1.
Chimney
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A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack, the space inside a chimney is called a flue. Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships, in the United States, the term smokestack is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys or ship chimneys, and the term funnel can also be used. The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the environment via stack effect. Additionally, the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings, in the case of chemically aggressive output, a sufficiently tall chimney can allow for partial or complete self-neutralization of airborne chemicals before they reach ground level. The dispersion of pollutants over an area can reduce their concentrations. Romans used tubes inside the walls to draw out of bakeries. The earliest extant example of an English chimney is at the keep of Conisbrough Castle in Yorkshire, however, they did not become common in houses until the 16th and 17th centuries. Smoke hoods were a method of collecting the smoke into a chimney. Another step in the development of chimneys was the use of built in ovens which allowed the household to bake at home, industrial chimneys became common in the late 18th century. Chimneys in ordinary dwellings were first built of wood and plaster or mud, since then chimneys have traditionally been built of brick or stone, both in small and large buildings. Early chimneys were of a brick construction. Later chimneys were constructed by placing the bricks around tile liners, to control downdrafts, venting caps with a variety of designs are sometimes placed on the top of chimneys. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the used to extract lead from its ore produced large amounts of toxic fumes. Lead and silver deposits formed on the inside of these long chimneys, todays central heating systems have made chimney placement less critical, and the use of non-structural gas vent pipe allows a flue gas conduit to be installed around obstructions and through walls. In fact, most modern high-efficiency heating appliances do not require a chimney, such appliances are generally installed near an external wall, and a noncombustible wall thimble allows a vent pipe to run directly through the external wall. On a pitched roof where a chimney penetrates a roof, flashing is used to seal up the joints, the down-slope piece is called an apron, the sides receive step flashing and a cricket is used to divert water around the upper side of the chimney underneath the flashing. Industrial chimneys are commonly referred to as flue gas stacks and are generally external structures and they are generally located adjacent to a steam-generating boiler or industrial furnace and the gases are carried to them with ductwork
2.
Flue
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A flue is a duct, pipe, or opening in a chimney for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, furnace, water heater, boiler, or generator to the outdoors. Historically the term meant the chimney itself. In the United States, they are known as vents for boilers and as breeching for water heaters. They usually operate by buoyancy, also known as the stack effect, as combustion products contain carbon monoxide and other dangerous compounds, proper draft, and admission of replacement air is imperative. Building codes, and other standards, regulate their materials, design, flues are adjustable and are designed to release noxious gases to the atmosphere. They often have the effect of releasing useful household heat to the atmosphere when not properly set—the very opposite of why the fire was lit in the first place. Fireplaces are one of the biggest energy wasters when the flue is not used properly and this occurs when the flue is left open too wide after the fire is started. Known as convection, warm air from the house is pulled up the chimney, while air from outside is pulled into the house wherever it can enter, including around leaking windows. After the flue heats up from the fire, they are easier to move, but also hotter. Hands should be protected when operating the flue lever, and if a new log is added to the fire, in some countries, wood fire flues are often built into a heat preserving construction within which the flue gases circulate over heat retaining bricks before release to the atmosphere. The heat retaining bricks are covered in a material such as brick. This flue gas circulation avoids the heat loss to the chimney. The heat from the gases is absorbed quickly by the bricks. In a well insulated home, a single load fire burning for one, in this way, less fuel is used, and noxious emissions are reduced. Sometimes, the flue incorporates a second chamber where combustibles in the flue gas are burnt a second time, reducing soot, noxious emissions. The term flue is also used to define certain pipe organ pipes, or rather, roman thermae constructed centuries ago had flues. Another use of the term is for the internal flues of a flued boiler, flue-types include, Open flue—An open flued appliance draws combustion air from its surroundings, exhaust gases rise in a vortex up the open flue. The 19th century Rumford fireplace is an appliance that elegantly refined this principle, closed flue—When an air duct brings combustion air directly to an appliance, there is no air movement between the room containing the appliance
3.
Hearth
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In historic and modern usage, a hearth /ˈhɑːrθ/ is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace, with or without an oven, used for heating and originally also used for cooking food. In a medieval hall, the hearth commonly stood in the middle of the hall, later, such hearths were moved to the side of the room and provided with a chimney. In fireplace design, the hearth is the part of the fireplace where the fire burns, usually consisting of masonry at floor level or higher, the word hearth derives from an Indo-European root, *ker-, referring to burning, heat, and fire. In archaeology, a hearth is a firepit or other feature of any period. Hearths are common features of many eras going back to prehistoric campsites and they were used for cooking, heating, and the processing of some stone, wood, faunal, and floral resources. Farming or excavation—deform or disperse hearth features, making difficult to identify without careful study. Lined hearths are easily identified by the presence of fire-cracked rock, often present are fragmented fish and animal bones, carbonized shell, charcoal, ash, and other waste products, all embedded in a sequence of soil that has been deposited atop the hearth. Unlined hearths, which are easily identified, may also include these materials. Because of the nature of most of these items, they can be used to pinpoint the date the hearth was last used via the process of radiocarbon dating. Although carbon dates can be affected if the users of the hearth burned old wood or coal. This was the most common way to cook, and to interior spaces in cool seasons. Kapnikon was a tax raised on households without exceptions for the poor, in England, a tax on hearths was introduced on 19 May 1662. Householders were required to pay a charge of two shillings per annum for each hearth, with half the payment due at Michaelmas and half at Lady Day. Exemptions to the tax were granted, to those in receipt of relief, those whose houses were worth less than 20 shillings a year. Also exempt were charitable institutions such as schools and almshouses, and industrial hearths with the exception of smiths forges, the returns were lodged with the Clerk of the Peace between 1662 and 1688. A revision of the Act in 1664 made the tax payable by all who had more than two chimneys The tax was abolished by William III in 1689 and the last collection was for Lady Day of that year and it was abolished in Scotland in 1690. Hearth tax records are important to historians as they provide an indication of the size of each assessed house at the time. The numbers of hearths are generally proportional to the size of the house, the assessments can be used to indicate the numbers and local distribution of larger and smaller houses
4.
Fireplace mantel
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Fireplace mantel or mantelpiece, also known as a chimneypiece, originated in medieval times as a hood that projected over a grate to catch the smoke. The term has evolved to include the decorative framework around the fireplace, mantelpiece is now the general term for the jambs, mantel shelf, and external accessories of a fireplace. The most prolific designer of chimneypieces was G. B. Piranesi, who in 1765 published a series, on which at a later date the Empire style in France was based. In France, the finest work of the early Renaissance period is to be found in the chimneypieces, which are of infinite variety of design. In the latter part of the century the classic architrave was abandoned in favor of a bolder and more effective molding, as in the chimneypieces at Hampton Court. In the eighteenth century, the returned to the Inigo Jones classic type. Towards the close of the century the designs of the Adam Brothers superseded all others. The Adam mantels are in wood enriched with ornament, cast in molds, mantels or fireplace mantels can be the focus of custom interior decoration. A mantel traditionally offers an opportunity for the architect/designer to create a personal statement unique to the room they are creating. Historically the mantel defines the style of the interior decor, whether it be traditional i. e. Classic, Renaissance, Italian, French, American, Victorian. The choice of material for the mantel includes such rich materials as marble, limestone, granite, certainly the most luxurious of materials is marble. In the past only the finest of rare colored and white marbles were used, today many of those fine materials are no longer available, however many other beautiful materials can be found world wide. The defining element of a great mantel is the design and workmanship, a mantel offers a unique opportunity in its design for a sculptor/artisan to demonstrate their skill in carving each of the fine decorative elements. Elements such as capitals, moldings, brackets, figurines, animals, fruits, one might say that a mantel can be an encyclopedia of sculpture. More than the material, it is the quality of the carving that defines the quality of the piece thus highlighting the magnificence of the room. In 1834 Gideon Algernon Mantell, was given a block containing Iguanodon bones. Up to the century, fires were simply made in the middle of a home by a hypocaust, or with braziers
5.
Chimney crane
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Chimney Cranes, aka fireplace cranes and pot cranes, are a feature of the homes of the American Colonial period and 18/19th century of Western Europe. Although the chimney crane may be thought by some to be a Yankee invention, the purpose of the crane is to allow a cooking pot to be swung away from the fire, preventing burn injuries to the cook as well as regulating temperature of the pot. The chimney crane is an important step in open hearth cooking as it helped save lives and allowed cooks to be more creative. For centuries before the crane was introduced, colonial and European fireplaces used a chain that hung from first a green wooden chimney lug pole then a fixed iron pole directly over the fire. The chimney crane, by contrast, was bolted to the wall and was hinged in order to swing easily, numerous pots, kettles and other items could be hung on the crane to simmer and cook over the flames
6.
Lintel
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A lintel or lintol is a structural horizontal block that spans the space or opening between two vertical supports. It can be an architectural element, or a combined ornamented structural item. It is often found over portals, doors, windows and fireplaces, in worldwide architecture of different eras and many cultures, a lintel has been an element of post and lintel construction. Many different building materials have been used for lintels, in classical Western architecture and construction methods, by Merriam-Webster definition, a lintel is a load-bearing member and is placed over an entranceway. Called an architrave, the lintel is an element that is usually rested on stone pillars or stacked stone columns. An example from the Mycenaean Greece cultural period is the Treasury of Atreus in Mycenae and it weighs 120 tons, with approximate dimensions 8.3 ×5.2 ×1.2 m, one of the largest in the world. A lintel may support the chimney above a fireplace, or span the distance of a path or road, examples of the ornamental use of lintels are in the hypostyle halls and slab stelas in ancient Egypt and the Indian rock-cut architecture of Buddhist temples in caves. Preceding prehistoric and subsequent Indian Buddhist temples were wooden buildings with structural load-bearing wood lintels across openings, the rock-cut excavated cave temples were more durable, and the non-load-bearing carved stone lintels allowed creative ornamental uses of classical Buddhist elements. Highly skilled artisans were able to simulate the look of wood, imitating the nuances of a wooden structure, the Hoysala Empire era was an important period in the development of art and architectural the South Indian Kannadigan culture. It is remembered primarily for its Hindu temples mandapa, lintels. The Maya civilization in the Americas was known for its sophisticated art, the Mayan city of Yaxchilan, on the Usumacinta River in present-day southern Mexico, specialized in the stone carving of ornamental lintel elements within structural stone lintels. The earliest carved lintels were created in 723 CE, at the Yaxchilan archaeological site there are fifty-eight lintels with decorative pieces spanning the doorways of major structures. Among the finest Mayan carving to be excavated are three temple door lintels that feature scenes of a queen celebrating the kings anointing by a god
7.
Overmantel
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An overmantel serves a similar function above a fireplace mantel. Overdoors of such pieces, allegorical subjects, and landscapes were favoured through the end of the 18th century
8.
Damper (flow)
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A damper is a valve or plate that stops or regulates the flow of air inside a duct, chimney, VAV box, air handler, or other air handling equipment. A damper may be used to cut off air conditioning to an unused room, or to regulate it for room-by-room temperature. Its operation can be manual or automatic, manual dampers are turned by a handle on the outside of a duct. Automatic dampers are used to regulate airflow constantly and are operated by electric or pneumatic motors, in a chimney flue, a damper closes off the flue to keep the weather out and warm or cool air in. This is usually done in the summer, but also sometimes in the winter between uses, in some cases, the damper may also be partly closed to help control the rate of combustion. The damper may be only by reaching up into the fireplace by hand or with a woodpoker. On a wood-burning stove or similar device, it is usually a handle on the vent duct as in an air conditioning system, forgetting to open a damper before beginning a fire can cause serious smoke damage to the interior of a home, if not a house fire. A zone damper is a type of damper used to control the flow of air in an HVAC heating or cooling system. In order to improve efficiency and occupant comfort, HVAC systems are divided up into multiple zones. For example, in a house, the floor may be served by one heating zone while the upstairs bedrooms are served by another. In this way, the heat can be directed principally to the floor during the day and principally to the bedrooms at night. Zone dampers as used in home HVAC systems are electrically powered. In large commercial installations, vacuum or compressed air may be used instead, in either case, the motor is usually connected to the damper via a mechanical coupling. For electrical zone dampers, there are two principal designs, in one design, the motor is often a small shaded-pole synchronous motor combined with a rotary switch that can disconnect the motor at either of the two stopping points. The motor is powered from the same 24 volt AC power source that is used for the rest of the control system. This allows the zone dampers to be controlled by low-voltage thermostats. Because simultaneous closure of all dampers might harm the furnace or air handler, another style of electrically powered damper uses a spring-return mechanism and a shaded-pole synchronous motor. In this case, the damper is normally opened by the force of the spring, removal of electrical power re-opens the damper
9.
Masonry
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Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block. Masonry is generally a durable form of construction. However, the used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer, Masonry is commonly used for walls and buildings. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations, Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement offers much greater tensile, the use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls are resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes. Extreme weather, under circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a foundation, such as reinforced concrete. Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend well to mechanization. Masonry consists of components and has a low tolerance to oscillation as compared to other materials such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood. Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength unless reinforced, the tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be added, a masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural, the brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties. There is typically an air gap between the veneer and the structural wall. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion
10.
Spark arrestor
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A spark arrester is any device which prevents the emission of flammable debris from combustion sources, such as internal combustion engines, fireplaces, and wood burning stoves. Spark arresters play a role in the prevention of wildland fire. Consequently, their use is required by law in many jurisdictions worldwide, Spark arresters for steam locomotives may be internal or external. The earliest platforms for spark arresters in the United States were steam locomotives, wood and coal-burning locomotives produce embers which are readily transported by the wind. One popular design was the Radley-Hunter spark arrester, which used a cone to separate embers from the exhaust flow by centrifugal force. The problem of equipment-started fires continued into the 20th century, university of California, Berkeley researchers J. P. Fairbank and Roy Bainer provided the first known academic research on the subject. Their experiments demonstrated that hot particulate matter larger than 0.023 inches in diameter was capable of igniting wildland fuels, in the 1950s, the United States Forest Service became interested in reducing the number of fires started by logging equipment in the National Forest System. However, as engines wear, carbon deposits can build up on the walls of the engine. When these deposits break free, they exit through the exhaust system, vehicles without properly functioning spark arresters have been suspected of starting numerous wildfires, including the devastating track fire near Raton, New Mexico in June 2011. Today, spark arresters can be found as OEM or aftermarket components on many types of equipment, such as agricultural machines, off highway vehicles. Spark arresters are also fitted to the top of a flue to prevent floating embers from a fire setting light to a flammable roofing surface or falling onto combustible material on the ground. Such a spark arrester typically consists of a layer of metal mesh. Large power station boilers are fitted with electrostatic precipitators. Centrifugal type spark arresters employ stationary vanes, baffles, or other devices to trap large particles by centrifugal force and these spark arresters are typically found on heavy agricultural and construction equipment, but some have been developed for motorcycles and other all-terrain vehicles. Screen type spark arresters use a mesh to prevent large particles from leaving the exhaust system. This is the simplest and most common type of spark arrester, screen type devices are used on most motorcycles, ATVs, and small engines. Laws governing spark arrester use in the United States depend on the jurisdiction, internal combustion engines operating on USDA Forest Service and most other federally managed lands must meet the requirements of the Code of Federal Regulations 36 CFR261.52. This mandate requires the operator to have a certified and properly maintained spark arrester installed at all times, many state and local land management agencies defer to the federal requirement
11.
Smoke
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It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires, but may also be used for pest control, communication, defensive and offensive capabilities in the military, cooking, or smoking. Smoke is used in rituals where incense, sage, or resin is burned to produce a smell for spiritual purposes, smoke is sometimes used as a flavoring agent, and preservative for various foodstuffs. Smoke is also a component of internal combustion engine exhaust gas, smoke inhalation is the primary cause of death in victims of indoor fires. The smoke kills by a combination of damage, poisoning and pulmonary irritation caused by carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide. Smoke is an aerosol of solid particles and liquid droplets that are close to the range of sizes for Mie scattering of visible light. This effect has been likened to three-dimensional textured privacy glass — a smoke cloud does not obstruct an image, the composition of smoke depends on the nature of the burning fuel and the conditions of combustion. High temperature also leads to production of nitrogen oxides, sulfur content yields sulfur dioxide, or in case of incomplete combustion, hydrogen sulfide. Carbon and hydrogen are almost completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, fires burning with lack of oxygen produce a significantly wider palette of compounds, many of them toxic. Partial oxidation of carbon produces carbon monoxide, nitrogen-containing materials can yield hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, hydrogen gas can be produced instead of water. Content of halogens such as chlorine may lead to production of e. g. hydrogen chloride, phosgene, dioxin, hydrogen fluoride can be formed from fluorocarbons, whether fluoropolymers subjected to fire or halocarbon fire suppression agents. Phosphorus and antimony oxides and their products can be formed from some fire retardant additives. Heterocyclic compounds may be also present, heavier hydrocarbons may condense as tar, smoke with significant tar content is yellow to brown. Partial oxidation of the released hydrocarbons yields in a palette of other compounds, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols. The visible particulate matter in such smokes is most commonly composed of carbon, other particulates may be composed of drops of condensed tar, or solid particles of ash. The presence of metals in the fuel yields particles of metal oxides, particles of inorganic salts may also be formed, e. g. ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, or sodium chloride. Inorganic salts present on the surface of the particles may make them hydrophilic. Many organic compounds, typically the aromatic hydrocarbons, may be adsorbed on the surface of the solid particles. Metal oxides can be present when metal-containing fuels are burned, e. g. solid rocket fuels containing aluminium, depleted uranium projectiles after impacting the target ignite, producing particles of uranium oxides
12.
Electric fireplace
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An electric fireplace is an electric heater that mimics a fireplace burning coal, wood, or natural gas. Electric fireplaces are placed in conventional fireplaces, which can then no longer be used for conventional fires. They plug into the wall, and can run on a flame only setting, or can be used as a heater, typically consuming 1. 4-1.6 kW, the electric fire was invented in 1912 and became popular in the 1950s. Techniques for electrical flame effects have been around since at least 1981, commercial electric fireplace techniques include the Optiflame, introduced in 1988 by Dimplex. Dimplex claims to have produced the first electric fireplace with a realistic wood-burning flame effect in 1995 and it is unclear what specific technique is being referred to, although it may be U. S. In 2008 Dimplex launched the Opti-myst effect which simulates both flames and smoke, in 2013 Dimplex launched the Opti-V effect which combines realistic flickering flames with three dimensional LED logs that sporadically sparks and an audio element of crackling logs. Advantages of electric fireplaces are that they, do not require chimneys, are often portable, are not just more economical, they are also more convenient and safer to use. Do not require the maintenance needed for wood burning or gas fireplaces, firebox Fireplace insert Fireplace mantel Wood-fired oven
13.
Wood
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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
14.
Natural gas
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It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
15.
Biomass
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Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today, examples include forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, in the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, first-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for production only aggravates the food shortage problem. Second-generation biofuels, on the hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a waste for many industries. Despite being the alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass. Plant energy is produced by crops grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy
16.
Propane
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Propane is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula C3H8, a gas, at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is used as a fuel for engines, oxy-gas torches, portable stoves. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases, the others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof. Propane was first identified as a component in gasoline by Walter O. Snelling of the U. S. Bureau of Mines in 1910. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as wild because of the vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, the New York Times reported on Snellings work with liquefied gas and that a steel bottle will carry enough gas to light an ordinary home for three weeks. It was during this time that Snelling, in cooperation with Frank P. Peterson, Chester Kerr, together, they established American Gasol Co. the first commercial marketer of propane. Snelling had produced relatively pure propane by 1911, and on March 25,1913, a separate method of producing LP gas through compression was created by Frank Peterson and its patent granted on July 2,1912. The 1920s saw increased production of LP gas, with the first year of recorded production totaling 223,000 US gallons in 1922. In 1927, annual marketed LP gas production reached 1 million US gallons, and by 1935, major industry developments in the 1930s included the introduction of railroad tank car transport, gas odorization, and the construction of local bottle-filling plants. The year 1945 marked the first year that annual LP gas sales reached a billion gallons, by 1947, 62% of all U. S. homes had been equipped with either natural gas or propane for cooking. In 1950,1,000 propane-fueled buses were ordered by the Chicago Transit Authority, in 2004 it was reported to be a growing $8-billion to $10-billion industry with over 15 billion US gallons of propane being used annually in the U. S. The prop- root found in propane and names of compounds with three-carbon chains was derived from propionic acid. Propane is produced as a by-product of two processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil. The supply of propane cannot easily be adjusted to meet increased demand, about 90% of U. S. propane is domestically produced. The United States imports about 10% of the propane consumed each year, with about 70% of that coming from Canada via pipeline, the remaining 30% of imported propane comes to the United States from other sources via ocean transport. After it is produced, North American propane is stored in salt caverns
17.
Reinforced concrete
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The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
18.
Fire screen
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Early firescreens were generally shaped as flat panels standing on attached feet, or as adjustable shield-shaped panels mounted on tripod table legs. Fire screens were used to cover the fireplace when nothing was burning inside it, the three-panel fire screen, which covers the fireplace almost completely, has two side panels angled away from the central panel. It is a way of providing decoration in a room. The horse screen, or cheval screen was in use from the 18th century. It is a screen having two feet on each side, the arrangement of the feet giving the screen its name. Placed in front of the fireplace, the decorated screen improves the appearance of a room. Screens are decorated with embroidery, papier maché, painted wood or perhaps stained glass, the pole screen also began to appear in the 18th century. The screen might be rectangular or a more decorous shape, and is decorated perhaps with embroidery, lacquer or paint
19.
Andiron
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An andiron is a horizontal iron bar upon which logs are laid for burning in an open fireplace. In older eras andirons were used as a rest for a roasting spit, the earliest andirons were forged from wrought iron. Andirons and fire dogs are made of metal or ceramic which support the firewood so that a draft of air may pass around it, allowing proper burning. They normally stand upon short legs and are connected with an upright guard. The guard keeps the logs in the fireplace as they burn and this guard, which may be of iron, steel, copper, bronze, or even silver, may be simple, or elaborately ornamented. A common decoration in the form of a canine plays on the meanings of the word dog. Andirons, or fire dogs, had been in use by the Ancient Greeks, excavations made on the Greek island of Santorini, unearthed stone sets of firedogs used before the 17th century BC. Fire dogs were also referred to as idols in antiquity. They may also refer to an artifact-type of late Bronze Age Europe, typically made of clay, they have been found in areas of modern France, Switzerland and Germany, often associated with the Urnfield culture. This naming suggests that moon idols could have used as andirons to build up fire dogs. Men such as Jean Berain, whose artistry was most especially applied to the ornamentation of Boulle furniture, the andiron reached its greatest artistic development under Louis XIV of France, and the first extant examples—often made of cast iron—are to be found in French museums and royal palaces. Firedogs, with little or no ornamentation and made of metal or ceramics, were used in kitchens, very often these uprights branched out into arms, or hobs, for stewing or keeping food hot. Fireplace This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
20.
Iron
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Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
21.
Fuel
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A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 years ago, throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were only used by humans. Charcoal, a derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century, charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China, coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the use of coal is to generate electricity. Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources. They have become a part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols, chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the energy released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways, first, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence, primary and secondary, solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel, solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire
22.
Fire
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Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition, at a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The flame is the portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen, if hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame, Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems around the globe, the positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. The negative effects of fire hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution. If fire removes protective vegetation, heavy rainfall may lead to an increase in soil erosion by water and this is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a liquid will start burning only if the fuel. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not consumed, when added, in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily. Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own products and non-oxidizing gases from the air. Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is small when it is coasting in inertial flight, of course, this does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection. Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron, consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the rate of combustion. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas. This light has a continuous spectrum, complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame
23.
Fireplace fireback
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A fireplace fireback is a piece of heavy cast iron, sized in proportion to the fireplace and the fire, which is placed against the back wall of the fireplace. The primary function of a fireback is to protect the wall at the back of the fireplace and this was especially important where the wall was constructed of insubstantial material such as daub, brick or soft stone. Protective metal plates that became available when cast iron was developed enabled fires to be placed against walls without danger to the fabric of the building, a secondary function is as a radiator of stored heat. The metal is heated by the fire, and then that heat is radiated into the room, the thick iron keeps the heat which would otherwise be lost and gives back this heat to the room. A fireback thus may increase the efficiency of the fire, wood fires have low efficiency, and for those that prefer the atmosphere of an open wood fire the fireback helps to minimise this problem. The thicker the fireback, the longer this radiative effect, old firebacks are nowadays often used as a backsplash above the stove, reminiscent of its old function in the Victorian kitchen. Moreover, they are used as pieces of decorative art and are sometimes displayed apart from the fireplace. The oldest firebacks date from the 15th century AD, the days of iron casting. Designs formed from specially-carved wooden stamps and entire wooden patterns or models gradually became more used and often displayed coats of arms of royalty. Pictorial designs with religious themes were common in Germany, later firebacks bore mythological and allegorical subjects, as well as scenes from nature. The increasing use of coal as a heating fuel caused a decline in many countries in the need for firebacks. In France, wood-burning open fireplaces remained popular and firebacks continued to be produced there in the 19th century, recastings of historic fireback designs are still made in England and the United States. In 1979 artist J. Del Conner and Pennsylvania Firebacks, Inc. revitalized the art form in America his new designs. Plaques de cheminées,1912 Nygärd-Nilssen, A. Norsk Jernskulptur, Oslo,1944 Aitchison, history of metals, McDonald & Evans, London,1960 Mercer, H. The Bible in Iron, Bucks County Historical Society, Doylestown,1961 Kelly, the book of English fireplaces, Country Life Books, Feltham,1968 Kippenberger, A. Die Kunst der Ofenplatten, Verlag Stahleisen, Düsseldorf,1973 Theisen, british Cast-Iron Firebacks of the sixteenth to mid eighteenth Centuries, HodgersBooks, Crawley,2010 Palasi, P. Plaques de cheminées héraldiques, Éditions Gourcuff-Gradenigo, Paris,2014
24.
Fire iron
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A fire iron is any metal instrument for tending a fire. There are three types of commonly used to tend a small fire, such as an indoor fireplace fire or yule log, the spade, the tongs. These tools make it possible to handle a fire risk of burns or blisters. A fireplace poker, is a short, rigid rod, preferably of fireproof material, used to adjust coal and wood burning in a fireplace. A fireplace poker is usually metallic and has a point at one end for pushing burning materials, iron is the most popular metal from which the pokers are wrought. Brass is an expensive alternative for a home poker set. A slice bar has a tip and can be used to stir up the fire or to clear the grates of ashes. Other fires irons include the fire rake, fire tongs and fire shovel, many fireplace sets also include a small broom for sweeping up ash. In Japan, traditional fire-tending device for a Japanese brazier is a pair of metal chopsticks, called hibashi, used to pick up. Large bonfires are not amenable to the use of tools of the commonly used in an indoor fireplace. However some individuals have been known to weld rebar into clever shapes with which to move the wood in a large bonfire. There is evidence humans have used pokers since the paleolithic period. Theoretically, pokers were invented immediately after the discovery of fire, the earliest and most primitive pokers were likely made from the same material as the fuel. This ersatz wooden-type fire-tool may be called a poker or a firestick in colloquial terminology, today, one of the sets in fair condition can garner more than US$3500 at auction. Edward II of England, popular yet largely-uncorroborated story of how a poker may have led to a monarchs death
25.
Bellows
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A bellows or pair of bellows is a device constructed to furnish a strong blast of air. It has many applications, in particular blowing on a fire to supply it with air, the term bellows is used by extension for a flexible bag whose volume can be changed by compression or expansion, but not used to deliver air. For example, the light-tight bag allowing the distance between the lens and film of a photographic camera to be varied is called a bellows. Bellows is only used in plural, the Old English name for bellows was blǽstbęlg, blást-bęlg blast-bag, blowing-bag, the prefix was dropped and by the eleventh century the simple bęlg, bylg, bylig was used. The word is cognate with belly, there are similar words in Old Norse, Swedish, and Danish, but the derivation is not certain. Bellows appears not to be cognate with the apparently similar Latin follis, several processes, such as metallurgical iron smelting and welding, require so much heat that they could only be developed after the invention, in antiquity, of the bellows. The bellows are used to deliver air to the fuel, raising the rate of combustion. Various kinds of bellows are used in metallurgy, Box bellows were and are used in Asia. Pot bellows were used in ancient Egypt, accordion bellows, with the characteristic pleated sides, have been used in Europe for many centuries. Piston bellows were developed in the middle of the 18th century in Europe, however, the double action piston bellows were utilised by the Han rulers in ancient China as early as the 3rd century BC. Metal bellows were made to absorb axial movement in a dynamic condition, often referred to as Axial Dynamics bellows types. The Han Dynasty Chinese mechanical engineer Du Shi is credited with being the first to apply power, through a waterwheel. His invention was used to operate piston bellows of blast furnaces in order to forge cast iron, the ancient Greeks, ancient Romans, and other civilizations used bellows in bloomery furnaces producing wrought iron. Bellows are also used to send pressurized air in a manner in a fired heater. In modern industry, reciprocating bellows are usually replaced with motorized blowers and these bellows blow a more constant, and thus stronger, blast than simple bellows. Such bellows existed in China at least since the 5th century BC, when it was invented, a piston is enclosed in a rectangular box with a handle coming out one side. The piston edges are covered with feathers, fur, or soft paper to ensure that it is airtight and lubricated. As the piston is pulled, air from one side enters and flows through the nozzle and as it is pushed air enters from the opposite side, the middle leave is fixed in place
26.
Tongs
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Tongs are a tool used to grip and lift objects, of which there are many forms adapted to their specific use. Tongs consisting of a band of metal bent round one or two bands joined at the head by a spring, as in sugar-tongs, asparagus-tongs and the like. Tongs in which the pivot or joint is placed close to the ends, such as a drillers round tongs. Tongs are commonly used as a utensil, as they provide a way to move, rotate. According to Pirkei Avot, a classical Jewish text of the century of the common era. The reasoning is that a blacksmith must use a pair of tongs in order to fashion a new pair of tongs, accordingly, God must have provided humankind with the first pair of tongs. Fire iron Food preparation utensils Forceps Trongs Tweezers Food portal
27.
Great hall
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At that time the word great simply meant big, and had not acquired its modern connotations of excellence. Great halls were found especially in France, England and Scotland, a typical great hall was a rectangular room between one and a half and three times as long as it was wide, and also higher than it was wide. It was entered through a passage at one end, and had windows on one of the long sides. There was often a gallery above the screens passage. At the other end of the hall was the dais where the table was situated. The lords familys more private rooms lay beyond the end of the hall. Even royal and noble residences had few living rooms until late in the Middle Ages, and a great hall was a multifunctional room. It was used for receiving guests and it was the place where the household would dine together, including the lord of the house, his gentleman attendants, at night some members of the household might sleep on the floor of the great hall. The hearth was used for heating and also for some of the cooking, commonly the fireplace would have an elaborate overmantel with stone or wood carvings or even plasterwork which might contain coats of arms, heraldic mottoes, caryatids or other adornment. In the upper halls of French manor houses, the fireplaces were usually very large, typically, the great hall had the most beautiful decorations in it, as well as on the window frame mouldings on the outer wall. Many French manor houses have very beautifully decorated external window frames on the large mullioned windows that light the hall and this decoration clearly marked the window as belonging to the lords private hall. In western France, the manor houses were centered on a central ground-floor hall. Later, the reserved for the lord and his high-ranking guests was moved up to the first-floor level. This was called the salle haute or upper hall, in some of the larger three-storey manor houses, the upper hall was as high as second storey roof. The smaller ground-floor hall or salle basse remained but was for receiving guests of any social order and it is very common to find these two halls superimposed, one on top of the other, in larger manor houses in Normandy and Brittany. Access from the hall to the upper hall was normally via an external staircase tower. The upper hall often contained the bedroom and living quarters off one end. Occasionally the great hall would have a listening device system
28.
Louver
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A louver or louvre is a window blind or shutter with horizontal slats that are angled to admit light and air, but to keep out rain and direct sunshine. The angle of the slats may be adjustable, usually in blinds and windows, louvers originated in the Middle Ages as lantern-like constructions in wood that were fitted on top of roof holes in large kitchens to allow ventilation while keeping out rain and snow. They were originally rather crude constructions consisting merely of a barrel, modern louvers are often made of aluminium, metal, wood, or glass. They may be opened and closed with a lever, pulleys. Often used interchangeably by mistake, the key difference between louvers and jalousies is that louvers are fixed position, jalousies are installed within a movable adjustable mechanism which positions all jalousies into any parallel position with respect to each other. Louvers are rarely seen as primary design elements in the language of modern architecture, some modern louver systems serve to improve indoor daylighting. Fixed mirrored louver systems can limit glare and of redirect diffuse light, such louvers may be integrated in between two panes of double glazing. In industrial facilities such as foundries and power plants, louvers are very common. They are utilized for natural ventilation and temperature control, louvers may be used as a type of flood opening, usually covered by one or more moving flaps. They are designed to allow floodwaters to enter and leave the building, equalizing hydrostatic pressure on the walls, louvers are used as semi-passive means of thermal control on spacecraft as well. They are also available as an accessory for some automobiles, louvers may also be used on traffic light lenses to prevent traffic from seeing the wrong traffic signal. There are examples of architects who use louvres as part of the aesthetic effect of their buildings. A second example, taking influence from Aalto, is the second-generation modernist architect Juha Leiviskä, air conditioning Jalousie window Window shutter Notes Bibliography Henisch, Bridget Ann Fast and Feast, Food in Medieval Society. The Pennsylvania State Press, University Park, national Association of Home Builders Research Center
29.
Smoke canopy
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A smoke canopy is a device hung over a fire to gather the smoke and vent it through a wall or roof. Fireplaces were not used during much of the Middle Ages, because there were no chimneys, most fires for heating were placed on hearths in the middles of rooms, and the smoke was allowed to rise to vents in the roof or high in walls. Smoke canopies provided an alternative, gathering the smoke above a fire and venting, most of the pictures we have of medieval smoke canopies show them being used in kitchens. They usually appeared over hearths that were placed against stone walls, some were over free standing hearths, but this required special venting of the smoke
30.
Prince Rupert of the Rhine
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Rupert was a younger son of the German prince Frederick V, Elector Palatine and his wife Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of James I of England. Thus Rupert was the nephew of King Charles I of England, who made him Duke of Cumberland and Earl of Holderness, and his sister Electress Sophia was the mother of George I of Great Britain. Prince Rupert had a varied career and he was a soldier from a young age, fighting against Spain in the Netherlands during the Eighty Years War, and against the Holy Roman Emperor in Germany during the Thirty Years War. Aged 23, he was appointed commander of the Royalist cavalry during the English Civil War, becoming the archetypal Cavalier of the war and he surrendered after the fall of Bristol and was banished from England. He served under Louis XIV of France against Spain, and then as a Royalist privateer in the Caribbean, Rupert died in England in 1682, aged 62. Rupert is considered to have been a quick-thinking and energetic cavalry general, in the Interregnum, Rupert continued the conflict against Parliament by sea from the Mediterranean to the Caribbean, showing considerable persistence in the face of adversity. As the head of the Royal Navy in his years, he showed greater maturity and made impressive and long-lasting contributions to the Royal Navys doctrine. As a colonial governor, Rupert shaped the geography of modern Canada—Ruperts Land was named in his honour. He also played a role in the early African slave trade, Ruperts varied and numerous scientific and administrative interests combined with his considerable artistic skills made him one of the more colourful individuals of the Restoration period. Rupert was born in Prague in 1619, at the start of the Thirty Years War, to Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and Elizabeth Stuart and he was given his name in honour of King Rupert of Germany, a famous Wittelsbach ancestor. Ruperts father was a member of the Holy Roman Empire. This support was not forthcoming, resulting in a defeat at the hands of his Catholic enemies at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. Ruperts parents were mockingly termed the Winter King and Queen as a consequence of their reigns in Bohemia having lasted only a single season. Rupert was almost left behind in the rush to escape Ferdinands advance on Prague, until Kryštof z Donína. Rupert accompanied his parents to The Hague, where he spent his years at the Hof te Wassenaer. Ruperts mother paid her children little attention even by the standards of the day, apparently preferring her pet monkeys, the result was a strict school routine including logic, mathematics, writing, drawing, singing and playing instruments. As a child, Rupert was at times badly behaved, fiery, mischievous, nonetheless, Rupert proved to be an able student. By the age of three he could speak some English, Czech and French, and mastered German while still young and he excelled in art, being taught by Gerard van Honthorst, and found the maths and sciences easy
31.
Charles I of England
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Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
32.
Benjamin Franklin
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Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a polymath and a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman. As a scientist, he was a figure in the American Enlightenment. As an inventor, he is known for the rod, bifocals. He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphias fire department and the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin earned the title of The First American for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, initially as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation, in the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat. To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin the most accomplished American of his age, Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at the age of 23. He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richards Almanack, which he authored under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, after 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British policies. He pioneered and was first president of The Academy and College of Philadelphia which opened in 1751 and he organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing shipments of crucial munitions from France, during the Revolution, he became the first US Postmaster General. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, from 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the 1750s, he argued against slavery from an economic perspective, Franklins father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23,1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15,1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrill, Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683, after her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9,1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their child, was Josiah Franklins fifteenth child and tenth
33.
Franklin stove
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The Franklin stove is a metal-lined fireplace named after Benjamin Franklin, who invented it in 1741. It had a hollow baffle near the rear and relied on an inverted siphon to draw the fires hot fumes around the baffle and it was intended to produce more heat and less smoke than an ordinary open fireplace. It is also known as a stove or the Pennsylvania fireplace. The two distinguishing features of Franklins stove were a hollow baffle and a flue that acted as an upside-down siphon. Baffles were used to lengthen the path that either an air or a fires fumes had to flow through ductwork. The longer the path through which the air flowed, the heat would be transferred from the fire to the air. Similarly, the longer the duct through which a fires fumes had to flow before reaching the chimney, the use of baffles to extract more heat from a fire and its fumes was not new. In 1624, a French physician, Louis Savot, described a fireplace that he had built in the Louvre, ducts passed under, behind, and above the fire in the hearth. Cool air in the room entered the opening of a duct, was warmed, rose. In 1713, Frenchman Nicolas Gauger published a book, La Mécanique du Feu. in which he presented novel designs for fireplaces, Gauger surrounded the hearth with hollow spaces. Cool room air entered the spaces through lower openings, was warmed as it snaked around the baffles in the spaces, in Franklins stove, a hollow baffle was positioned inside and near the rear of the stove. The baffle was a wide but thin cast-iron box, which was open to the air at its bottom. Air entered the bottom of the box and was heated both by the fire and by the flowing over the front and back of the box. The warmed air then rose inside the baffle and exited through the holes in the baffles sides and this was what Franklin called an aerial syphon or syphon reversd. This inverted siphon was used to draw the fires hot fumes up the front and down the back of the Franklin stoves hollow baffle, the earliest known example of such an inverted siphon was the 1618 fireplace of Franz Kessler. The fire burned in a ceramic box, inside the box and behind the fire was a baffle. The baffle forced the fires fumes to descend behind the baffle before exiting to the chimney, the intention was to extract as much heat as possible from the fumes by extending the path that the fumes had to follow before they reached the chimney. The 1678 fireplace of Prince Rupert also included an inverted siphon, Rupert placed a hanging iron door between the fire grate and the chimney
34.
Count Rumford
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He served as lieutenant-colonel of the Kings American Dragoons, part of the British Loyalist forces, during the American Revolutionary War. After the end of the war he moved to London, where his talents were recognized when he was appointed a full colonel. A prolific designer, Thompson also drew designs for warships and he later moved to Bavaria and entered government service there, being appointed Bavarian Army Minister and re-organizing the army, and, in 1791, was made a Count of the Holy Roman Empire. Thompson was born in rural Woburn, Massachusetts, on March 26,1753, at the age of 13 he was apprenticed to John Appleton, a merchant of nearby Salem. Thompson excelled at his trade, and coming in contact with refined and well educated people for the first time, while recuperating in Woburn in 1769 from an injury, Thompson conducted experiments concerning the nature of heat and began to correspond with Loammi Baldwin and others about them. Later that year he worked for a few months for a Boston shopkeeper and then apprenticed himself briefly, Thompsons prospects were dim in 1772 but in that year they changed abruptly. He met, charmed and married a rich and well-connected heiress named Sarah Rolfe and her father was a minister, and her late husband left her property at Concord, New Hampshire, then called Rumford. They moved to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and through his wifes influence with the governor, when the American Revolutionary War began Thompson was a man of property and standing in New England and was opposed to the uprising. He was active in recruiting loyalists to fight the rebels and this earned him the enmity of the popular party, and a mob attacked Thompsons house. He fled to the British lines, abandoning his wife, as it turned out, Thompson was welcomed by the British to whom he gave valuable information about the American forces, and became an advisor to both General Gage and Lord George Germain. On the strength of this he arrived in London at the end of the war with a reputation as a scientist, in 1785, he moved to Bavaria where he became an aide-de-camp to the Prince-elector Charles Theodore. He spent eleven years in Bavaria, reorganizing the army and establishing workhouses for the poor and he also invented Rumfords Soup, a soup for the poor, and established the cultivation of the potato in Bavaria. He studied methods of cooking, heating, and lighting, including the costs and efficiencies of wax candles, tallow candles. On Prince Charles behalf he created the Englischer Garten in Munich in 1789 and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1789. His experiments on gunnery and explosives led to an interest in heat and he devised a method for measuring the specific heat of a solid substance but was disappointed when Johan Wilcke published his parallel discovery first. Thompson next investigated the properties of various materials, including fur, wool. He correctly appreciated that the properties of these natural materials arise from the fact that they inhibit the convection of air. He then made the somewhat reckless, and incorrect, inference that air and, in fact and he further saw this as evidence of the argument from design, contending that divine providence had arranged for fur on animals in such a way as to guarantee their comfort
35.
Arts and Crafts movement
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It stood for traditional craftsmanship using simple forms, and often used medieval, romantic, or folk styles of decoration. It advocated economic and social reform and was essentially anti-industrial and it had a strong influence on the arts in Europe until it was displaced by Modernism in the 1930s, and its influence continued among craft makers, designers, and town planners long afterwards. It was inspired by the ideas of architect Augustus Pugin, writer John Ruskin, the movement developed earliest and most fully in the British Isles, and spread across the British Empire and to the rest of Europe and North America. It was largely a reaction against the perceived impoverished state of the arts at the time. The Arts and Crafts style emerged from the attempt to reform design, but it was as much a movement of social reform as design reform and its leading practitioners did not separate the two. The art historian Nikolaus Pevsner has said that exhibits in the Great Exhibition showed ignorance of basic need in creating patterns. Owen Jones, for example, declared that Ornament, fiona MacCarthy says that unlike later zealots like Gandhi, William Morris had no practical objections to the use of machinery per se so long as the machines produced the quality he needed. Morriss followers also had differing views or changed their minds over time. C. R. Ashbee, for example, a figure in the Arts and Crafts Movement. At the time of his Guild of Handicraft, initiated in 1888, he said, We do not reject the machine, but we would desire to see it mastered. Morris insisted that the artist should be a working by hand and advocated a society of free craftspeople. Because craftsmen took pleasure in their work, he wrote, the Middle Ages was a period of greatness in the art of the common people. The treasures in our museums now are only the common used in households of that age. Medieval art was the model for much Arts and Crafts design and medieval life, before capitalism, the founders of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society did not insist that the designer should also be the maker. Peter Floud, writing in the 1950s, said that The founders of the Society, never executed their own designs, but invariably turned them over to commercial firms. The Arts and Crafts Movement was associated with socialist ideas in the persons of Morris, T. J. Cobden Sanderson, Walter Crane, Ashbee, in the early 1880s Morris was spending more of his time on socialist propaganda than on designing and making. Ashbee established a community of craftsmen, the Guild of Handicraft, in east London and those adherents who were not socialists, for example, Alfred Hoare Powell, advocated a more humane and personal relationship between employer and employee. Lewis Foreman Day, a successful and influential Arts and Crafts designer, was not a socialist either
36.
Victorian decorative arts
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Victorian decorative arts refers to the style of decorative arts during the Victorian era. Victorian design is viewed as having indulged in a grand excess of ornament. The Arts and Crafts movement, the movement, Anglo-Japanese style. Interior decoration and interior design of the Victorian era are noted for orderliness, a house from this period was idealistically divided in rooms, with public and private space carefully separated. The parlour was the most important room in a home and was the showcase for the homeowners where guests were entertained, a bare room was considered to be in poor taste, so every surface was filled with objects that reflected the owners interests and aspirations. The dining room was the second-most important room in the house, the sideboard was most often the focal point of the dining room and very ornately decorated. The choice of paint color on the walls in Victorian homes was said to be based on the use of the room, hallways that were in the entry hall and the stair halls were painted a somber gray so as not to compete with the surrounding rooms. Most people marbleized the walls or the woodwork, also on walls it was common to score into wet plaster to make it resemble blocks of stone. Finishes that were either marbleized or grained were frequently found on doors, graining was meant to imitate woods of higher quality that were more difficult to work. There were specific rules for interior color choice and placement, the theory of “harmony by analogy” was to use the colors that lay next to each other on the color wheel. And the second was the “harmony by contrast” that was to use the colors that were opposite of one another on the color wheel. There was a favored tripartite wall that included a dado or wainscoting at the bottom, a field in the middle and this was popular into the 20th century. Frederick Walton who created linoleum in 1863 created the process for embossing semi-liquid linseed oil and it was called Lincrusta and was applied much like wallpaper. This process made it easy to go over the oil and make it resemble wood. There was not one dominant style of furniture in the Victorian period, designers rather used and modified many styles taken from various time periods in history like Gothic, Tudor, Elizabethan, English Rococo, Neoclassical and others. The Gothic and Rococo revival style were the most common styles to be seen in furniture during this time in history, Wallpaper and wallcoverings became accessible for increasing numbers of householders with their wide range of designs and varying costs. This was due to the introduction of production techniques and, in England. Wallpaper was often made in elaborate patterns with primary colors in the backgrounds and overprinted with colours of cream
37.
Sherlock Holmes Museum
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The Sherlock Holmes Museum is a privately run museum in London, England, dedicated to the famous fictional detective Sherlock Holmes. The museum is run by the Sherlock Holmes Society of England, the address 221B was the subject of a protracted dispute between the museum and the nearby Abbey National building. Since the 1930s, the Royal Mail had been delivering mail addressed to Sherlock Holmes to the Abbey National Bank, jean Conan Doyle made clear her lack of enthusiasm for the museum when she was asked about it. This idea was strengthened further by the presence of a blue plaque on the outside that states the years of Holmess supposed residency
38.
Tile
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A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, or even glass, generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, showers, or other objects such as tabletops. Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to units made from lightweight materials such as perlite, wood. In another sense, a tile is a tile or similar object. The word is derived from the French word tuile, which is, in turn, from the Latin word tegula, Tiles are often used to form wall and floor coverings, and can range from simple square tiles to complex mosaics. Tiling stone is marble, onyx, granite or slate. Thinner tiles can be used on walls than on floors, which require more durable surfaces that will resist impacts, the earliest evidence of glazed brick is the discovery of glazed bricks in the Elamite Temple at Chogha Zanbil, dated to the 13th century BC. Glazed and colored bricks were used to make low reliefs in Ancient Mesopotamia, most famously the Ishtar Gate of Babylon, now reconstructed in Berlin. Mesopotamian craftsmen were imported for the palaces of the Persian Empire such as Persepolis, tiling was used in the second century by the Sinhalese kings of ancient Sri Lanka, using smoothed and polished stone laid on floors and in swimming pools. Historians consider the techniques and tools for tiling as well advanced, evidenced by the fine workmanship, tiling from this period can be seen Ruwanwelisaya and Kuttam Pokuna in the city of Anuradhapura. The Achaemenid Empire decorated buildings with glazed tiles, including Darius the Greats palace at Susa. The succeeding Sassanid Empire used tiles patterned with geometric designs, flowers, plants, birds and human beings, early Islamic mosaics in Iran consist mainly of geometric decorations in mosques and mausoleums, made of glazed brick. Typical turquoise tiling becomes popular in 10th-11th century and is used mostly for Kufic inscriptions on mosque walls, seyyed Mosque in Isfahan, Dome of Maraqeh and the Jame Mosque of Gonabad are among the finest examples. The dome of Jame Atiq Mosque of Qazvin is also dated to this period, the golden age of Persian tilework began during the reign the Timurid Empire. In the moraq technique, single-color tiles were cut into small geometric pieces, after hardening, these panels were assembled on the walls of buildings. But the mosaic was not limited to flat areas, Tiles were used to cover both the interior and exterior surfaces of domes. Prominent Timurid examples of this include the Jame Mosque of Yazd, Goharshad Mosque, the Madrassa of Khan in Shiraz. Other important tile techniques of time include girih tiles, with their characteristic white girih. Mihrabs, being the points of mosques, were usually the places where most sophisticated tilework was placed
39.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
40.
Catherine Palace
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The Catherine Palace is a Rococo palace located in the town of Tsarskoye Selo,30 km south of St. Petersburg, Russia. It was the residence of the Russian tsars. The residence originated in 1717, when Catherine I of Russia hired German architect Johann-Friedrich Braunstein to construct a palace for her pleasure. In 1733, Empress Elizabeth commissioned Mikhail Zemtsov and Andrei Kvasov to expand the Catherine Palace, construction lasted for four years, and on 30 July 1756 the architect presented the brand-new 325-meter-long palace to the Empress, her dazed courtiers, and stupefied foreign ambassadors. More than 100 kilograms of gold were used to gild the sophisticated stucco façade, in front of the palace a great formal garden was laid out. The interior of the pavilion featured dining tables with dumbwaiter mechanisms, the grand entrance to the palace is flanked by two massive circumferences, also in the Rococo style. A delicate cast-iron grille separates the complex from the town of Tsarskoe Selo, although the palace is popularly associated with Catherine the Great, she actually regarded its whipped cream architecture as old-fashioned. In her memoirs she censured her predecessors reckless extravagance, The palace was then being built and that house has been pulled down six times to the foundation, then built up again till it was brought to its present state. The sum of a six hundred thousand rubles was spent on the construction. Accounts exist to prove it, but besides this sum the Empress spent much money out of her own pocket on it, according to Catherines wishes, many remarkable structures were erected for her amusement in the Catherine Park. These include the Dutch Admiralty, Creaking Pagoda, Chesme Column, Rumyantsev Obelisk, upon Catherines death in 1796, the palace was abandoned in favour of Pavlovsk Palace. After the Great Fire of 1820, Alexander I engaged Vasily Stasov to refurbish some interiors of his grandmothers residence in the Empire style, twenty years later, the magnificent Stasov Staircase was constructed to replace the old circular staircase leading to the Palace house church. Unfortunately, most of Stasovs interiors—specifically those dating from the reign of Nicholas I—have not been restored after the destruction caused by the Germans during World War II, when the German forces retreated after the siege of Leningrad, they intentionally destroyed the residence. Leaving only the shell of the palace behind. Prior to World War II, Soviet archivists managed to document a fair amount of the interior, which proved of great importance in reconstructing the palace. Although the largest part of the reconstruction was completed in time for the Tercentenary of St. Petersburg in 2003, much work is still required to restore the palace to its former glory. The Great Hall, or Light Gallery, as it was called in the 18th century, is an apartment in the Russian baroque style designed by Bartolomeo Rastrelli between 1752 and 1756. The Great Hall was intended for important receptions such as balls, formal dinners
41.
Neoclassicism
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The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art
42.
Charles Cameron (architect)
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Charles Cameron was a Scottish architect who made an illustrious career at the court of Catherine II of Russia. All his indisputable tangible works can be encompassed in a tour, Cameron concentrated exclusively on country palaces. Twice dismissed by Paul of Russia during the Battle of the Palaces, Camerons British neoclassicism was an isolated episode in Russian architecture, then dominated by Italian artists. Howard Colvin ranked Cameron one of the major architects of the eighteenth century. An accomplished designer and decorator in a style that has affinities with that of Robert Adam. His style is sufficiently individual to exonerate him from the imputation of being merely an imitator, although still a Palladian, Cameron was a pioneer of Greek Revival in Russia. Charles Cameron was the son of Walter Cameron, a London carpenter, speculative builder and he claimed descent from the Camerons of Lochiel, a Scottish clan deeply involved in the Jacobite rising of 1745. Walter Cameron was certainly friendly with Dr Archibald Cameron, the last Jacobite to be executed for his role in the 45, Walter visited Archibald shortly before his execution and may have assisted his wife and children, one of whom was named Charles. Cameron used the Lochiel coat of arms for his personal bookplate, researchers also disagree on the exact year of Camerons birth, which may be either 1743,1745 or 1746. Cameron trained in London with his father and with the architect Isaac Ware and he spent 1767 in London, preparing prints of works by Andrea Palladio, and arrived in Rome in 1768. There, he surveyed the Baths of Titus and Neros Domus Aurea, according to Dmitry Shvidkovsky, Cameron met in Rome with another Charles Cameron, a Jacobite and a true member of the Lochiel clan, and borrowed the life story of the latter to embellish his own. Cameron returned from Italy around 1769 and published the results of his studies in 1772 under the title The Baths of the Romans explained and illustrated, with proper scientific commentaries in English and French. Camerons life between 1769 and his departure to Russia in 1779 remains barely known, archives attest to his involvement in only one construction contract in London, for an Adam style building in Hanover Square. Walter Cameron, the contractor, was ruined by litigation with the property owner and had to sell his sons art collection to raise funds. Charles sued his father, who was jailed in Fleet Prison for debt, in 1791, when Cameron applied for a membership in the Architects Club of London, he was barred admission due to this and other episodes that had stained his reputation in England. Catherines tastes in architecture evolved from Rococo and Gothic Revival architecture in the first decade of her reign to emerging Neoclassicism in the 1780s and she leaned to French variety of neoclassicism mixed with ancient Roman motifs. Catherine, perhaps the first of European monarchs, realized that the style had the potential to become a definitive form of imperial art. She spared no expense in hiring foreign architects and craftsmen trained in the neoclassical manner and these Italians, Giacomo Quarenghi and the relatively unknown Giacomo Trombara, arrived in Russia after Cameron
43.
Cardiff Castle
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Cardiff Castle is a medieval castle and Victorian Gothic revival mansion located in the city centre of Cardiff, Wales. The original motte and bailey castle was built in the late 11th century by Norman invaders on top of a 3rd-century Roman fort. The castle was commissioned either by William the Conqueror or by Robert Fitzhamon, and formed the heart of the town of Cardiff. In the 12th century the castle began to be rebuilt in stone, probably by Robert of Gloucester, with a shell keep, further work was conducted by Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester in the second half of the 13th century. After being held by the de Clare and Despenser families for centuries the castle was acquired by Richard de Beauchamp in 1423. Richard conducted extensive work on the castle, founding the main range on the west side of the castle, following the Wars of the Roses, the status of the castle as a Marcher territory was revoked and its military significance began to decline. During the English Civil War Cardiff Castle was initially taken by a Parliamentary force, when fighting broke out again in 1648, a Royalist army attacked Cardiff in a bid to regain the castle, leading to the Battle of St Fagans just outside the city. Cardiff Castle escaped potential destruction by Parliament after the war and was instead garrisoned, in the mid-18th century, Cardiff Castle passed into the hands of the Marquesses of Bute. During the first half of the 19th century the family became wealthy as a result of the growth of the coal industry in Glamorgan. The third Marquess, John Crichton-Stuart, used this wealth to back an extensive programme of renovations under William Burges, Burges remodelled the castle in a Gothic revival style, lavishing money and attention on the main range. The resulting interior designs are considered to be amongst the most magnificent that the gothic revival ever achieved, the grounds were re-landscaped and, following the discovery of the old Roman remains, reconstructed walls and a gatehouse in a Roman style were incorporated into the castle design. Extensive landscaped parks were built around the outside of the castle, in the early 20th century the fourth Marquess inherited the castle and construction work continued into the 1920s. The Bute lands and commercial interests around Cardiff were sold off or nationalised until, by the time of the Second World War, during the war, extensive air raid shelters were built in the castle walls, they could hold up to 1,800 people. When the Marquess died in 1947, the castle was given to the city of Cardiff, today the castle is run as a tourist attraction, with the grounds housing the Firing Line regimental museum and interpretation centre. The castle has served as a venue for events, including musical performances. The future site of Cardiff Castle was first used by the Romans as a location for many years. The first fort was built about AD55 and occupied until AD80. It was a structure much larger than the current site
44.
Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
45.
William Burges
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William Burges ARA was an English architect and designer. Burges stands within the tradition of the Gothic Revival, his works echoing those of the Pre-Raphaelites and his architectural output was small but varied. Working with a team of craftsmen, he built churches, a cathedral, a warehouse, a university. Burgess most notable works are Cardiff Castle, constructed between 1866 and 1928, and Castell Coch, both of which were built for John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute. Other significant buildings include Gayhurst House, Buckinghamshire, Knightshayes Court, the Church of Christ the Consoler, St Marys, Studley Royal, in Yorkshire, many of his designs were never executed or were subsequently demolished or altered. His competition entries for cathedrals at Lille, Adelaide, Colombo, Brisbane, Edinburgh and he lost out to George Edmund Street in the competition for the Royal Courts of Justice in The Strand. His plans for the redecoration of the interior of St Pauls Cathedral were abandoned, skilbecks Warehouse was demolished in the 1970s, and work at Salisbury Cathedral, at Worcester College, Oxford, and at Knightshayes Court had been lost in the decades before. Beyond architecture, Burges designed metalwork, sculpture, jewellery, furniture, for most of the century following his death, Victorian architecture was neither the subject of intensive study nor sympathetic attention and Burgess work was largely ignored. However the revival of interest in Victorian art, architecture, and design in the twentieth century has led to a renewed appreciation of Burges. Burges was born on 2 December 1827, the son of Alfred Burges, Alfred made a considerable fortune, some £113,000 at his death, enabling his son to devote his life to the study and practice of architecture without requiring that he actually earn a living. Burges entered Kings College School, London, in 1839 to study engineering, his contemporaries there including Dante Gabriel Rossetti and he left in 1844 to join the office of Edward Blore, surveyor to Westminster Abbey. Blore was an architect, having worked for both William IV and Queen Victoria, and had made his reputation as a proponent of the Gothic Revival. In 1848 or 1849, Burges moved to the offices of Matthew Digby Wyatt, Wyatt was as prominent an architect as Blore, evidenced by his leading role in the direction of The Great Exhibition in 1851. Burgess work with Wyatt, particularly on the Medieval Court for this exhibition, was influential on the subsequent course of his career. During this period, he worked on drawings of medieval metalwork for Wyatts book, Metalwork, published in 1852. Of equal importance to Burgess subsequent career was his travelling, Burges believed that all architects should travel, remarking that it was absolutely necessary to see how various art problems have been resolved in different ages by different men. Enabled by his income, Burges moved through England, then France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Germany, Spain, Italy, Greece. In total, he spent some 18 months abroad developing his skills, what he saw and drew provided a repository of influences and ideas that he used and re-used for the whole of his career
46.
Maiolica
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Maiolica, also called Majolica is Italian tin-glazed pottery dating from the Renaissance period. It is decorated in colours on a background, sometimes depicting historical and mythical scenes. By the late 15th century, several places, mainly small cities in northern and central Italy, were producing sophisticated pieces for a market in Italy. The name is thought to come from the medieval Italian word for Majorca, moorish potters from Majorca are reputed to have worked in Sicily and it has been suggested that their wares reached the Italian mainland from Caltagirone. An alternative explanation of the name is that it comes from the Spanish term obra de Malaga, denoting “ wares from Malaga”. or obra de mélequa, the Spanish name for lustre. In the 15th century, the term maiolica referred solely to lusterware, eventually the term came to be used when describing ceramics made in Italy, lustred or not, of tin-glazed earthenware. With the Spanish conquest of Mexico, tin-glazed maiolica wares came to be produced in the Valley of Mexico as early as 1540, mexican maiolica is known famously as Talavera. By a convenient extension and limitation the name may be applied to all tin-glazed ware, of whatever nationality, the name faïence being reserved for the later wares of the 17th Century onwards, either in original styles or, more frequently, in the Dutch-Chinese tradition. The term maiolica is sometimes applied to modern tin-glazed ware made by studio potters, the word, majolica, is also used for Victorian majolica, a hard-wearing type of pottery where coloured lead glazes are applied direct to the biscuit. Tin glazing creates a brilliant white, opaque surface for painting, the colours are applied as metallic oxides or as fritted underglazes to the unfired glaze, which absorbs pigment like fresco, making errors impossible to fix, but preserving the brilliant colors. Sometimes the surface is covered with a glaze that lends greater shine. In the case of lustred wares, a further firing at a temperature is required. Kilns required wood as well as suitable clay, glaze was made from sand, wine lees, lead compounds and tin compounds. Analysis of samples of Italian maiolica pottery from the Middle Ages has indicated that tin was not always a component of the glaze, such archaic wares are sometimes called proto-maiolica. During the later fourteenth century, the palette of colours was expanded from the traditional manganese purple and copper green to include cobalt blue, antimony yellow. Sgraffito wares were produced, in which the white tin-oxide glaze was scratched through to produce a design from the revealed body of the ware. Refined production of tin-glazed earthenwares made for more local needs was concentrated in central Italy from the later thirteenth century. The medium was adopted by the Della Robbia family of Florentine sculptors
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