring the movement, combining the two aforementioned functions, as in a leadscrew of a lathe. In all of these applications, the thread has two main functions, It converts rotary motion into linear motion. It prevents linear motion without the corresponding rotation, every matched pair of threads, external and internal, can be described as male and female. For example, a screw has male threads, while its matching hole has female threads, the helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known as handedness. This is known as a thread, because it follows the right hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the direction are known as left-handed. By common convention, right-handedness is the default handedness for screw threads, therefore, most threaded parts and fasteners have right-handed threads. Left-handed thread applications include, Where the rotation of a shaft would cause a conventional right-handed nut to loosen rather than to tighten due to fretting induced precession, examples include, The left hand pedal on a bicycle. The left-hand grinding wheel on a bench grinder, the lug nuts on the left side of some automobiles. The securing nut on some circular saw blades - the large torque at startup should tend to tighten the nut. The spindle on brushcutter and line trimmer heads, so that the torque tends to tighten rather than loosen the connection In combination with right-hand threads in turnbuckles, in such a case, the coupling will have one right-handed and one left-handed thread. In some instances, for example early ballpoint pens, to provide a method of disassembly
22.
Aachen Rathaus
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The Gothic Aachen Rathaus, English Aachen City Hall or Aachen Town Hall, is located opposite to the Aachen Cathedral and is one of the most striking structures in the Altstadt of Aachen, Germany. In the first half of the 14th century, Aachen’s citizenry built the city hall under the leadership of its acting mayor Gerhard Chorus as a sign of their civic freedom. Yet, they had to promise to establish a space in the new hall that could host the traditional coronation feast that was part of the coronation ceremony of the Holy Roman Empire. Up to then, the nearby mid-13th century Grashaus – which is one of the city’s oldest still-standing buildings – had served the community in that function. Construction began in 1330 on top of the walls of the Aula Regia, part of the derelict Palace of Aachen. Dating from the time of Charlemagne, the Granus Tower and masonry from that era were incorporated into the side of the building. Four limestone blocks formed the relief, with one serving for each king, in 1798, during the French period, the relief was partially destroyed, and the remaining pieces were left as they were above the entrance to the main guard station. The medieval artwork was replaced by Gottfried Götting with a replica in 1879. Before World War II, it was transferred to the museum in Aachen. During the great Fire of Aachen in 1656, portions of the roof, the destroyed elements were then replaced in a baroque style. From 1727 until 1732 the Chief Architect of Aachen, Johann Joseph Couven, led a fundamental baroque remodeling of the structure, especially of the front façade, the gothic figures and muntin adorning the windows were removed, and even the interior was remodeled in the baroque style. Today, the room and the “White Hall” both still convey this change in style. This hall was originally for a panel of jurists who controlled the quality of cloth produced in Aachen, at the treaty signing ceremony that ended the War of Austrian Succession in 1748, the “Peace Hall” was set up but was not used because of a dispute between the envoys. As a compensation for this, the city obtained portraits of the envoys, the side of the City Hall that faced the Market was adorned with statues of 50 kings, as well as symbols of art, science, and Christianity. In the meantime, the Coronation Hall was restored and a new entrance was constructed, in addition, the painter Alfred Rethel had the task to embellish the room with a large series of frescoes. Begun in 1847 and completed by his student in 1861, the frescoes eventually depicted legends from the life of Charlemagne, after the destruction of similar artwork at the Neues Museum in Berlin, this painting is one of the most important testimonies to the late romantic style in Germany. Starting from a fire in the Johann Peter Joseph Monheim Drug and Material Warehouse at 26 Antonius Street, flames first spread when cinder from the roof landed on the Granus Tower and set it ablaze. Within four hours the roof and both towers of the City Hall were aflame, as were a number of surrounding houses on the south side of the Market
23.
Viollet-le-Duc
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Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc was a French architect and theorist, famous for his interpretive restorations of medieval buildings. Born in Paris, he was a major Gothic Revival architect and his works were largely restorative and few of his independent building designs were ever realised. Strongly contrary to the prevailing Beaux-Arts architectural trend of his time and he was the architect hired to design the internal structure of the Statue of Liberty, but died before the project was completed. Viollet-le-Ducs father was a civil servant living in Paris who collected books, his mothers Friday salons were attended by Stendhal and his mothers brother, Étienne-Jean Delécluze, a painter in the mornings, a scholar in the evenings, was largely in charge of the young mans education. Viollet-le-Duc was trendy philosophically, republican, anti-clerical, rebellious, he built a barricade in the July Revolution of 1830, instead he opted in favor of direct practical experience in the architectural offices of Jacques-Marie Huvé and Achille Leclère. During the early 1830s, a sentiment for the restoration of medieval buildings developed in France. Viollet-le-Duc, returning during 1835 from study in Italy, was commissioned by Prosper Mérimée to restore the Romanesque abbey of Vézelay and this work was the first of a long series of restorations, Viollet-le-Ducs restorations at Notre Dame de Paris with Jean-Baptiste Lassus brought him national attention. His other main works include Mont Saint-Michel, Carcassonne, Roquetaillade castle, Viollet-le-Ducs restorations frequently combined historical fact with creative modification. For example, under his supervision, Notre Dame was not only cleaned and restored but also updated, many of these reconstructions were controversial. Viollet-le-duc wanted what he called ‘a condition of completeness which never existed at any given time. This approach to restoration was particularly problematic when buildings survived in a mixture of styles, for instance, Viollet-le-Duc eliminated eighteenth-century additions to Notre Dame. Both his theory and his practice were strongly criticized on the grounds that only what had once been in place should be reconstructed. Basic intervention theories of historic preservation are framed in the dualism of the retention of the status quo versus a restoration that creates something that never existed in the past. John Ruskin was a proponent of the former sense, while his contemporary, Viollet-le-Duc. Viollet-le-Duc wrote that restoration is a means to reestablish to a finished state and this argument is still a current one when restoration is being considered for a building or landscape. In removing layers of history from a building, information and age value are also removed which can never be recreated, however, adding features to a building, as Viollet-le-Duc also did, can be more appealing to modern viewers. Throughout his career Viollet-le-Duc made notes and drawings, not only for the buildings he was working on and his notes were helpful in his published works. His study of medieval and Renaissance periods was not limited to architecture, in Henry Van Brunts translation, the Discourses on Architecture was published in 1875, making it available to an American audience little more than a decade after its initial publication in France
24.
Pineapple
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The pineapple is a tropical plant with an edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries, also called pineapples, and the most economically significant plant in the Bromeliaceae family. Pineapples may be cultivated from a cutting of the fruit, possibly flowering in 5-10 months. Pineapples do not ripen significantly after harvest, pineapples can be consumed fresh, cooked, juiced, or preserved. They are found in an array of cuisines. The fiber is used as a component for wallpaper and other furnishings. The word pineapple in English was first recorded to describe the organs of conifer trees. When European explorers discovered this tropical fruit in the Americas, they called them pineapples, other members of the Ananas genus are often called pine, as well, in other languages. In Spanish, pineapples are called piña, or ananá, the pineapple is a herbaceous perennial, which grows to 1.0 to 1.5 m tall, although sometimes it can be taller. In appearance, the plant has a short, stocky stem with tough, when creating its fruit, it usually produces up to 200 flowers, although some large-fruited cultivars can exceed this. Once it flowers, the fruits of the flowers join together to create what is commonly referred to as a pineapple. After the first fruit is produced, side shoots are produced in the axils of the main stem. These may be removed for propagation, or left to produce additional fruits on the original plant, commercially, suckers that appear around the base are cultivated. It has 30 or more long, narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped leaves with sharp spines along the margins that are 30 to 100 cm long, surrounding a thick stem, in the first year of growth, the axis lengthens and thickens, bearing numerous leaves in close spirals. After 12 to 20 months, the stem grows into an inflorescence up to 15 cm long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous flowers. Flower colors vary, depending on variety, from lavender, through light purple to red, the ovaries develop into berries, which coalesce into a large, compact, multiple fruit. The fruit of a pineapple is arranged in two interlocking helices, eight in one direction,13 in the other, each being a Fibonacci number. The pineapple carries out CAM photosynthesis, fixing carbon dioxide at night and storing it as the acid malate, seed formation needs pollination, but the presence of seeds harms the quality of the fruit. In Hawaii, where pineapple is cultivated on an agricultural scale, certain bat-pollinated wild pineapples open their flowers only at night
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Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
26.
Cyprus
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Cyprus, officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean and the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is located south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Israel and Palestine, north of Egypt, the earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia. Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC, Cyprus was placed under British administration based on Cyprus Convention in 1878 and formally annexed by Britain in 1914. While Turkish Cypriots made up 18% of the population, the partition of Cyprus and creation of a Turkish state in the north became a policy of Turkish Cypriot leaders, following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. On 15 July 1974, a coup détat was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of the Greek military junta in an attempt at enosis and these events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute. The Cyprus Republic has de jure sovereignty over the island of Cyprus, as well as its territorial sea and exclusive economic area, another nearly 4% of the islands area is covered by the UN buffer zone. The international community considers the part of the island as territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under law, amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union. Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean, on 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone. The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek
27.
Pafos
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Paphos /ˈpæfɒs/ is a coastal city in the southwest of Cyprus and the capital of Paphos District. In antiquity, two locations were called Paphos, Old Paphos and New Paphos, the currently inhabited city, New Paphos, lies on the Mediterranean coast, about 50 km west of Limassol, which has an A6 highway connection. Paphos International Airport is the countrys second-largest airport, in Greco-Roman times, Paphos was the islands capital, and it is well known for the remains of the Roman governors palace, where extensive, fine mosaics are a major tourist attraction. Paul the Apostle visited the town during the first century AD, the town of Paphos is included in the official UNESCO list of cultural and natural treasures of the worlds heritage. Paphos enjoys a climate, with the mildest temperatures on the island. Paphos has been selected as a European Capital of Culture for 2017, the author of Bibliotheke, the Hellenistic encyclopedia of myth long attributed to Apollodorus, gives the genealogy. Pygmalion was so devoted to the cult of Aphrodite that he removed the statue to his palace, the daimon of the goddess entered into the statue, and the living Galatea bore Pygmalion a son, Paphos, and a daughter, Metharme. Cinyras, perhaps the son of Paphus, but perhaps the successful suitor of Metharme, founded the city under the patronage of Aphrodite, according to another legend preserved by Strabo, whose text, however, varies, it was founded by the Amazons. Archaeologists report that the site of Old or Upper Paphos has been inhabited since the Neolithic period and it was a centre of the cult of Aphrodite and of pre-Hellenic fertility deities. Aphrodites mythical birthplace was on island, where her temple was erected by the Myceneans in the 12th century BC. The Greek names of two kings, Etevandros and Akestor, are attested in Cypriot syllabary on objects of seventh century BC found in Kourion. The mosaics of Nea Paphos are among the most beautiful in the world, the port of Paphos was rebuilt by Nicocles, the last king of Paphos, at the time of Alexander III of Macedon. The theatre, located in the area of the ancient city, is dated to approximately the end of the fourth century BC and has been under excavation by the University of Sydney since 1995. Old Paphos, now the site of Kouklia was seated on an eminence, at the distance of about ten stadia from the sea, to which, however and it was not far from the Zephyrium promontory and the mouth of the little River Bocarus. The Greeks agreed that Aphrodite had landed at the site of Paphos when she rose from the sea, according to Pausanias, her worship was introduced to Paphos from Syria, but much more probably it was of Phoenician origin. Archaeology has established that Cypriots venerated a fertility goddess before the arrival of the Greeks, in a cult that combined Aegean, female figurines and charms found in the immediate vicinity date as far back as the early third millennium. Here the worship of the goddess was centred, not for Cyprus alone, the Cinyradae, or descendants of Cinyras, were the chief priests, Greek by name but of Phoenician origin. Their power and authority were very great, but it may be inferred from certain inscriptions that they were controlled by a senate, there was also an oracle here
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Acroterion
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An acroterion or acroterium or akroteria is an architectural ornament placed on a flat base called the acroter or plinth, and mounted at the apex of the pediment of a building in the classical style. It may also be placed at the angles of the pediment. The acroterion may take a variety of forms, such as a statue, tripod, disc, urn. Acroteria are also found in Gothic architecture and they are sometimes incorporated into the design of furniture. The word comes from the Greek akrōtḗrion, from the form of the adjective akros. It was Latinized by the Romans as acroterium, acroteria is the plural of both the original Greek and the Latin form. According to Webb, during the Hellenistic period the winged victory or Nike figure was considered to be the most appropriate motif for figured akoteria, antefix Finial Palmette Ornament List of classical architecture terms Encyclopædia Britannica - Acroterion
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Alem (finial)
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An Alem is a type of metal finial. Although the terms used are somewhat fluid, in Ottoman Turkish, in modern Turkish, sancak can apply to the whole standard and not simply the fabric of the banner. The word alem came to be applied to the decoration at the top of the flagpole, the central Asian tugh with yak or horse hair can also be topped by an alem. One or more metal protective cases or boxes - often octagonal - containing a copy of the Quran were attached below the alem by a cord or chain. After the rise of Islam the word also came to be applied to the architectural device which caps a minaret. It may incorporate an Islamic emblem of the crescent, a tulip or other shape, miniatures from the Seljuk era show gilded finials on top of tentpoles. Finial Flags of the Ottoman Empire Citations Sources Coffey, Heather, between Amulet and Devotion, Islamic Miniature Books in the Lilly Library. The Islamic Manuscript Tradition, Ten Centuries of Book Arts in Indiana University Collections, retrieved 15 May 2015 Ottoman flag finials
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Crocket
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A crocket is a hook-shaped decorative element common in Gothic architecture. The name derives from the diminutive of the French croc, meaning hook, a crocket is in the form of a stylised carving of curled leaves, buds or flowers which is used at regular intervals to decorate the sloping edges of spires, finials, pinnacles, and wimpergs. When used to decorate the capital of columns, these are called crocket capitals and this element is also used as an ornament on furniture and metalwork in the Gothic style. All Souls College – Oxford Canterbury Cathedral Notre Dame Cathedral – Paris León Cathedral – León, Spain Duke Chapel Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Crocket
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Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
