1.
Construction
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Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
2.
Townhouse
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A townhouse, or town house as used in North America, Asia, Australia, South Africa and parts of Europe, is a type of terraced housing. A modern town house is one with a small footprint on multiple floors. The term originally referred in British usage to the city residence of someone whose main or largest residence was a country house. Historically, a house was the city residence of a noble or wealthy family. From the 18th century, landowners and their servants would move to a townhouse during the social season, in the United Kingdom most townhouses were terraced. Only a small minority of them, generally the largest, were detached, for example, the Duke of Norfolk owned Arundel Castle in the country, while his London house, Norfolk House, was a terraced house in St Jamess Square over 100 feet wide. In the United States and Canada, a townhouse has two connotations, the older predates the automobile and denotes a house on a small footprint in a city, but because of its multiple floors, it has a large living space, often with servants quarters. The small footprint of the townhouse allows it to be walking or mass-transit distance of business. Townhouses are expensive where detached single-family houses are uncommon, such as in New York City, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Toronto, Washington, DC, and San Francisco. A townhouse is where there is a roof and foundation and a single wall divides adjacent townhouses. A rowhouse will generally be smaller and less luxurious than a called a townhouse. The name townhouse or townhome was later used to describe non-uniform units in areas that are designed to mimic detached or semi-detached homes. Today, the term, townhouse, is used to describe units mimicking a detached home that are attached in a multi-unit complex, such homes have multiple units vertically, normally each with its own private entrance from the street or at least from the outside. They can be side by side in a row of three or more, in case they are sometimes referred to as rowhouses. A townhouse in a group of two could be referred to as a townhouse, but in Canada and the US, it is called a semi-detached home and in some areas of western Canada. Freehold, where one owns exclusively the land and the dwelling without any condominium aspects and these may share the foundation as well but have narrow air spaces between and still referred to as a townhouse. Condominium townhouses, just like condominium apartments, are referred to as condos. All types of dwellings can be condos, and this is true of townhouses
3.
Electrical substation
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A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages. Substations may be owned and operated by a utility, or may be owned by a large industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are unattended, relying on SCADA for remote supervision, the word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. The first substations were connected to one power station, where the generators were housed. Substations may be described by their class, their applications within the power system, the method used to insulate most connections. These categories are not disjointed, for example, to solve a particular problem, a transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance, Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small switching station may be more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover an area with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers. Modern substations may be implemented using international standards such as IEC Standard 61850, a distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. The input for a substation is typically at least two transmission or sub-transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example,115 kV, or whatever is common in the area, the output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV, depending on the size of the area served, the feeders run along streets overhead and power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises. In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems, distribution substations are typically the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits, voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line. The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with high-voltage switching, more typical distribution substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage side
4.
Building
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A building or edifice is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. To better understand the term building compare the list of nonbuilding structures, Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a division of the human habitat. Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have become objects or canvasses of much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in planning and building practices has also become an intentional part of the design process of many new buildings. The word building is both a noun and a verb also an adverb, the structure itself and the act of making it. As a noun, a building is a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place, there was a building on the corner. In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building, however, the word structure is used more broadly than building including natural and man-made formations and does not necessarily have walls. Structure is more likely to be used for a fence, as a verb, building is the act of construction. Structural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on building from street-level, depending on how they are classified, spires and masts may or may not be included in this height. Spires and masts used as antennas are not generally included, the definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of debate, but generally three storeys or less is considered low-rise. A report by Shinichi Fujimura of a shelter built 500000 years ago is doubtful since Fujimura was later found to have faked many of his findings. Supposed remains of huts found at the Terra Amata site in Nice purportedly dating from 200000 to 400000 years ago have also called into question. There is clear evidence of homebuilding from around 18000 BC, Buildings became common during the Neolithic. Single-family residential buildings are most often called houses or homes, residential buildings containing more than one dwelling unit are called a duplex, apartment building to differentiate them from individual houses. A condominium is an apartment that the occupant owns rather than rents, houses which were built as a single dwelling may later be divided into apartments or bedsitters, they may also be converted to another use e. g. an office or a shop. Building types may range from huts to multimillion-dollar high-rise apartment blocks able to house thousands of people, increasing settlement density in buildings is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar attractors. Other common building materials are brick, concrete or combinations of either of these with stone, also if the residents are in need of special care such as a nursing home, orphanage or prison, or in group housing like barracks or dormitories
5.
Building code
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A building code is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as buildings and nonbuilding structures. Buildings must conform to the code to obtain planning permission, usually from a local council, the main purpose of building codes is to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private authority. Codes regulating the design and construction of structures where adopted into law, examples of building codes began in ancient times. In the USA the main codes are the International Commercial or Residential Code, electrical codes and plumbing, fifty states and the District of Columbia have adopted the I-Codes at the state or jurisdictional level. In Canada, national model codes are published by the National Research Council of Canada, the practice of developing, approving, and enforcing building codes varies considerably among nations. In some countries building codes are developed by the government agencies or quasi-governmental standards organizations, such codes are known as the national building codes. In other countries, where the power of regulating construction and fire safety is vested in local authorities, model building codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority having jurisdiction. The developers of model codes urge public authorities to reference model codes in their laws, ordinances, regulations, when referenced in any of these legal instruments, a particular model code becomes law. This practice is known as adoption by reference, there are instances when some local jurisdictions choose to develop their own building codes. At some point in all major cities in the United States had their own building codes. However, due to increasing complexity and cost of developing building regulations. For example, in 2008 New York City abandoned its proprietary 1968 New York City Building Code in favor of a version of the International Building Code. The City of Chicago remains the only municipality in America that continues to use a building code the city developed on its own as part of the Municipal Code of Chicago, in Europe, the Eurocode is a pan-European building code that has superseded the older national building codes. Each country now has National Annexes to localize the contents of the Eurocode, similarly, in India, each municipality and urban development authority has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction. All these local building codes are variants of a National Building Code, Building codes have a long history. The earliest known written building code is included in the Code of Hammurabi, the book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible stipulated that parapets must be constructed on all houses to prevent people from falling off. The Laws of the Indies were passed in the 1680s by the Spanish Crown to regulate the urban planning for colonies throughout Spains worldwide imperial possessions, the first systematic national building standard was established with the London Building Act of 1844
6.
Passive fire protection
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Passive fire protection is an integral component of the three components of structural fire protection and fire safety in a building. PFP attempts to contain fires or slow the spread, through use of fire-resistant walls, floors, PFP systems must comply with the associated listing and approval use and compliance in order to provide the effectiveness expected by building codes. Fire protection in a building, offshore facility or a ship is a system that includes, Active fire protection, passive fire protection, which includes compartmentalization of the overall building through the use of fire-resistance rated walls and floors. This is based, in most countries, on the basic test standards for walls and floors, such as BS476, Part 22,1987, BS EN 1364-1,1999 & BS EN 1364-2,1999 or ASTM E119. Smaller components, such as fire dampers, fire doors, etc. follow suit in the intentions of the basic standard for walls. Fire testing involves live fire exposures upwards of 1100 °C, depending on the fire-resistance rating, more items than just fire exposures are typically required to be tested to ensure the survivability of the system under realistic conditions. To accomplish these aims, many different types of materials are employed in the design, for instance, common endothermic building materials include calcium silicate board, concrete and gypsum wallboard. During fire testing of concrete slabs, water can be seen to boil out of a slab. Gypsum wall board typically loses all its strength during a fire, the use of endothermic materials is established and proven to be sound engineering practice. The chemically bound water inside these materials sublimes, during this process, the unexposed side cannot exceed the boiling point of water. Once the hydrates are spent, the temperature on the side of an endothermic fire barrier tends to rise rapidly. Too much water can be a problem, however, PFP measures can also include intumescents and ablative materials. The point is, however, that whatever the nature of the materials, a certification listing provides the limitations of the rating. Contrary to active fire protection measures, passive fire protection means do not typically require electric or electronic activation or a degree of motion, as the name suggests, passive fire protection remains inactive in the coating system until a fire occurs. There are mainly two types of PFP, intumescent fire protection and vermiculite fire protection, in vermiculite fire protection, the structural steel members are covered with vermiculite materials, mostly a very thick layer. This is an option as compared to an intumescent one. Intumescent fireproofing is a layer of paint which is applied along with the system on the structural steel members. The thickness of this intumescent coating is dependent on the section used
7.
Waynesboro Outlet Village
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The Waynesboro Outlet Village, later rebranded Waynesboro Village, was an outdoor outlet mall in Waynesboro, Virginia, as one of Waynesboros first attempts to make the town a shopping destination. In its heyday, the facility housed factory outlet stores, the Waynesboro Outlet Village was demolished during August 2006 to make way for a new retail center, with the first new tenants planned to open in the fall of 2007. Existing tenants were required to vacate their spaces by June 19,2006, while some buildings in the complex were demolished conventionally, others were burned to the ground by the Waynesboro Fire Department, which conducted training exercises in the buildings. Fire chief Charles Scott described the situation as win-win, as the department is able to conduct valuable training. The facility that replaced the Waynesboro Outlet Village is called Waynesboro Town Center, Waynesboro city officials confirmed in June 2006 that the shopping center would be anchored by Target and Kohls. Target opened on October 9,2007 as the first of new stores
8.
Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
9.
Occupancy
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A closely related meaning is the number of units in such a building that are rented, leased, or otherwise in use. Lack of occupancy, in sense, is a vacancy. It is possible to have multiple occupancies within one building, for example, a high-rise building can have retail stores occupying the lower levels, while the upper levels are residential. Different occupancies within a building are separated by a barrier with a defined fire-resistance rating. It is common for a penetration to have a fire protection rating lower than the wall fire–resistance rating in which it is installed, for example, a two-hour fire separation normally requires fire doors rated at 90 minutes. For some high challenge occupancies, the requirements for an occupancy separation are more stringent than for other fire barriers. In this case, a separation with a two-hour fire-resistance rating may not be able to de-rate its closures, such fire doors. For example, a two-hour rated high challenge fire wall requires two-hour rated fire doors, firestops in occupancy separations are also more likely to require an equal fire protection rating. In this manner, occupancy separations are treated similarly to fire walls which are stable in case of a fire. In this sense, there are two occupancies in many homes, the garage and the living space of the home. Because automobile gasoline is flammable, a separation is often required between the two should there be a vehicle fire. Water heaters and central heating are often placed in space as well for their use of natural gas, propane. This also helps to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning, occupancy can also refer to the number of units in use, such as hotel rooms, apartment flats, or offices. When a motel is at full occupancy, it is practice to turn on a NO VACANCY neon sign. Completely vacant buildings can also attract crime, occupancy can also refer to the number of persons using an undivided space, such as a meeting room, ballroom, auditorium, or stadium. As with building codes, fire protection authorities often set a limit on the number of people that can occupy a space at one time. These limits are established primarily to allow all occupants safe passage through exits, an occupancy sensor is a device that can tell if someone is in a room, and is often used in home automation and security systems. These are typically more advanced than motion sensors, which can detect motion
