1.
Construction
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Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
2.
Townhouse
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A townhouse, or town house as used in North America, Asia, Australia, South Africa and parts of Europe, is a type of terraced housing. A modern town house is one with a small footprint on multiple floors. The term originally referred in British usage to the city residence of someone whose main or largest residence was a country house. Historically, a house was the city residence of a noble or wealthy family. From the 18th century, landowners and their servants would move to a townhouse during the social season, in the United Kingdom most townhouses were terraced. Only a small minority of them, generally the largest, were detached, for example, the Duke of Norfolk owned Arundel Castle in the country, while his London house, Norfolk House, was a terraced house in St Jamess Square over 100 feet wide. In the United States and Canada, a townhouse has two connotations, the older predates the automobile and denotes a house on a small footprint in a city, but because of its multiple floors, it has a large living space, often with servants quarters. The small footprint of the townhouse allows it to be walking or mass-transit distance of business. Townhouses are expensive where detached single-family houses are uncommon, such as in New York City, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Toronto, Washington, DC, and San Francisco. A townhouse is where there is a roof and foundation and a single wall divides adjacent townhouses. A rowhouse will generally be smaller and less luxurious than a called a townhouse. The name townhouse or townhome was later used to describe non-uniform units in areas that are designed to mimic detached or semi-detached homes. Today, the term, townhouse, is used to describe units mimicking a detached home that are attached in a multi-unit complex, such homes have multiple units vertically, normally each with its own private entrance from the street or at least from the outside. They can be side by side in a row of three or more, in case they are sometimes referred to as rowhouses. A townhouse in a group of two could be referred to as a townhouse, but in Canada and the US, it is called a semi-detached home and in some areas of western Canada. Freehold, where one owns exclusively the land and the dwelling without any condominium aspects and these may share the foundation as well but have narrow air spaces between and still referred to as a townhouse. Condominium townhouses, just like condominium apartments, are referred to as condos. All types of dwellings can be condos, and this is true of townhouses
3.
Electrical substation
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A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages. Substations may be owned and operated by a utility, or may be owned by a large industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are unattended, relying on SCADA for remote supervision, the word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. The first substations were connected to one power station, where the generators were housed. Substations may be described by their class, their applications within the power system, the method used to insulate most connections. These categories are not disjointed, for example, to solve a particular problem, a transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance, Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small switching station may be more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover an area with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers. Modern substations may be implemented using international standards such as IEC Standard 61850, a distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. The input for a substation is typically at least two transmission or sub-transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example,115 kV, or whatever is common in the area, the output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV, depending on the size of the area served, the feeders run along streets overhead and power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises. In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems, distribution substations are typically the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits, voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line. The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with high-voltage switching, more typical distribution substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage side
4.
Building
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A building or edifice is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. To better understand the term building compare the list of nonbuilding structures, Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a division of the human habitat. Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have become objects or canvasses of much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in planning and building practices has also become an intentional part of the design process of many new buildings. The word building is both a noun and a verb also an adverb, the structure itself and the act of making it. As a noun, a building is a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place, there was a building on the corner. In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building, however, the word structure is used more broadly than building including natural and man-made formations and does not necessarily have walls. Structure is more likely to be used for a fence, as a verb, building is the act of construction. Structural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on building from street-level, depending on how they are classified, spires and masts may or may not be included in this height. Spires and masts used as antennas are not generally included, the definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of debate, but generally three storeys or less is considered low-rise. A report by Shinichi Fujimura of a shelter built 500000 years ago is doubtful since Fujimura was later found to have faked many of his findings. Supposed remains of huts found at the Terra Amata site in Nice purportedly dating from 200000 to 400000 years ago have also called into question. There is clear evidence of homebuilding from around 18000 BC, Buildings became common during the Neolithic. Single-family residential buildings are most often called houses or homes, residential buildings containing more than one dwelling unit are called a duplex, apartment building to differentiate them from individual houses. A condominium is an apartment that the occupant owns rather than rents, houses which were built as a single dwelling may later be divided into apartments or bedsitters, they may also be converted to another use e. g. an office or a shop. Building types may range from huts to multimillion-dollar high-rise apartment blocks able to house thousands of people, increasing settlement density in buildings is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar attractors. Other common building materials are brick, concrete or combinations of either of these with stone, also if the residents are in need of special care such as a nursing home, orphanage or prison, or in group housing like barracks or dormitories
5.
Building code
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A building code is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as buildings and nonbuilding structures. Buildings must conform to the code to obtain planning permission, usually from a local council, the main purpose of building codes is to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private authority. Codes regulating the design and construction of structures where adopted into law, examples of building codes began in ancient times. In the USA the main codes are the International Commercial or Residential Code, electrical codes and plumbing, fifty states and the District of Columbia have adopted the I-Codes at the state or jurisdictional level. In Canada, national model codes are published by the National Research Council of Canada, the practice of developing, approving, and enforcing building codes varies considerably among nations. In some countries building codes are developed by the government agencies or quasi-governmental standards organizations, such codes are known as the national building codes. In other countries, where the power of regulating construction and fire safety is vested in local authorities, model building codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority having jurisdiction. The developers of model codes urge public authorities to reference model codes in their laws, ordinances, regulations, when referenced in any of these legal instruments, a particular model code becomes law. This practice is known as adoption by reference, there are instances when some local jurisdictions choose to develop their own building codes. At some point in all major cities in the United States had their own building codes. However, due to increasing complexity and cost of developing building regulations. For example, in 2008 New York City abandoned its proprietary 1968 New York City Building Code in favor of a version of the International Building Code. The City of Chicago remains the only municipality in America that continues to use a building code the city developed on its own as part of the Municipal Code of Chicago, in Europe, the Eurocode is a pan-European building code that has superseded the older national building codes. Each country now has National Annexes to localize the contents of the Eurocode, similarly, in India, each municipality and urban development authority has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction. All these local building codes are variants of a National Building Code, Building codes have a long history. The earliest known written building code is included in the Code of Hammurabi, the book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible stipulated that parapets must be constructed on all houses to prevent people from falling off. The Laws of the Indies were passed in the 1680s by the Spanish Crown to regulate the urban planning for colonies throughout Spains worldwide imperial possessions, the first systematic national building standard was established with the London Building Act of 1844
6.
Passive fire protection
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Passive fire protection is an integral component of the three components of structural fire protection and fire safety in a building. PFP attempts to contain fires or slow the spread, through use of fire-resistant walls, floors, PFP systems must comply with the associated listing and approval use and compliance in order to provide the effectiveness expected by building codes. Fire protection in a building, offshore facility or a ship is a system that includes, Active fire protection, passive fire protection, which includes compartmentalization of the overall building through the use of fire-resistance rated walls and floors. This is based, in most countries, on the basic test standards for walls and floors, such as BS476, Part 22,1987, BS EN 1364-1,1999 & BS EN 1364-2,1999 or ASTM E119. Smaller components, such as fire dampers, fire doors, etc. follow suit in the intentions of the basic standard for walls. Fire testing involves live fire exposures upwards of 1100 °C, depending on the fire-resistance rating, more items than just fire exposures are typically required to be tested to ensure the survivability of the system under realistic conditions. To accomplish these aims, many different types of materials are employed in the design, for instance, common endothermic building materials include calcium silicate board, concrete and gypsum wallboard. During fire testing of concrete slabs, water can be seen to boil out of a slab. Gypsum wall board typically loses all its strength during a fire, the use of endothermic materials is established and proven to be sound engineering practice. The chemically bound water inside these materials sublimes, during this process, the unexposed side cannot exceed the boiling point of water. Once the hydrates are spent, the temperature on the side of an endothermic fire barrier tends to rise rapidly. Too much water can be a problem, however, PFP measures can also include intumescents and ablative materials. The point is, however, that whatever the nature of the materials, a certification listing provides the limitations of the rating. Contrary to active fire protection measures, passive fire protection means do not typically require electric or electronic activation or a degree of motion, as the name suggests, passive fire protection remains inactive in the coating system until a fire occurs. There are mainly two types of PFP, intumescent fire protection and vermiculite fire protection, in vermiculite fire protection, the structural steel members are covered with vermiculite materials, mostly a very thick layer. This is an option as compared to an intumescent one. Intumescent fireproofing is a layer of paint which is applied along with the system on the structural steel members. The thickness of this intumescent coating is dependent on the section used
7.
Waynesboro Outlet Village
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The Waynesboro Outlet Village, later rebranded Waynesboro Village, was an outdoor outlet mall in Waynesboro, Virginia, as one of Waynesboros first attempts to make the town a shopping destination. In its heyday, the facility housed factory outlet stores, the Waynesboro Outlet Village was demolished during August 2006 to make way for a new retail center, with the first new tenants planned to open in the fall of 2007. Existing tenants were required to vacate their spaces by June 19,2006, while some buildings in the complex were demolished conventionally, others were burned to the ground by the Waynesboro Fire Department, which conducted training exercises in the buildings. Fire chief Charles Scott described the situation as win-win, as the department is able to conduct valuable training. The facility that replaced the Waynesboro Outlet Village is called Waynesboro Town Center, Waynesboro city officials confirmed in June 2006 that the shopping center would be anchored by Target and Kohls. Target opened on October 9,2007 as the first of new stores
8.
Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
9.
Occupancy
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A closely related meaning is the number of units in such a building that are rented, leased, or otherwise in use. Lack of occupancy, in sense, is a vacancy. It is possible to have multiple occupancies within one building, for example, a high-rise building can have retail stores occupying the lower levels, while the upper levels are residential. Different occupancies within a building are separated by a barrier with a defined fire-resistance rating. It is common for a penetration to have a fire protection rating lower than the wall fire–resistance rating in which it is installed, for example, a two-hour fire separation normally requires fire doors rated at 90 minutes. For some high challenge occupancies, the requirements for an occupancy separation are more stringent than for other fire barriers. In this case, a separation with a two-hour fire-resistance rating may not be able to de-rate its closures, such fire doors. For example, a two-hour rated high challenge fire wall requires two-hour rated fire doors, firestops in occupancy separations are also more likely to require an equal fire protection rating. In this manner, occupancy separations are treated similarly to fire walls which are stable in case of a fire. In this sense, there are two occupancies in many homes, the garage and the living space of the home. Because automobile gasoline is flammable, a separation is often required between the two should there be a vehicle fire. Water heaters and central heating are often placed in space as well for their use of natural gas, propane. This also helps to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning, occupancy can also refer to the number of units in use, such as hotel rooms, apartment flats, or offices. When a motel is at full occupancy, it is practice to turn on a NO VACANCY neon sign. Completely vacant buildings can also attract crime, occupancy can also refer to the number of persons using an undivided space, such as a meeting room, ballroom, auditorium, or stadium. As with building codes, fire protection authorities often set a limit on the number of people that can occupy a space at one time. These limits are established primarily to allow all occupants safe passage through exits, an occupancy sensor is a device that can tell if someone is in a room, and is often used in home automation and security systems. These are typically more advanced than motion sensors, which can detect motion
10.
Fire-resistance rating
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A fire-resistance rating typically means the duration for which a passive fire protection system can withstand a standard fire resistance test. This can be quantified simply as a measure of time, or it may entail a host of other criteria, canadas Institute for Research in Construction requires a special test regime for firestops for plastic pipe penetrants. Special hoods are applied here to provide suction on the top side of a test assembly in order to reach the 50Pa pressure differential, afterwards, a 30PSI hose-stream test may be applied. If critical environmental conditions are not satisfied, an assembly may not be eligible for a fire-resistance rating, regardless of the complexity of any given test regime that may lead to a rating, the premise is generally product certification and, most importantly listing and approval use and compliance. The following classifications may be attained when testing in accordance with UL72 and this rating is the requirement in data safes and vault structures for protecting digital information on magnetic media or hard drives. Temperatures inside the chamber must be held below 125 °F for the time period specified, such as Class 125-2 Hour. The temperature reading is taken on the surfaces of the protective structure. Maintaining the temperature below 125 °F. is critical because data is lost above that temperature threshold and this is the rating required to protect microfilm, microfiche, and other film-based information storage media. Above 150 °F film is distorted by the heat and information is lost, a Class 150-2 Hour vault must keep the temperature below 150 °F. for at least two hours, with temperatures up to 2,000 °F. outside the vault. This rating is the requirement for protecting paper documents, above 350 °F paper is distorted by the heat and information is lost. A Class 350-4 Hour vault must keep the temperature below 350 °F. for at least four hours, typically, most countries use the building elements curve, which is nearly identical in most countries as that is what results by burning wood. The building elements curve is characterized jointly by, including, but not limited to, DIN4102, BS476, ASTM E119, ULC-S101, for exterior systems used in the petrochemical industry, the hydrocarbon curve is used. The only exposure beyond this, apart from the recent tunnel curves shown above, would be the British jetfire exposure. Big differences between different countries in terms of the use of the include the use of pipes. This slows down the time and results in a somewhat more conservative test regime in North America. On the other hand, the ISO based European curves run somewhat hotter for most of the test, North America also selectively uses a hose-stream test between 30 and 45PSI, to simulate real-world impacts and damages that may not be simulated in a laboratory. Germanys DIN4102 also includes a significant impact test for a firewall, which is, however, applied from the wrong side. Applying the impact from the side is more practical to do in a lab setting, however, potential impacts should come from the exposed side
11.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
12.
Impact (mechanics)
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In mechanics, an impact is a high force or shock applied over a short time period when two or more bodies collide. Such a force or acceleration usually has an effect than a lower force applied over a proportionally longer period. The effect depends critically on the velocity of the bodies to one another. At normal speeds, during a perfectly inelastic collision, an object struck by a projectile will deform, however, these deformations and vibrations cannot occur instantaneously. A high-velocity collision does not provide sufficient time for these deformations and vibrations to occur, thus, the struck material behaves as if it were more brittle than it would otherwise be, and the majority of the applied force goes into fracturing the material. Or, another way to look at it is that actually are more brittle on short time scales than on long time scales. Impact resistance decreases with an increase in the modulus of elasticity, resilient materials will have better impact resistance. Different materials can behave in different ways in impact when compared with static loading conditions. Ductile materials like steel tend to become brittle at high loading rates. The way in which the energy is distributed through the section is also important in determining its response. Projectiles apply a Hertzian contact stress at the point of impact to a body, with compression stresses under the point. Since most materials are weaker in tension than compression, this is the zone where cracks tend to form, a nail is pounded with a series of impacts, each by a single hammer blow. These high velocity impacts overcome the friction between the nail and the substrate. A pile driver achieves the same end, although on a larger scale. An impact wrench is a designed to impart torque impacts to bolts to tighten or loosen them. At normal speeds, the applied to the bolt would be dispersed, via friction. However, at speeds, the forces act on the bolt to move it before they can be dispersed. In ballistics, bullets utilize impact forces to puncture surfaces that could otherwise resist substantial forces, a rubber sheet, for example, behaves more like glass at typical bullet speeds
13.
Transformer
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A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a magnetic field. Power can be transferred between the two coils through the field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faradays law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect, Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications. A wide range of designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons. For simplification or approximation purposes, it is common to analyze the transformer as an ideal transformer model as presented in the two images. An ideal transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled, perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive force. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying EMF or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the winding and load impedance connected to the secondary winding. The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF and this is in accordance with Lenzs law, which states that induction of EMF always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field. The transformer winding voltage ratio is shown to be directly proportional to the winding turns ratio according to eq. common usage having evolved over time from turn ratio to turns ratio. However, some use the inverse definition. The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings, Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the fields with each cycle of the power supply
14.
Roof
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A roof is part of a building envelope. It is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, the word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering. In most countries a roof protects primarily against rain, a verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a garden conservatory protects plants from cold, wind, and rain, a roof may also provide additional living space, for example a roof garden. Old English hrof roof, ceiling, top, summit, heaven, sky, also figuratively, highest point of something, there are no apparent connections outside the Germanic family. English alone has retained the word in a sense, for which the other languages use forms corresponding to OE. In many parts of the ceramic tiles have been the predominant roofing material for centuries. Other roofing materials include asphalt, coal tar pitch, EPDM rubber, Hypalon, polyurethane foam, PVC, slate, Teflon fabric, TPO, and wood shakes and shingles. The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and how the space is bridged. The pitch is the angle at which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point, most US domestic architecture, except in very dry regions, has roofs that are sloped, or pitched. Although modern construction such as drainpipes may remove the need for pitch, roofs are pitched for reasons of tradition. So the pitch is dependent upon stylistic factors, and partially to do with practicalities. Some types of roofing, for example thatch, require a steep pitch in order to be waterproof, other types of roofing, for example pantiles, are unstable on a steeply pitched roof but provide excellent weather protection at a relatively low angle. In regions where there is rain, an almost flat roof with a slight run-off provides adequate protection against an occasional downpour. Drainpipes also remove the need for a sloping roof, a person that specializes in roof construction is called a roofer. The shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region, the main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate and the materials available for roof structure and the outer covering. The basic shapes of roofs are flat, mono-pitched, gabled, hipped, butterfly, there are many variations on these types. Roofs constructed of sections that are sloped are referred to as pitched roofs
15.
Flashing (weatherproofing)
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Flashing refers to thin pieces of impervious material installed to prevent the passage of water into a structure from a joint or as part of a weather resistant barrier system. The origin of flash and flashing are uncertain, but may come from the Middle English verb flasshen, to sprinkle, splash, related to flask. Strips of lead used for flashing an edge were sometimes called an apron, the up-hill side of a chimney may have a small gable-like assembly called a cricket with cricket flashing or on narrow chimneys with no cricket a back flashing or back pan flashing. Flashing may be let into a groove in a wall or chimney called a reglet, in builders books, by 1832 Loudons An Encyclopædia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture and Furniture. Gives instruction on installing lead flashing and 1875 Notes on Building Construction gives detailed instruction and is illustrated with methods still used today. Flashing may be exposed or concealed, exposed flashing is usually of a sheet metal and concealed flashing may be metal or a flexible, adhesive backed, material particularly around wall penetrations such as window and door openings. In earlier days, birch bark was used as a flashing material. Most flashing materials today are metal, plastic, rubber, or impregnated paper, an important type of potential chemical reaction between metal flashing materials is galvanic corrosion. Copper and lead cannot be used in contact with or even above aluminum, zinc, also, Aluminum and zinc flashing cannot be used in contact with pressure treated wood due to rapid corrosion. Aluminum is also damaged by wet mortar and wet plaster, salt spray in coastal areas may accelerate corrosion. So stainless steel, copper, or coated aluminum are recommended flashing materials near salt water, types of flexible flashing products are rubberized asphalt, butyl rubber, polyvinylidene fluoride, and acrylic. No flexible flashing material is designed to remain exposed over the term as are metal flashing materials. Adhesive backed materials are convenient during installation, but such adhesives are not intended for long-term water-resistance and this enables a roof to be built without weak points. Since flashing is expensive to replace if it fails, copper’s long life is a major cost advantage, cold rolled copper is recommended for most flashing applications. This material offers more resistance than soft copper to the stresses of expansion and contraction, soft copper can be specified where extreme forming is required, such as in complicated roof shapes. Thermal movement in flashings is prevented or is permitted only at predetermined locations, soft zinc is a newer, proprietary flashing material. It is a malleable material, making it useful for complex roofing connections. It provides normal soft soldering capabilities and delivers easy folding, soft zinc is said to be an environmentally friendly replacement for lead flashing, like lead, it is recyclable, while avoiding lead-contaminated runoff
16.
Sheet metal
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Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. It is one of the forms used in metalworking and it can be cut. Countless everyday objects are fabricated from sheet metal, thicknesses can vary significantly, extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm are considered plate. Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips, the coils are formed by running a continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter. The thickness of metal is in the USA commonly specified by a traditional. The larger the number, the thinner the metal. Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 7 gauge, in the rest of the world, the sheet metal thickness is given in millimeters. There are many different metals that can be made into metal, such as aluminium, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with high permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications in transformers. Historically, an important use of metal was in plate armor worn by cavalry. Sheet metal workers are known as tin bashers, a name derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs. Grade 304 is the most common of the three grades and it offers good corrosion resistance while maintaining formability and weldability. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4, grade 303 is not available in sheet form. Grade 316 possesses more corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures than 304 and it is commonly used for pumps, valves, chemical equipment, and marine applications. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4, grade 410 is a heat treatable stainless steel, but it has a lower corrosion resistance than the other grades. It is commonly used in cutlery, the only available finish is dull. Grade 430 is popular grade, low cost alternative to series 300s grades, used when high corrosion resistance is not a primary criteria. Common grade for appliance products, often with a brushed finish, aluminum is also a popular metal used in sheet metal due to its flexibility, wide range of options, cost effectiveness, and other properties
17.
Weather
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Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere, Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, weather is understood to mean the weather of Earth. Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and another and these differences can occur due to the suns angle at any particular spot, which varies with latitude. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations, the Hadley Cell, the Ferrel Cell, the Polar Cell, Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earths axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, on Earths surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C annually. Over thousands of years, changes in Earths orbit can affect the amount and distribution of energy received by the Earth, thus influencing long-term climate. Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences, higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earths surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The Earths weather system is a system, as a result. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history, and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture, studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiters Great Red Spot, is a storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies, a stars corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind, on Earth, the common weather phenomena include wind, cloud, rain, snow, fog and dust storms. Less common events include natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, typhoons, almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the troposphere. Weather does occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the troposphere, Weather occurs primarily due to air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place to another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, in other words, the farther from the tropics one lies, the lower the sun angle is, which causes those locations to be cooler due the spread of the sunlight over a greater surface. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the large scale atmospheric circulation cells and the jet stream, Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow
18.
Ulan-Ude
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Ulan-Ude is the capital city of the Republic of Buryatia, Russia, it is located about 100 kilometers southeast of Lake Baikal on the Uda River at its confluence with the Selenga. According to the 2010 Census,404,426 people lived in Ulan-Ude, up from 359,391 recorded in the 2002 Census, Ulan-Ude was first called Udinskoye for its location on the Uda River. From around 1735, the settlement was called Udinsk and was granted town status under that name in 1775. The name was changed to Verkhneudinsk, literally Upper Udinsk, in 1783 to differentiate it from Nizhneudinsk lying on a different Uda River near Irkutsk which was granted town status that year. The upper and lower refer to positions of the two relative to each other, not the location of the cities on their respective Uda rivers. Verkhneudinsk lies at the mouth of its Uda, i. e. the lower end, the current name was given to the city in 1934 and means red Uda in Buryat, reflecting the Soviet Unions Communist ideology. Ulan-Ude lies 5,640 kilometers east of Moscow and 100 kilometers southeast of Lake Baikal, Ulan-Ude is one of the few pairs of cities in the world that has a near-exact antipodal city — with Puerto Natales, Chile. There are two rivers flows across Ulan-Ude — Selenga and Uda. Selenga is the biggest inflow of Baikal Lake, supplying 50% of all rivers in its basin, Selenga brings into the lake about 30 cubic kilometres of water per year, exerting a major influence on the formation of the lake water and its sanitary condition. Selenga is the habitat of the most valuable species such as Omul, Siberian sturgeon, Siberian taimen. Uda is the inflow of the Selenga river. The length of the watercourse is 467 kilometres, the first occupants of the area where Ulan-Ude now stands were the Evenks and, later, the Buryat Mongols. Ulan-Ude was settled in 1666 by the Russian Cossacks as the fortress of Udinskoye, by 1775, it was known as Udinsk, and in 1783 it was granted city status and renamed Verkhneudinsk. After a large fire in 1878, the city was almost completely rebuilt, the Trans-Siberian Railway reached the city in 1900 causing an explosion in growth. The population which was 3,500 in 1880 reached 126,000 in 1939, from April 6 to October 1920 Verkhneudinsk was the capital of the Far Eastern Republic, sometimes called Chita Republic. It was a independent state that existed from April 1920 to November 1922 in the easternmost part of the Russian Far East. On July 27,1934, the city was renamed Ulan-Ude, Ulan-Ude is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the city of republic significance of Ulan-Ude—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts
19.
Architectural engineering
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Architectural engineering, also known as building engineering, is the application of engineering principles and technology to building design and construction. Definitions of an engineer may refer to, An engineer in the structural, mechanical, electrical, construction or other engineering fields of building design. A licensed engineering professional in parts of the United States, architectural engineers are those who work with other engineers and architects for the designing and construction of buildings. Structural engineering involves the analysis and design of physical objects and those concentrating on buildings are responsible for the structural performance of a large part of the built environment and are, sometimes, informally referred to as building engineers. Structural engineers require expertise in strength of materials and in the design of structures covered by earthquake engineering. Architectural Engineers sometimes structural as one aspect of their designs, the discipline when practiced as a specialty works closely with architects. Mechanical engineering and electrical engineering engineers are specialists, commonly referred to as when engaged in the design fields. Also known as building engineering in the United Kingdom, Canada. Mechanical engineers often design and oversee the heating, ventilation and air conditioning, plumbing, plumbing designers often include design specifications for simple active fire protection systems, but for more complicated projects, fire protection engineers are often separately retained. Electrical engineers are responsible for the power distribution, telecommunication, fire alarm, signalization, lightning protection and control systems. In many jurisdictions of the United States, the engineer is a licensed engineering professional. Architectural engineers are not entitled to practice architecture unless they are licensed as architects. In some languages, such as Korean and Arabic, architect is literally translated as architectural engineer, in some countries, an architectural engineer is entitled to practice architecture and is often referred to as an architect. These individuals are also structural engineers. In other countries, such as Germany, Austria, Iran, in Spain, an architect has a technical university education and legal powers to carry out building structure and facility projects. In Brazil, architects and engineers used to share the same accreditation process, now the Brazilian architects and urbanists have their own accreditation process. In Greece licensed architectural engineers are graduates from architecture faculties that belong to the Polytechnic University and they graduate after 5 years of studies and are fully entitled architects once they become members of the Technical Chamber of Greece. The Engineering Diploma equals a masters degree in ECTS units according to the Bologna Accords, the architectural, structural, mechanical and electrical engineering branches each have well established educational requirements that are usually fulfilled by completion of a university program
20.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
21.
Concrete masonry unit
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A concrete masonry unit is a standard size rectangular block used in building construction. Those that use cinders are called cinder blocks in Canada, the United States, and New Zealand, breeze blocks in the United Kingdom and New Zealand, and hollow blocks in the Philippines. In Australia they are known as Besser blocks or besser bricks. Clinker blocks use clinker as aggregate, in non-technical usage, the terms cinder block and breeze block are often generalized to cover all of these varieties. Concrete blocks are made from cast concrete, lower density blocks may use industrial wastes, such as fly ash or bottom ash, as an aggregate. Lightweight blocks can also be produced using autoclaved aerated concrete, Concrete blocks may be produced with hollow centers to reduce weight or improve insulation. The use of blockwork allows structures to be built in the masonry style with layers of staggered blocks. In the US, the most common size is 16 in ×8 in ×8 in. In Ireland and the UK, blocks are usually 440 mm ×215 mm ×100 mm excluding mortar joints, in New Zealand and Canada, blocks are usually 390 mm ×190 mm ×190 mm excluding mortar joints. Block cores are typically tapered so that the top surface of the block has a surface on which to spread a mortar bed. Most CMUs have two cores, but three- and four-core units are also produced, a core also allows for the insertion of steel reinforcement, tying individual blocks together in the assembly, with the goal of greatly increased strength. To hold the reinforcement in proper position and to bond the block to the reinforcement, reinforcement is primarily used to impart greater tensile strength to the assembly, improving its ability to resist lateral forces such as wind load and seismic forces. A variety of specialized shapes exist to allow special construction features, u-shaped blocks or knockout blocks with notches to allow the construction of bond beams or lintel assemblies, using horizontal reinforcing grouted into place in the cavity. Blocks with a channel on the end, known as jamb blocks, blocks with grooved ends permit the construction of control joints, allowing a filler material to be anchored between the un-mortared block ends. Other features, such as radiused corners known as bullnoses may be incorporated, a wide variety of decorative profiles also exist. Concrete masonry units may be formulated with special aggregates to produce specific colors or textures for finish use, special textures may be produced by splitting a ribbed or solid two-block unit, such factory-produced units are called split-rib or split-face blocks. Blocks may be scored by grooves the width of a joint to simulate different block modules. For example, an 8-by-16-inch block may be scored in the middle to simulate 8-by-8-inch masonry, with the grooves filled with mortar, American suburban houses typically employ a concrete foundation vibrant and slab with a concrete block wall on the perimeter
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Reinforced concrete
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The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
23.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Brick
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A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term referred to a unit composed of clay. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Two basic categories of bricks are fired and non-fired bricks, block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar materials, but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks are made from expanded clay aggregate, fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since circa 5000 BC. Air-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have an older than fired bricks. Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as brickwork, the earliest bricks were dried brick, meaning that they were formed from clay-bearing earth or mud and dried until they were strong enough for use. The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and dating before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad, in the upper Tigris region, ceramic, or fired brick was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities. In pre-modern China, bricks were being used from the 2nd millennium BCE at a site near Xian, the carpenters manual Yingzao Fashi, published in 1103 at the time of the Song dynasty described the brick making process and glazing techniques then in use. He also had to know when to quench the kiln with water so as to produce the surface glaze, Early civilisations around the Mediterranean adopted the use of fired bricks, including the Ancient Greeks and Romans. The Roman legions operated mobile kilns, and built large brick structures throughout the Roman Empire, during the Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became popular in Northern Europe, after being introduced there from Northern-Western Italy. An independent style of architecture, known as brick Gothic flourished in places that lacked indigenous sources of rocks. Examples of this style can be found in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland. A clear distinction between the two styles developed at the transition to Baroque architecture. In Lübeck, for example, Brick Renaissance is clearly recognisable in buildings equipped with terracotta reliefs by the artist Statius von Düren, production of bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the rise in factory building in England. For reasons of speed and economy, bricks were increasingly preferred as building material to stone and it was at this time in London, that bright red brick was chosen for construction to make the buildings more visible in the heavy fog and to help prevent traffic accidents. The transition from the method of production known as hand-moulding to a mechanised form of mass-production slowly took place during the first half of the nineteenth century. His mechanical apparatus soon achieved widespread attention after it was adopted for use by the South Eastern Railway Company for brick-making at their factory near Folkestone, the Bradley & Craven Ltd ‘Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine’ was patented in 1853, apparently predating Clayton
25.
Drywall
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Drywall is a panel made of calcium sulfate dihydrate with or without additives and normally pressed between a facer and a backer. It is used to make walls and ceilings. The plaster is mixed with fibre, plasticizer, foaming agent, and various additives that can decrease mildew, increase fire resistance, drywall construction became prevalent in North America as a speedier alternative to traditional lath and plaster. The first plasterboard plant in the UK was opened in 1888 in Rochester, Sackett Board was invented in 1894 by Augustine Sackett and Fred Kane. It was made by layering plaster within four plies of wool felt paper, sheets were 36 ×36 × 1/4 thick with open edges. Gypsum board evolved between 1910 and 1930 beginning with wrapped board edges and elimination of the two layers of felt paper in favor of paper-based facings. In 1910 United States Gypsum Corporation bought Sackett Plaster Board Company, providing efficiency of installation, it was developed additionally as a measure of fire resistance. Later air entrainment technology made boards lighter and less brittle, then joint treatment materials, rock lath was an early substrate for plaster. As it evolved, it was faced with paper impregnated with gypsum crystals that bonded with the applied facing layer of plaster, a wallboard panel consists of a layer of gypsum plaster sandwiched between two layers of paper. The raw gypsum, CaSO4·2 H2O, is heated to drive off the water then slightly rehydrated to produce the hemihydrate of calcium sulfate, the board is then formed by sandwiching a core of the wet mixture between two sheets of heavy paper or fibreglass mats. When the core sets it is dried in a large drying chamber. Drying chambers typically use natural gas today, to dry 1 MSF of wallboard, between 1,750,000 and 2,490,000 BTU is required. Organic dispersants/plasticisers are used so the slurry will flow during manufacture, coal-fired power stations include devices called scrubbers to remove sulphur from their exhaust emissions. The sulphur is absorbed by powdered limestone in a process called flue-gas desulphurization and this is commonly used in drywall construction in the United States and elsewhere. Drywall panels in the United States are manufactured in 48-inch, 54-inch and 96-inch wide panels in varying lengths to suit the application, lengths up to 12-feet are commonly available, though the most common length is 8-feet. Common panel thicknesses are 1⁄2-inch and 5⁄8-inch, with panels also available in 1⁄4-inch, 3⁄8-inch, 3/4-inch and 1-inch for specific applications, in Europe plasterboard is manufactured in metric sizes, with the common sizes being corollaries of old imperial sizes. Most plasterboard is made in 120 cm-wide sheets, though 90 cm and 60 cm wide sheets are also made,120 cm wide plasterboard is most commonly made in 240 cm lengths, though 250,260,270,280,300 cm and even longer are commonly available. Thicknesses of plasterboard available are 9.5 mm to 25 mm, however four side chamfered drywall is not currently offered by major UK manufacturers for general use
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Firestop
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A firestop is a fire protection system made of various components used to seal openings and joints in fire-resistance rated wall or floor assemblies. For penetrating cables, these can also be called as Multi Cable Transits, firestops are designed to restore the continuous fire-resistance of wall or floor assemblies, impeding the spread of fire by filling the openings in them with fire-resistant materials. A firestop is a protection system made of various components used to seal openings. Firestops are designed to restore the fire-resistance of wall or floor assemblies, unprotected openings in fire separations cancel out the fire-resistance ratings of the fire separations, allowing the spread of fire, usually past the limits of the fire safety plan of a building. There are a number of openings with which firestoppage is concerned, firestops should be maintained in accordance with the listing, approval use, and compliance. Construction documentation sometimes includes an inventory of all firestops in a building, with drawings indicating location, using this, a building owner can meet the requirements of the fire code related to fire barriers during the period of building occupation. Otherwise, improper repairs may result, which would violate the fire code, spray fireproofing of structural steel is most efficiently accomplished before interior partitions are built, otherwise a conflict with fire stops in firewalls could result. Firestops must adhere to the bare, dry, unobstructed surfaces of the barrier which is penetrated. Spray fireproofing cannot be applied prior to stopping at these surfaces. Spraying the upper room perimeter with fireproofing may also result in covering of wall/ceiling joints and these joints are then not visually observed and not provided with proper fire stopping, violating the fire integrity of the passive fire barrier. This requires knowledge of the certification listing that was used for each opening. The materials used in firestops do not have ratings on their own, for instance, a two-hour rated pipe penetration firestop may consist of a layer of caulking over packed rockwool. This overall arrangement provides the two-hour rating, not the caulking, however, both the individual firestop materials and the overall firestop assembly are listed per listing and approval use and compliance. In those cases in which it is difficult to assess the impact, it often must be assumed to be zero and it is, therefore, necessary to be able to match each opening in fire-resistance rated wall or floor in a building with a certification listing. There are thousands of listings by various certification and testing laboratories, firestops should be routinely inspected and maintained to mitigate the effects of time and re-entries. In North American unionized construction sites, firestopping is often performed by members of the insulating trades, insulators are the only building trade that includes firestop installation, theory and practical firestop training within its apprenticeship program. Germanys GBA also offers a passive fire protection course, resulting in a certificate designation Brandschutzfachkraft, in Europe as well as North America, all major firestop installers with nuclear installation experience are, by background, insulators first. The generic material types used and the sets needed between insulation and firestop installations are similar
27.
Firewall (engine)
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In automotive engineering, the firewall is the part of the automobile body that separates the engine compartment from the passenger compartment. It is most commonly a component of the body or, in monocoque construction, a separate steel pressing. The name originates from steam-powered vehicles, the firewall separates the driver from the fire heating the boiler. In aviation, a firewall on an aircraft isolates the engine from other parts of the airframe, in single-engine aircraft, it is the part of the fuselage that separates the engine compartment from the cockpit. In most multi-engine propeller aircraft, the firewall typically divides the nacelle from the wing of the aircraft, put the throttle to the firewall refers to setting the engine to run at maximum speed
28.
Jeep Liberty
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The Jeep Liberty, or Jeep Cherokee outside North America, is a compact SUV that was produced by Jeep for the model years 2002–2012. Introduced as a replacement for the Cherokee, the Liberty was priced between the Wrangler and Grand Cherokee and it was the smallest of the 4-door Jeep SUVs until the car based 4-door Compass and Patriot arrived for 2007. It was assembled at the Toledo North Assembly Plant in the United States, as well as in countries including Egypt. The Liberty ceased production on August 16,2012, the next generation restored the previous nameplate of Jeep Cherokee that was always used outside of North America. Inspired by styling from the Dakar and Jeepster concept vehicles, the Liberty was intended as a replacement for the discontinued Jeep Cherokee, the Liberty also marked a few firsts for Jeep. It was the first Jeep vehicle to use rack and pinion steering, however, the Liberty was not the first Jeep vehicle to use an independent front suspension, as the Jeep Wagoneer first used it in the 1963 model. But, that independent front suspension was limited to four wheel drive versions and, in addition, the Liberty was nominated for the North American Truck of the Year award for 2002. Three trim levels were offered, the top end Limited, a more rugged looking Renegade. All were made available with either 2WD or 4WD, in 2005, all Liberty received a minor facelift. The 2005,2006 Renegade and 2005 Rocky Mountain Edition Liberties received a flat hood. In 2007, the Renegade trim level was replaced with the Latitude which appeared to more on an urban appearance and lost the Renegade trims unique hood. The 2008 Liberty debuted at the 2007 New York International Auto Show, with the smaller Patriot and Compass crossover SUVs now available to cater to MPG-conscious buyers, the four-cylinder engine was dropped from the Libertys offerings. The iron-block, aluminum-head V6 was the engine available for 2008. Jeep discontinued the Liberty CRD for the American market because it couldnt meet tougher 2007 emissions standards for diesel engines, transmission choices were both carry-overs, a six-speed manual or a four-speed automatic. Standard equipment included electronic stability control with roll mitigation, traction control, New Features included standard side airbags. Optional features are rain-sensing wipers, Sirius Satellite Radio, Bluetooth, a system
29.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
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Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
31.
Rallying
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Rallying is a form of motorsport that takes place on public or private roads with modified production or specially built road-legal cars. Rallies may be won by pure speed within the stages or alternatively by driving to a predetermined ideal journey time within the stages, the term rally, as a branch of motorsport, probably dates from the first Monte Carlo Rally of January 1911. Until the late 1920s, few if any other used the term. The first of these races was the Paris–Bordeaux–Paris race of June 1895, won by Paul Koechlin in a Peugeot. Levassors time for the 1,178 km course, running virtually without a break, was 48 hours and 48 minutes, an average speed of 24 km/h. Speeds had now far outstripped the safe limits of dusty highways thronged with spectators and open to traffic, people and animals, there were numerous crashes, many injuries. The French government stopped the race and banned this style of event, from then on, racing in Europe would be on closed circuits, initially on long loops of public highway and then, in 1907, on the first purpose-built track, Englands Brooklands. Racing was going its own separate way, Italy had been running road competitions since 1895, when a reliability trial was run from Turin to Asti and back. The countrys first true motor race was held in 1897 along the shore of Lake Maggiore, from Arona to Stresa, the first Alpine event was held in 1898, the Austrian Touring Clubs three-day Automobile Run through South Tyrol, which included the infamous Stelvio Pass. Seventy vehicles took part, the majority of them trade entries and they had to complete thirteen stages of route varying in length from 43 to 123 miles at average speeds of up to the legal limit of 12 mph, and tackle six hillclimb or speed tests. On rest days and at lunch halts, the cars were shown to the public in exhibition halls, the Motor Cycling Club allowed cars to enter its trials and runs from 1904. In 1924, the exercise was repeated as the Small Car Trials, in Germany, the Herkomer Trophy was first held in 1905, and again in 1906. This challenging five-day event attracted over 100 entrants to tackle its 1,000 km road section, a hillclimb and a speed trial, but sadly it was marred by poor organisation and confusing regulations. One participant had been Prince Henry of Austria, who was inspired to do better, another trial was held in 1910. These were very successful, attracting top drivers and works cars from major teams – several manufacturers added Prince Henry models to their ranges. The first Alpine Trial was held in 1909, in Austria, by 1914, the competitive elements were slight, but getting to Monaco in winter was a challenge in itself. A second event was held in 1912, two ultra long distance challenges took place at this time. The New York–Paris of the year, which went via Japan and Siberia, was won by George Schuster
32.
Fuel
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A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 years ago, throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were only used by humans. Charcoal, a derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century, charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China, coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the use of coal is to generate electricity. Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources. They have become a part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols, chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the energy released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways, first, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence, primary and secondary, solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel, solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire
33.
Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
34.
Resin
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In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. They are often mixtures of compounds, principally terpenes. Many plants, particularly woody plants, produce resin in response to injury, the resin acts as a bandage protecting the plant from invading insects and pathogens. Plants secrete resins and rosins for their protective benefits, the resin produced by most plants is composed mainly of terpenes and derivatives. Some resins also contain a proportion of resin acids. The individual components of resin can be separated by fractional distillation, rosins on the other hand are less volatile and consist, inter alia, of diterpenes. Amber is fossil resin from coniferous and other tree species, copal, kauri gum, dammar and other resins may also be found as subfossil deposits. Subfossil copal can be distinguished from genuine fossil amber because it becomes tacky when a drop of a solvent such as acetone or chloroform is placed on it, african copal and the kauri gum of New Zealand are also procured in a semi-fossil condition. Solidified resin from which the volatile terpene components have been removed by distillation is known as rosin, typical rosin is a transparent or translucent mass, with a vitreous fracture and a faintly yellow or brown colour, non-odorous or having only a slight turpentine odor and taste. Rosin is insoluble in water, mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether and hot fatty oils, and softens and melts under the influence of heat, rosin consists of a complex mixture of different substances including organic acids named the resin acids. These are closely related to the terpenes, and derive from them through partial oxidation, Resin acids can be dissolved in alkalis to form resin soaps, from which the purified resin acids are regenerated by treatment with acids. Examples of resin acids are abietic acid, C20H30O2, plicatic acid contained in cedar, and pimaric acid, C20H30O2, a constituent of galipot resin. Abietic acid can also be extracted from rosin by means of hot alcohol, it crystallizes in leaflets, pimaric acid closely resembles abietic acid into which it passes when distilled in a vacuum, it has been supposed to consist of three isomers. Rosin is obtained from pines and some plants, mostly conifers. Propolis, consisting largely of resins collected from such as poplars and conifers, is used by honey bees to seal gaps in their hives. Shellac and lacquer are examples of insect-derived resins, asphaltite and Utah resin are petroleum bitumens, not a product secreted by plants, although it was ultimately derived from plants. These were highly prized substances, and required as incense in religious rites. The word resin has been applied in the world to nearly any component of a liquid that will set into a hard lacquer or enamel-like finish
35.
Passenger
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A passenger is a person who travels in a vehicle but bears little or no responsibility for the tasks required for that vehicle to arrive at its destination or otherwise operate the vehicle. Passengers are people who ride on buses, passenger trains, airliners, ships, ferryboats, historically, the concept of the passenger has existed for as long as man has been able to create means of transportation capable of carrying more people than were needed to operate the vessel. Crew members, as well as the driver or pilot of the vehicle, are not considered to be passengers. In railway parlance, passenger, as well as being the end user of a service, is also a categorisation of the type of rolling stock used, in the British case, there are several categories of passenger train. These categories include, Express passenger, which long distance. Semi-fast express passenger, a type of service that is high speed, local passenger, the lowest category of British passenger train, which provides a service that stops at all stations between major destinations, for the benefit of local populations. In transportation, a no pax trip is a trip without passengers, for example, no-pax flights are freight, ferry and positioning flights. In most jurisdictions, laws have been enacted that dictate the legal obligations of the owner of a vehicle or vessel, or of the driver or pilot of the same, towards the passengers. In other situations, however, guest statutes may limit the ability of passengers to sue the driver of the vehicle over an accident, many places require cars to be outfitted with measures specifically for the protection of passengers, such as passenger-side air bags. With respect to passengers on vehicles or vessels, both national laws and international treaties require that the carrier act with a certain standard of care. The number of passengers that a vehicle or vessel may legally carry is defined as its seating capacity, revenue passenger Media related to Passengers at Wikimedia Commons
36.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
37.
Noise, vibration, and harshness
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Noise, vibration, and harshness, also known as noise and vibration, is the study and modification of the noise and vibration characteristics of vehicles, particularly cars and trucks. These latter tools belong to the known as psychoacoustics. NVH is mostly engineering, but often objective measurements fail to predict or correlate well with the impression on human observers. For example, although the response at moderate noise levels is approximated by A-weighting. The field of psychoacoustics is partly concerned with this correlation, in some cases the NVH engineer is asked to change the sound quality, by adding or subtracting particular harmonics, rather than making the vehicle quieter. The sources of noise in a vehicle are many, including the engine, driveline, tire patch and road surface, brakes. Noise from cooling fans, or the HVAC, alternator, many problems are generated as either vibration or noise, transmitted via a variety of paths, and then radiated acoustically into the cabin. These are classified as structure-borne noise, others are generated acoustically and propagated by airborne paths. Structure-borne noise is attenuated by isolation, while noise is reduced by absorption or through the use of barrier materials. Vibrations are sensed at the wheel, the seat, armrests, or the floor. Some resonant systems respond at characteristic frequencies, but in response to random excitation, therefore, although they look like tonal problems on any one spectrum, their amplitude varies considerably. Other problems are self resonant, such as whistles from antennas, here is the noise spectrum of Michael Schumachers Ferrari at 16680 rpm, showing the various harmonics. The x axis is given in terms of multiples of engine speed, the y axis is logarithmic, and uncalibrated. Typical instrumentation used to measure NVH include microphones, accelerometers and force gauges, many NVH facilities will have semi-anechoic chambers, and rolling road dynamometers. Typically signals are recorded direct to hard disk via an analog-to-digital converter, in the past magnetic or DAT tape recorders were used. The integrity of the chain is very important, typically each of the instruments used are fully calibrated in a lab once per year. Laser scanning vibrometry is an tool for effective NVH optimization. The vibrational characteristics of a sample is acquired full field under operational or excited conditions, the results represent the actual vibrations
38.
Bulkhead (partition)
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A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a ship or within the fuselage of an aeroplane. Other kinds of elements within a ship are decks and deckheads. The word bulki meant cargo in Old Norse, sometime in the 15th century sailors and builders in Europe realized that walls within a vessel would prevent cargo from shifting during passage. In shipbuilding, any vertical panel was called a head, so walls installed abeam in a vessels hull were called bulkheads. Now, the term applies to every vertical panel aboard a ship. Bulkhead partitions are considered to have been a feature of Chinese junks, song Dynasty author Zhu Yu wrote in his book of 1119 that the hulls of Chinese ships had a bulkhead build. The 5th-century book Garden of Strange Things by Liu Jingshu mentioned that a ship could allow water to enter the bottom without sinking, texts written by Western writers such as Marco Polo, Niccolò Da Conti, and Benjamin Franklin describe the bulkhead partitions of East Asian shipbuilding. Bulkhead partitions became widespread in Western shipbuilding during the early 19th century, a 19th century book on shipbuilding attributes the introduction of watertight bulkheads to Charles Wye Williams, known for his steamships. Some bulkheads and decks are fire-resistance rated to achieve compartmentalisation, a fire protection measure. On an aircraft, bulkheads divide the cabin into multiple areas, openings in fire-resistance rated bulkheads and decks must be firestopped to restore the fire-resistance ratings that would otherwise be compromised, if the openings were left unsealed. The authority having jurisdiction for such measures varies depending upon the flag of the ship, merchant vessels are typically subject to the regulations and inspections of the Coast Guards of the flag country. Combat ships are subject to the set out by the navy of the country that owns the ship. The term was applied to other vehicles, such as railroad cars, hopper cars, trams, automobiles, aircraft or spacecraft, as well as to containers, intermediate bulk containers. In some of these cases bulkheads are airtight to prevent air leakage or the spread of a fire, the term may also be used for the end walls of bulkhead flatcars. Mechanically, a partition or panel through which pass, or a connector designed to pass through a partition. In architecture the term is used to denote any boxed in beam or other downstand from a ceiling. Head strikes on these elements are commonplace hence in architecture any overhead downstand element comes to be referred to as a bulkhead
39.
Domino effect
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A domino effect or chain reaction is the cumulative effect produced when one event sets off a chain of similar events. The term is best known as an effect, and is used as an analogy to a falling row of dominoes. It typically refers to a sequence of events where the time between successive events is relatively small. It can be used literally or metaphorically, impact Mechanics, W. J. Stronge, Cambridge University Press,2004, ISBN 0-521-60289-0, ISBN 978-0-521-60289-1
40.
Electrical grid
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An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. Power stations may be located near a source, at a dam site, or to take advantage of renewable energy sources. They are usually large to take advantage of the economies of scale. The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a voltage at which it connects to the electric power transmission network. The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances, sometimes across international boundaries, on arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage. As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution wiring, finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage. Electrical grids vary in size covering an single building through national grids which cover whole countries. Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy, in the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especially coal gas. Coal gas was first produced on premises but later evolved into gasification plants that enjoyed economies of scale. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, but gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smoky, and gave off hydrogen and carbon monoxide. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting, Electric utility companies took advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, and system management. With long distance power transmission it became possible to interconnect stations to balance load, merz was appointed head of a Parliamentary Committee and his findings led to the Williamson Report of 1918, which in turn created the Electricity Supply Bill of 1919. The bill was the first step towards an integrated electricity system, the Electricity Act of 1926 led to the setting up of the National Grid. The Central Electricity Board standardized the nations electricity supply and established the first synchronized AC grid and this started operating as a national system, the National Grid, in 1938. In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage, no longer were electric utilities built as vertical monopolies, where generation, transmission and distribution were handled by a single company. Now, the three stages could be split among various companies, in an effort to provide accessibility to high voltage transmission. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 allowed incentives and loan guarantees for energy production. In France, electrification began in the 1900s, with 700 communes in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938
41.
Ballistics
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A ballistic body is a body with momentum which is free to move, subject to forces, such as the pressure of gases in a gun or a propulsive nozzle, by rifling in a barrel, by gravity, or by air drag. The earliest known ballistic projectiles were stones and spears, and the throwing stick. The oldest evidence of stone-tipped projectiles, which may or may not have been propelled by a bow, dating to c.64,000 years ago, were found in Sibudu Cave, present day-South Africa. The oldest evidence of the use of bows to shoot arrows dates to about 10,000 years ago and they had shallow grooves on the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow. The oldest bow so far recovered is about 8,000 years old, archery seems to have arrived in the Americas with the Arctic small tool tradition, about 4,500 years ago. The first devices identified as guns appeared in China around 1000 AD, and by the 12th century the technology was spreading through the rest of Asia, the word ballistics comes from the Greek βάλλειν ballein, meaning to throw. A projectile is any object projected into space by the exertion of a force, although any object in motion through space is a projectile, the term most commonly refers to a ranged weapon. Mathematical equations of motion are used to analyze projectile trajectory, examples of projectiles include balls, arrows, bullets, artillery shells, rockets, etc. Throwing is the launching of a projectile by hand, although some other animals can throw, humans are unusually good throwers due to their high dexterity and good timing capabilities, and it is believed that this is an evolved trait. Evidence of human throwing dates back 2 million years, the 90 mph throwing speed found in many athletes far exceeds the speed at which chimpanzees can throw things, which is about 20 mph. This ability reflects the ability of the shoulder muscles and tendons to store elasticity until it is needed to propel an object. A sling is a projectile weapon used to throw a blunt projectile such as a stone. A sling has a cradle or pouch in the middle of two lengths of cord. The sling stone is placed in the pouch, the middle finger or thumb is placed through a loop on the end of one cord, and a tab at the end of the other cord is placed between the thumb and forefinger. The sling is swung in an arc, and the tab released at a precise moment and this frees the projectile to fly to the target. A bow is a piece of material which shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the stick are flexed, when the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the velocity of the arrow. Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows, a catapult is a device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of explosive devices — particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines
42.
Explosion
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An explosion is a rapid increase in volume and release of energy in an extreme manner, usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of gases. Supersonic explosions created by high explosives are known as detonations and travel via supersonic shock waves, subsonic explosions are created by low explosives through a slower burning process known as deflagration. When caused by a device such as an exploding rocket or firework. Most natural explosions arise from volcanic processes of various sorts, explosions also occur as a result of impact events and in phenomena such as hydrothermal explosions. Explosions can also occur outside of Earth in the universe in events such as supernova, explosions frequently occur during bushfires in eucalyptus forests where the volatile oils in the tree tops suddenly combust. Solar flares are an example of common explosion on the Sun, the energy source for solar flare activity comes from the tangling of magnetic field lines resulting from the rotation of the Suns conductive plasma. Another type of large astronomical explosion occurs when a large meteoroid or an asteroid impacts the surface of another object. The most common artificial explosives are chemical explosives, usually involving a rapid, gunpowder was the first explosive to be discovered and put to use. Other notable early developments in chemical explosive technology were Frederick Augustus Abels development of nitrocellulose in 1865, chemical explosions are often initiated by an electric spark or flame. Accidental explosions may occur in fuel tanks, rocket engines, etc, a high current electrical fault can create an electrical explosion by forming a high energy electrical arc which rapidly vaporizes metal and insulation material. This arc flash hazard is a danger to persons working on energized switchgear, also, excessive magnetic pressure within an ultra-strong electromagnet can cause a magnetic explosion. Strictly a physical process, as opposed to chemical or nuclear, examples include an overheated boiler or a simple tin can of beans tossed into a fire. Note that the contents of the container may cause a subsequent chemical explosion, in such a case, to the effects of the mechanical explosion when the tank fails are added the effects from the explosion resulting from the released propane in the presence of an ignition source. For this reason, emergency workers often differentiate between the two events, in addition to stellar nuclear explosions, a man-made nuclear weapon is a type of explosive weapon that derives its destructive force from nuclear fission or from a combination of fission and fusion. Explosive force is released in a perpendicular to the surface of the explosive. If a grenade is in mid air during the explosion, the direction of the blast will be 360°, if the surface is cut or shaped, the explosive forces can be focused to produce a greater local effect, this is known as a shaped charge. The speed of the reaction is what distinguishes an explosive reaction from a combustion reaction. Unless the reaction occurs rapidly, the thermally expanding gases will be moderately dissipated in the medium
43.
Fragmentation (weaponry)
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Fragmentation is the process by which the casing of an artillery shell, bomb, grenade, etc. is shattered by the detonation of the explosive filler. The correct technical terminology of these pieces is fragmentation – although shards or splinters can be used for non-preformed fragments, preformed fragments can be of various shapes and size and are normally held rigidly within some form of matrix or body until the high explosive filling is detonated. These casing pieces are often referred to as shrapnel, though this is the result of the original term being culturally genericized due to its uniquely memorable phonology. The use of fragmentation in bombs dates to the 14th century, the fragmentation bombs were filled with iron pellets and pieces of broken porcelain. Once the bomb explodes, the resulting shrapnel is capable of piercing the skin, for this bomb you take tung oil, yin hsiu, salammoniac, chin chih, scallion juice, and heat them so as to coat a lot of iron pellets and bits of broken porcelain. Then fill in to a case of cast iron making a fragmentation bomb, when it bursts, it breaks into pieces that wound the skin and break the bones and blinds their eyes. The modern fragmentation grenade was developed during the 20th century, the Mills bomb, first adopted in 1915 by the British army, is an early fragmentation grenade used in World War I. The Mk 2 grenade was a fragmentation grenade adopted by the American military based on the Mills bomb, the term shrapnel is often incorrectly used to refer to fragments produced by any explosive weapon. However, the shrapnel shell predates the modern high-explosive shell and operates via a different process. A shrapnel shell consists of a shell casing filled with steel or lead balls suspended in a resin matrix, when the projectile is fired, it travels a pre-set distance along a ballistic trajectory before the fuse ignites a relatively weak secondary charge in the base of the shell. Since the cone of impact is small, shrapnel shells needed to be carefully sighted. Detonating on impact after being fired, whereas a shrapnel shell would ineffectually fire its contents only a few feet into the air in a cone-shaped pattern, another artillery round very similar to shrapnel is canister shot, sometimes called case shot. Canister shot is a sheet metal casing filled with steel or lead balls. Upon firing, the casing fractures as it exits the muzzle of the gun and dispenses the balls from the gun’s muzzle much like a large shotgun
44.
Firebreak
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A firebreak is a gap in vegetation or other combustible material that acts as a barrier to slow or stop the progress of a bushfire or wildfire. A firebreak may occur naturally where there is a lack of vegetation or fuel, such as a river, Firebreaks may also be man-made, and many of these also serve as roads, such as a logging road, four-wheel drive trail, secondary road, or a highway. In the construction of a firebreak, the goal is to remove deadwood. Various methods may be used to accomplish this initially and to maintain this condition, ideally, the firebreak will be constructed and maintained according to the established practices of sustainable forestry and fire protection engineering also known as best management practices. These goals can be achieved through the use of operating practices. Furthermore, if done properly, the value of products can significantly offset the cost of maintaining the firebreak. In addition, these industries and small businesses are helped by a reduction in the property damages caused by wildfires. The biomass material that is not suitable for dimensioned lumber, is suitable to make woodchips for the industry. Forested areas often contain vast networks of firebreaks, some communities are also using firebreaks as part of their city planning strategy. Depending on the conditions, and the relative effectiveness of a given firebreak. Even then, it is sometimes possible for fire to spread across a seemingly impenetrable divide. During the worst part of the season in southern California. During the 1988 fires in Yellowstone National Park, hot embers managed to cross the Lewis Canyon, the worlds most expensive firebreak was created when the whole of Van Ness Avenue in San Francisco was dynamited to stop the spread of fire resulting from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Firefighting after an earthquake can be challenging, because an earthquake can cause water mains to rupture. Firebreaks, along with backburning, are also the source of the everyday phrase fight fire with fire, a firebreak was also used as a trail for David Sweat, a prison escapee from the Clinton Correctional Facility in New York, trying to enter Canada. Controlled burn Defensible space Fire ecology Firefighting Firewall Fuel ladder Glossary of wildfire terms Wildfire suppression Media related to Firebreaks at Wikimedia Commons
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Fireproofing
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Fireproofing is rendering something resistant to fire, or incombustible, or material for use in making anything fire-proof. It is a fire protection measure. Fireproof or fireproofing can be used as a noun, verb or adjective, applying a certification listed fireproofing system to certain structures allows them to have a fire-resistance rating. The term fireproofing may be used in conjunction with standards, as reflected in common North American construction specifications, an item classed as fireproof is resistant in specified circumstances, and may burn or be rendered inoperable by fire exceeding the intensity or duration that it is designed to withstand. Because the material was later proven to cause cancer in the long run, endothermic materials have also been used to a large extent and are still in use today, such as gypsum, concrete and other cementitious products. More highly evolved versions of these are used in aerodynamics, intercontinental ballistic missiles and re-entry vehicles, the use of these older materials has been standardised in old systems, such as those listed in BS476, DIN4102 and the National Building Code of Canada. Among the conventional materials, purpose-designed spray fireproofing plasters have become abundantly available the world over, cementitious plasters that contain Portland cement have been traditionally lightened by the use of inorganic lightweight aggregates, such as vermiculite and perlite. Gypsum plasters have been lightened by using chemical additives to create bubbles that displace solids, also, lightweight polystyrene beads have been mixed into the plasters at the factory in an effort to reduce the density, which generally results in a more effective insulation at a lower cost. The resulting plaster has qualified to the A2 combustibility rating as per DIN4102, fibrous plasters, containing either mineral wool, or ceramic fibres tend to simply entrain more air, thus displacing the heavy fibres. On-site cost reduction efforts, at times purposely contravening the requirements of the certification listing, an alternative method to keep building steel below its softening temperature is to use liquid convection cooling in hollow structural members. This method was patented in the 19th century although the first prominent example was 89 years later, money can be saved fraudulently by using apparently suitable fireproofing that is not built to the required standard. Such fraud can be prevented when documentation is required and checked to ensure that all installed configurations meet the certification standards, possible cases include, Entraining too much air in inorganic systems, thus reducing densities below fire-tested, saving on materials and labour. Spraying inorganic fireproofing materials over through-penetrations and building joints that should be firestopped, substitution of intumescent and/or endothermic fireproofing coatings by less expensive paints of similar appearance, sometimes in the packaging of the correct materials. The American and Canadian nuclear industries have, historically, not insisted on listing and approval use and compliance and this has allowed the use of Thermo-Lag 330-1, for which the basis of testing has been proven to be faulty, requiring millions of dollars of remedial work. The Thermo-Lag scandal came to light as a result of disclosures by American whistleblower Gerald W. Brown, as of 2014 certification of fireproofing and firestopping remained optional for systems installed in nuclear power plants in Canada and the United States. Reuse of older materials from demolished buildings, in newer buildings, spray fireproofing products have not been qualified to the thousands of firestop configurations, so they cannot be installed in conformance of a certification listing. If the structural steel is left without fireproofing, it can damage fire barriers, if the barriers are not firestopped properly, fire and smoke can spread from one compartment to another. Where hydrocarbon transports are permitted in tunnel construction and operations, accidental fires may occur, traffic tunnels are not ordinarily equipped with fire suppression means, such as fire sprinkler systems
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Firefighting
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Firefighting is the act of attempting to prevent the spread of and extinguish significant unwanted fires in buildings, vehicles, woodland, etc. A firefighter suppresses and extinguishes fires to protect lives and to prevent the destruction of property, firefighters may provide other services to their communities. Additional hazards include falls and structural collapse that can exacerbate the problems entailed in a toxic environment, to combat some of these risks, firefighters carry self-contained breathing equipment. The first step in an operation is reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire, to identify the specific risks. Fires can be extinguished by water, fuel or oxidant removal, the earliest known firefighters were in the city of Rome. In 60 A. D. emperor Nero established a Corps of Vigils to protect Rome after a disastrous fire and it consisted of 7,000 people equipped with buckets and axes, and they fought fires and served as police. In the 4th century B. C. an Alexandrian Greek named Ctesibius made a force pump called a siphona. As water rose in the chamber, it compressed the air inside, in the 16th century, syringes were also used as firefighting tools, the larger ones being mounted on wheels. Another traditional method that survived was the brigade, involving two lines of people formed between the water source and the fire. Typically, men in one of the lines would pass along the full buckets of water toward the fire while in the other women and children would pass back the empty buckets to be refilled. In the 17th century, fire engines were made, notably in Amsterdam, ancient Rome did not have municipal firefighters. Instead, private individuals relied on their slaves or supporters to take action and they would not only form bucket brigades or attempt to smother smaller fires, but would also demolish or raze nearby buildings to slow the spread of the fire. However, there is no mention of fires being extinguished, rather they were contained and burned themselves out, ancient Rome did not have an organized firefighting force until the Vigiles were formed in the reign of Augustus. Prior to the Great Fire of London in 1666, some parishes in the UK had begun to organize rudimentary firefighting, after the Great Fire, Nicholas Barbon introduced the first fire insurance. In order to reduce costs, Barbon also formed his own fire brigade. By the start of the 1800s, insured buildings were identified with a badge or mark, in 1833, these companies in London merged to form The London Fire Company Establishment. In World War II, the Auxiliary Fire Service and later the National Fire Service were established to supplement local fire services, at that time, there was no countrywide standard for firefighting terms, procedures, ranks, or equipment. These were standardized after World War II, in January 1608, a fire destroyed many of the colonists provisions and lodgings in Jamestown, Virginia
