1.
Firewood (album)
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Firewood is the second album from the Swedish doom metal band Witchcraft. The album was released in 2005 by Rise Above Records, at roughly 8,50 in to the last track Attention. There is a cover of the Pentagram song When the Screams Come, the vinyl edition does not include When the Screams Come, but does include a bonus track entitled The Invisible. This track also appears on the Japanese version released by Leaf Hound Records. /When the Screams Come –11,40 Firewood at MusicBrainz
2.
Wood fuel
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Wood fuel is a fuel, such as firewood, charcoal, chips, sheets, pellets, and sawdust. The particular form used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality, sawmill waste and construction industry by-products also include various forms of lumber tailings. The discovery of how to fire for the purpose of burning wood is regarded as one of humanitys most important advances. The use of wood as a source for heating is much older than civilization and is assumed to have been used by Neanderthals. Today, burning of wood is the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass, Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating, and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity. Wood may be used indoors in a furnace, stove, or fireplace, or outdoors in a furnace, campfire, in permanent structures and in caves, hearths were constructed or established—surfaces of stone or another noncombustible material upon which a fire could be built. Smoke escaped through a hole in the roof. In contrast to civilizations in relatively arid regions, the Greeks, Romans, Celts, Britons, over the centuries there was a partial deforestation of climax forests and the evolution of the remainder to coppice with standards woodland as the primary source of wood fuel. These woodlands involved a continuous cycle of new stems harvested from old stumps, one of the earliest printed books on woodland management, in English, was John Evelyns Sylva, or a discourse on forest trees advising landowners on the proper management of forest estates. H. L. Edlin, in Woodland Crafts in Britain,1949 outlines the extraordinary techniques employed, and throughout this time the preferred form of wood fuel was the branches of cut coppice stems bundled into faggots. Larger, bent or deformed stems that were of no use to the woodland craftsmen were converted to the end of World War two. Since then much of these woodlands have been converted to broadscale agriculture, during the Edo period of Japan, wood was used for many purposes, and the consumption of wood led Japan to develop a forest management policy during that era. Demand for timber resources was on the not only for fuel, but also for construction of ships and buildings. As a result, forest fires occurred, along with floods, around 1666, the shogun made it a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees. This policy decreed that only the shogun, or a daimyō, by the 18th century, Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about silviculture and plantation forestry. The development of the chimney and the allowed for more effective exhaustion of the smoke. Masonry heaters or stoves went a further by capturing much of the heat of the fire and exhaust in a large thermal mass. The metal stove was a technological development concurrent with the industrial revolution, stoves were manufactured or constructed pieces of equipment that contained the fire on all sides and provided a means for controlling the draft—the amount of air allowed to reach the fire
3.
Wooden
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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
4.
Fuel
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A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 years ago, throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were only used by humans. Charcoal, a derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century, charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China, coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the use of coal is to generate electricity. Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources. They have become a part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols, chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the energy released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways, first, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence, primary and secondary, solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel, solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire
5.
Pellet fuel
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Pellet fuels are biofuels made from compressed organic matter or biomass. Pellets can be made from any one of five categories of biomass, industrial waste and co-products, food waste, agricultural residues, energy crops. Other industrial waste sources include empty fruit bunches, palm kernel shells, coconut shells, so-called black pellets are made of biomass, refined to resemble hard coal and were developed to be used in existing coal-fired power plants. Pellets are categorized by their value, moisture and ash content. They can be used as fuels for power generation, commercial or residential heating, pellets are extremely dense and can be produced with a low moisture content that allows them to be burned with a very high combustion efficiency. Further, their geometry and small size allow automatic feeding with very fine calibration. They can be fed to a burner by auger feeding or by pneumatic conveying and their high density also permits compact storage and transport over long distance. They can be blown from a tanker to a storage bunker or silo on a customers premises. A broad range of pellet stoves, central heating furnaces, in 1997 fully automatic wood pellet boilers with similar comfort level as oil and gas boilers became available in Austria. With the surge in the price of fossil fuels since 2005, the demand for pellet heating has increased in Europe and North America, according to the International Energy Agency Task 40, wood pellet production has more than doubled between 2006 and 2010 to over 14 million tons. In a 2012 report, the Biomass Energy Resource Center says that it expects wood pellet production in North America to double again in the five years. Pellets are produced by compressing the wood material which has first passed through a mill to provide a uniform dough-like mass. This mass is fed to a press, where it is squeezed through a die having holes of the size required. The high pressure of the causes the temperature of the wood to increase greatly. Pellets can be made from grass and other forms of biomass that do not contain lignin. A2005 news story from Cornell University News suggested that grass pellet production was more advanced in Europe than North America and it suggested the benefits of grass as a feedstock included its short growing time, and ease of cultivation and processing. Drying of the hay is not required for pelleting, making the cost of processing less than with wood pelleting, in 2012, the Department of Agriculture of Nova Scotia announced as a demonstration project conversion of an oil-fired boiler to grass pellets at a research facility. Rice-husk fuel-pellets are made by compacting rice-husk obtained as by-product of rice-growing from the fields and it also has similar characteristics to the wood-pellets and more environment-friendly, as the raw material is a waste-product
6.
Hardwood
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Hardwood is wood from dicot angiosperm trees. The term may also be used for the trees from which the wood is derived, in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen. Hardwood should not be confused with the heartwood, which can be from hardwood or softwood. Hardwoods are produced by trees that reproduce by flowers, and have broad leaves. Hardwood from deciduous species, such as oak, normally shows annual growth rings, hardwoods have a more complex structure than softwoods and are often much slower growing as a result. The dominant feature separating hardwoods from softwoods is the presence of pores, the vessels may show considerable variation in size, shape of perforation plates, and structure of cell wall, such as spiral thickenings. As the name suggests, the wood from trees is generally harder than that of softwoods. Solid hardwood joinery tends to be compared to softwood. In the past, tropical hardwoods were easily available, but the supply of some species, such as Burma teak, cheaper hardwood doors, for instance, now consist of a thin veneer bonded to a core of softwood, plywood or medium-density fibreboard. Hardwoods may be used in a variety of objects, but are most frequently seen in furniture or musical instruments because of their density which adds to durability, appearance, different species of hardwood lend themselves to different end uses or construction processes. This is due to the variety of characteristics apparent in different timbers, including density, grain, pore size, growth and fibre pattern, flexibility and ability to be steam bent. For example, the grain of elm wood makes it suitable for the making of chair seats where the driving in of legs. There is a correlation between density and calories/volume, list of woods Hardwood flooring Softwood Janka hardness test Brinell scale Schweingruber, F. H. Anatomie europäischer Hölzer—Anatomy of European woods. Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landscaft, Birmensdorf, finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki. The Anatomy of Wood, Its Diversity and variability
7.
Softwood
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Softwood is wood from gymnosperm trees such as conifers. The term is opposed to hardwood, which is the wood from angiosperm trees, softwoods are not necessarily softer than hardwoods. The woods of pine, douglas fir, and yew are much harder in the mechanical sense than several hardwoods. Certain species of softwood are more resistant to attack from woodworm. Softwood is the source of about 80% of the production of timber, with traditional centres of production being the Baltic region, North America. Typically used in construction as structural carcassing timber, as well as finishing timber, list of woods United States – Canada softwood lumber dispute Hardwood Janka hardness test Brinell scale
8.
Renewable resource
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Renewable resources are a part of Earths natural environment and the largest components of its ecosphere. A positive life cycle assessment is a key indicator of a resources sustainability, definitions of renewable resources may also include agricultural production, as in sustainable agriculture and to an extent water resources. In 1962 Paul Alfred Weiss defined Renewable Resources as, The total range of living organisms providing man with food, fibres, drugs, another type of renewable resources is renewable energy resources. Common sources of energy include solar, geothermal and wind power. Water can be considered a material when carefully controlled usage, treatment. If not, it would become a resource at that location. For example, groundwater is removed from an aquifer at a rate much greater than its very slow natural recharge. Removal of water from the spaces may cause permanent compaction that cannot be renewed. 97. 5% of the water on the Earth is salt water, the remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Water pollution is one of the concerns regarding water resources. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry, major industrial users include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants, ore and oil refineries and manufacturing plants. Food is any substance consumed to provide support for the body. Most food has its origin in renewable resources, Food is obtained directly from plants and animals. Wild berries and other fruits, mushrooms, plants, seeds and naturally growing edible resources, still represent a source of nutrition in many countries. In fact many wild animals are dependent on plants and fruits as a source of food. Hunting may not be the first source of meat in the modernised world and it is also the sole source of feeding for wild carnivores. The phrase sustainable agriculture was coined by Australian agricultural scientist Gordon McClymont and it has been defined as an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will last over the long term. Expansion of agricultural land reduces biodiversity and contributes to deforestation, although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability of water
9.
Forest
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A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as density, tree height, land use, legal standing. According to the widely used Food and Agriculture Organization definition, forests covered four billion hectares or approximately 30 percent of the land area in 2006. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are distributed across the globe, Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earths biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earths plant biomass. Forests at different latitudes and elevations form distinctly different ecozones, boreal forests near the poles, tropical forests near the equator, higher elevation areas tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes, and amount of precipitation also affects forest composition. Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways, Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect peoples health, human activities, including harvesting forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems. Although forest is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition, there are three broad categories of forest definitions in use, administrative, land use, and land cover. Land use definitions are based upon the purpose that the land serves. For example, a forest may be defined as any land that is used primarily for production of timber, land cover definitions define forests based upon the type and density of vegetation growing on the land. Such definitions typically define a forest as an area growing trees above some threshold and these thresholds are typically the number of trees per area, the area of ground under the tree canopy or the section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks. Under such land cover definitions, and area of land only be defined as forest if it is growing trees, areas that fail to meet the land cover definition may be still included under while immature trees are establishing if they are expected to meet the definition at maturity. Under land use definitions, there is variation on where the cutoff points are between a forest, woodland, and savanna. Under some definitions, forests require high levels of tree canopy cover, from 60% to 100%, excluding savannas. Other definitions consider savannas to be a type of forest, the term was not endemic to Romance languages, and cognates in Romance languages, such as Italian foresta, Spanish and Portuguese floresta, etc. are all ultimately borrowings of the French word. The exact origin of Medieval Latin foresta is obscure, uses of the word forest in English to denote any uninhabited area of non-enclosure are now considered archaic. The word was introduced by the Norman rulers of England as a term denoting an uncultivated area legally set aside for hunting by feudal nobility. These hunting forests were not necessarily wooded much, if at all, however, as hunting forests did often include considerable areas of woodland, the word forest eventually came to mean wooded land more generally
10.
Wood drying
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Wood drying reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, equilibration causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be controlled to prevent damage to the wood, Wood burning, when wood is burned, it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, and the drying may proceed more rapidly than in the case of drying for woodworking purposes, Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. With condensers, the efficiency can be increased, but, for the normal stove. For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used green, often, wood must be in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden furniture. Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven, usually the wood is sawed before drying, but sometimes the log is dried whole. Case hardening describes lumber or timber that has been dried too rapidly, Wood initially dries from the shell, shrinking the shell and putting the core under compression. When this shell is at a low moisture content it will set, the core of the wood is still at a higher moisture content. This core will begin to dry and shrink. However, any shrinkage is resisted by the already set shell and this leads to reversed stresses, compression stresses on the shell and tension stresses in the core. This results in unrelieved stress called case hardening, case-hardened wood may warp considerably and dangerously when the stress is released by sawing. Wood is divided, according to its origin, into two kinds, softwoods, from coniferous trees, and hardwoods, from broad-leaved trees. Softwoods are lighter and generally simple in structure, whereas hardwoods are harder, however, in Australia, softwood generally describes rainforest trees, and hardwood describes Sclerophyll species. Softwoods such as pine are typically lighter and easier to process than hardwoods such as fruit tree wood. The density of softwoods ranges from 350 kg/m3 to 700 kg/m3, once dried, both consist of approximately 12% of moisture. Because of hardwoods denser and more structure, its permeability is much less than that of softwood. The timber of living trees and fresh logs contains an amount of water which often constitutes over 50% of the woods weight
11.
Bushfires in Australia
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Bushfires in Australia are frequent events during the hotter months of the year, due to Australias mostly hot, dry climate. Each year, such fires impact extensive areas, on one hand, they can cause property damage and loss of human life. For thousands of years, Indigenous Australians have used fire to foster grasslands for hunting, major firestorms that result in severe loss of life are often named based on the day on which they occur, such as Ash Wednesday and Black Saturday. Other major conflagrations include the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires, the 2003 Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires, global warming is increasing the frequency and severity of bushfires. The term bushfire builds on the concept of the bush, referring to sparsely-inhabited regions, Bushfires in Australia are generally defined as uncontrolled, non-structural fires burning in a grass, scrub, bush, or forested area. Australia, being a geographically and meteorogically diverse continent, experiences many types of bushfires, there are two main categories, depending on local topography. Hilly/mountainous fires – burn in hilly, mountainous or alpine areas which are densely forested. The land is accessible and not conducive to agriculture, thus many of these densely forested areas have been saved from deforestation and are protected by national, state. The steep terrain increases the speed and intensity of a firestorm, where settlements are located in hilly or mountainous areas, bushfires can pose a threat to both life and property. Flat/grassland fires – burn along flat plains or areas of small undulation and these fires can move quickly, fanned by high winds in flat topography, and they quickly consume the small amounts of fuel/vegetation available. Many regions of predominantly flat terrain in Australia have been almost completely deforested for agriculture, the natural fire regime in Australia was altered by the arrival of humans. Fires became more frequent, and fire-loving species—notably eucalypts—greatly expanded their range and it is assumed that a good deal of this change came about as the result of deliberate action by early humans, setting fires to clear undergrowth or drive game. Plants have evolved a variety of strategies to survive bushfires, or even encourage fire as a way to eliminate competition from less fire-tolerant species, some native animals are also adept at surviving bushfires. In 2009, a standardised Fire Danger Rating was adopted by all Australian states, in 2010, following a national review of the bush fire danger ratings, new trigger points for each rating were introduced for grassland areas in most jurisdictions. See for example the following glossary Fire Danger Ratings are a feature of weather forecasts, Ratings are broadcast via newspapers, radio, TV, and the internet. The Australasian Fire Authorities Council is the body responsible for representing fire, emergency services. The Rural Fire Service Queensland is a volunteer-based firefighting agency and operates as part of the Queensland Fire, the New South Wales Rural Fire Service is a volunteer-based firefighting agency and statutory body of the Government of New South Wales. The Country Fire Service is a volunteer based service in the state of South Australia
12.
Chainsaw
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A chainsaw is a portable, mechanical saw which cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain that runs along a guide bar. It is used in such as tree felling, limbing, bucking, pruning, cutting firebreaks in wildland fire suppression. Chainsaws with specially designed bar and chain combinations have been developed as tools for use in chainsaw art, specialized chainsaws are used for cutting concrete. Chainsaws are sometimes used for cutting ice, for example for ice sculpture, someone who uses a saw is a sawyer. The origin is debated, but a tool was made around 1830 by the German orthopaedist Bernhard Heine. This instrument, the osteotome, had links of a chain carrying small cutting teeth with the set at an angle. As the name implies, this was used to cut bone, the chain hand saw, a fine serrated link chain which cut on the concave side, was invented around 1783-1785. It was illustrated in Aitkens Principles of Midwifery or Puerperal Medicine, Jeffray claimed to have conceived the idea of the chain saw independently about that time but it was 1790 before he was able to have it produced. In 1806, Jeffray published Cases of the Excision of Carious Joints by H. Park, in this communication he translated Moreaus paper of 1803. Park and Moreau described successful excision of diseased joints, particularly the knee, Jeffray explained that the chain saw would allow a smaller wound and protect the adjacent neurovascular bundle. While a heroic concept, symphysiotomy had too many complications for most obstetricians but Jeffrays ideas became accepted, mechanised versions of the chain saw were developed but in the later 19th Century, it was superseded in surgery by the Gigli twisted wire saw. For much of the 19th century, however, the saw was a useful surgical instrument. The earliest patent for an endless chain saw was granted to Samuel J. Bens of San Francisco on January 17,1905. His intent being to fell giant redwoods, the first portable chainsaw was developed and patented in 1918 by Canadian millwright James Shand. After he allowed his rights to lapse in 1930 his invention was developed by what became the German company Festo in 1933. The company now operates as Festool producing portable power tools, in 1927, Emil Lerp, the founder of Dolmar, developed the worlds first gasoline-powered chainsaw and mass-produced them. World War II interrupted the supply of German chain saws to North America, so new manufacturers sprang up including Industrial Engineering Ltd in 1947, Ltd and part of Outboard Marine Corporation, the oldest manufacturer of chainsaws in North America. McCulloch in North America started to produce chainsaws in 1948, the early models were heavy, two-person devices with long bars
13.
Cord (unit)
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The cord is a unit of measure of dry volume used to measure firewood and pulpwood in the United States and Canada. A cord is the amount of wood that, when racked and well stowed and this corresponds to a well-stacked woodpile 4 feet high,8 feet long, and 4 feet deep, or any other arrangement of linear measurements that yields the same volume. The name cord probably comes from the use of a cord or string to measure it, cord-foot was a US unit of volume for stacked firewood, four feet long, four feet wide and one foot high - equal to one eighth of a cord. Symbol for the unit was cd-ft, in Canada, the cord is legally defined by Measurement Canada. The cord is one of three standards for the sale of firewood in Canada. However the stacked cubic metre is now the unit of measurement. In the United States, the cord is defined by statute in most states. The U. S. National Institute of Standards and Technology Handbook 130, section 2.4.1.2, defines a cord and provides uniform regulations for the sale of fireplace and stove wood. In the metric system, wood is measured in steres. Other non-official terms for firewood volume include standing cord, kitchen cord, running cord, face cord, fencing cord, country cord, long cord, and rick, all subject to local variation. These are usually taken to mean a well-stacked pile of wood in which the logs are shorter or longer than in a legal cord, for example, a face cord commonly consists of wood that is 16 inches long. The volume of a face cord therefore is typically 1/3 of the volume of a full cord even though it is 8 feet long and 4 feet high, a face cord is also called a rick in Midwestern United States. The term is used in other English-speaking countries, such as New Zealand, the corde unit was used before metrication in several French-speaking countries, and its value varied, according to the regions, approximately between 3 to 4 steres. Main article, Heating value of firewood One seasoned cord of red oak has the equivalent of 159 US gallons of fuel oil. Kern County Weights and Measures About Firewood Nova Scotia Natural Resources Information Circular DNR - 1A, Guide to buying and measuring stacked firewood Wood Heat Organisation Inc
14.
Splitting maul
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A splitting maul also known as a block buster, block splitter, sledge axe, or go-devil is a heavy, long-handled axe used for splitting a piece of wood along its grain. One side of its head is like a sledgehammer, and the side is like an axe. Wedged mauls A typical maul for wood splitting will have a head weighing in region of 4 kg, traditionally, mauls have a wedge-shaped head, but some modern versions have conical heads or swiveling sub-wedges. The original maul resembles an axe but with a broader head, for splitting wood, this tool is much better than a typical axe. The weight of it is advantageous and due to its width. The wedge section of a maul head must be convex to avoid jamming. Unlike an axe, maul handles are normally straight and closer to round than the elongated oval axe handles tend to be, a mauls handle, unlike an axe, is intentionally used for levering as well as swinging. The handles are made from hickory, though synthetic fibreglass handles have become common. Plastic handles are more difficult to break and their heads are less likely to work free with the levering action of a maul. In the early 1970s a triangular design with an unbreakable metal handle was introduced called the Monster Maul. Separate wedges Splitting may also be done with a separate wedge, as this allows several wedges to be used together, it permits larger logs to be split. To avoid mushrooming the head of the wedge, they are driven with a wooden mallet rather than an iron hammer. In parts of England the word maul denotes this tool with a heavy wooden head. It is also known as a beetle, there is a well known pub on the River Thames at Moulsford called the Beetle, powered log splitters Hydraulic log splitters are commonly used today. They can be horizontal or vertical. The maul is most commonly struck onto a section of log. Most cut sections can be split in a single downward chop of the maul, mauls regularly become stuck in the log for several reasons, such as the wood not being struck with adequate force, the wood containing hidden knots, or the length of wood being too long. Unlike an axe, mauls are effective longer after the edge dulls, as the mechanism is that of a wedge pushed through along the wood grain
15.
Charcoal
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Charcoal is a lightweight, black residue, consisting of carbon and any remaining ash, obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis- the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen, the whole pile is covered with turf or moistened clay. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue, the success of the operation depends upon the rate of the combustion. The operation is so delicate that it was left to colliers. They often lived alone in small huts in order to tend their wood piles, for example, in the Harz Mountains of Germany, charcoal burners lived in conical huts called Köten which are still much in evidence today. The massive production of charcoal was a cause of deforestation. The increasing scarcity of easily harvested wood was a factor behind the switch to fossil fuel equivalents, mainly coal. Charcoal made at 300 °C is brown, soft and friable, and readily inflames at 380 °C, made at higher temperatures it is hard and brittle, in Finland and Scandinavia, the charcoal was considered the by-product of wood tar production. The best tar came from pine, thus pinewoods were cut down for tar pyrolysis, the residual charcoal was widely used as substitute for metallurgical coke in blast furnaces for smelting. Tar production led to deforestation, it has been estimated all Finnish forests are younger than 300 years. The end of tar production at the end of the 19th century resulted in rapid re-forestation, the charcoal briquette was first invented and patented by Ellsworth B. A. Zwoyer of Pennsylvania in 1897 and was produced by the Zwoyer Fuel Company. The process was popularized by Henry Ford, who used wood. Ford Charcoal went on to become the Kingsford Company, Charcoal has been made by various methods. The traditional method in Britain used a clamp and this is essentially a pile of wooden logs leaning against a chimney. The chimney consists of 4 wooden stakes held up by some rope, the logs are completely covered with soil and straw allowing no air to enter. It must be lit by introducing some burning fuel into the chimney, if the soil covering gets torn by the fire, additional soil is placed on the cracks. Once the burn is complete, the chimney is plugged to prevent air from entering, the true art of this production method is in managing the sufficient generation of heat, and its transfer to wood parts in the process of being carbonised. A strong disadvantage of this method is the huge amount of emissions that are harmful to human health
16.
Power take-off
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The power take-off allows implements to draw energy from the engine. Semi-permanently mounted power take-offs can also be found on industrial and marine engines and these applications typically use a drive shaft and bolted joint to transmit power to a secondary implement or accessory. In the case of an application, such shafts may be used to power fire pumps. In aircraft applications, such an accessory drive may be used in conjunction with a constant speed drive, jet aircraft have four types of PTO units, internal gearbox, external gearbox, radial driveshaft, and bleed air, which are used to power engine accessories. In some cases, aircraft power take-off systems also provide for putting power into the engine during engine start. Flat belts generally lent themselves only to applications where the engine was stationary, such as steam engines, portable stationary engines. The concept of a drive with easily connected and disconnected couplings. Experimental power take-offs were tried as early as 1878, and various homemade versions arose over the subsequent decades, international Harvester Company was first to market with a PTO on a production tractor, with its model 8-16, introduced in 1918. Edward A. Johnston, an IHC engineer, had been impressed by a homemade PTO that he saw in France about a decade before, improvised by a French farmer and mechanic surnamed Gougis. He and his IHC colleagues incorporated the idea into the 8-16, IHC was not alone in the market for long, as within a year PTOs were appearing on other production tractors, such as some Case models. In 1920, IHC offered the PTO option on their 15-30 tractor, the PTO was a competitive advantage for IHC in the 1920s, and other companies eventually caught up with PTO implementation. Inside the transmission, the point along the gear train where the power is taken off determines whether the PTO can be run independently of vehicle travel. Early PTOs were often taken off the output shaft, meaning that the vehicle had to be in gear in order to run the PTO. Later this was improved by so-called live PTO designs, which control of the PTO rotation independently of the tractor motion. This is an advantage when the load driven by the PTO requires the motion to slow or stop running to allow the PTO driven equipment to catch up. It also allows operations where the tractor remains parked, such as silo-filling or unloading a manure spreader to a pile or lagoon rather than across a field, in 1945, Cockshutt Farm Equipment Ltd of Brantford, Ontario, Canada, introduced the Cockshutt Model 30 tractor with LPTO. Most PTOs built today are live, in modern tractors, LPTO is often controlled by push-button or selector switch. This increases safety of operators who need to get close to the PTO shaft, the PTO and its associated shafts and universal joints are a common cause of incidents and injury in farming and industry
17.
Estonia
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Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia, across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, covering 45,339 km2 of land and water, and is influenced by a humid continental climate. The territory of Estonia has been inhabited since at least 6500 BC, in 1988, during the Singing Revolution, the Estonian Supreme Soviet issued the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in defiance of Soviet rule, and independence was restored on 20 August 1991. Estonia is a parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties. Its capital and largest city is Tallinn, with a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OECD and Schengen Area. Estonia is a country with an advanced, high-income economy that is among the fastest growing in the EU. Its Human Development Index ranks very highly, and it performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, the 2015 PISA test places Estonian high school students 3rd in the world, behind Singapore and Japan. Citizens of Estonia are provided with health care, free education. Since independence the country has developed its IT sector, becoming one of the worlds most digitally advanced societies. In 2005 Estonia became the first nation to hold elections over the Internet, in the Estonian language, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians was maarahvas, meaning country people or people of the land. The land inhabited by Estonians was called Maavald meaning Country Parish or Land Parish, one hypothesis regarding the modern name of Estonia is that it originated from the Aesti, a people described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania. The historic Aesti were allegedly Baltic people, whereas the modern Estonians are Finno-Ugric, the geographical areas between Aesti and Estonia do not match, with Aesti being further down south. Ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is called in Icelandic. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia, esthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921. Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000 to 11,000 years ago, the oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago, the earliest human inhabitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to Kunda culture, which is named after the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in communities near bodies of water
18.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
19.
Seoul
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The Seoul Capital Area houses up to half of the countrys population of 50.22 million people with 678,102 international residents. Situated on the Han River, Seouls history stretches back more than two years when it was founded in 18 BCE by Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It continued as the capital of Korea under the Joseon Dynasty, the Seoul Capital Area contains five UNESCO World Heritage Sites, Changdeok Palace, Hwaseong Fortress, Jongmyo Shrine, Namhansanseong and the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty. Seoul is surrounded by mountains, the tallest being Mt. Bukhan, in 2015, it was rated Asias most livable city with the second highest quality of life globally by Arcadis. In 2014, the citys GDP per capita of $39,786 was comparable to that of France and Finland. Ranked sixth in the Global Power City Index and Global Financial Centres Index, Seoul is the worlds most wired city and ranked first in technology readiness by PwCs Cities of Opportunity report. It is served by the KTX high-speed rail and the Seoul Subway, providing 4G LTE, WiFi, Seoul is connected via AREX to Incheon International Airport, rated the worlds best airport nine years in a row by Airports Council International. Lotte World Tower, a 556-metre supertall skyscraper with 123 floors, has built in Seoul and become the OECDs tallest in 2016. Its Lotte Cinema houses the worlds largest cinema screen, Seouls COEX Mall is the worlds largest underground shopping mall. Seoul hosted the 1986 Asian Games,1988 Summer Olympics,2002 FIFA World Cup, the Miss Universe 1980 pageant, a UNESCO City of Design, Seoul was named the 2010 World Design Capital. The city has known in the past by the names Wirye-seong, Hanju. During Japans annexation in Korea, Hanseong was renamed to Keijō by the Imperial authorities to prevent confusion with the hanja 漢, in reality, the ancient name of Seoul, Hanseong, originally had the meaning of big or vast. Its current name originated from the Korean word meaning city, which is believed to be derived from the word Seorabeol, which originally referred to Gyeongju. Unlike most place names in Korea, Seoul has no corresponding hanja, on January 18,2005, Seoul government officially changed its official Chinese language name to Shouer from the historic Hancheng, of which use is becoming less common. Settlement of the Han River area, where present-day Seoul is located, Seoul is first recorded as Wiryeseong, the capital of Baekje in the northeastern Seoul area. There are several city walls remaining in the area date from this time. Pungnaptoseong, a wall just outside Seoul, is widely believed to have been at the main Wiryeseong site. As the Three Kingdoms competed for this region, control passed from Baekje to Goguryeo in the 5th century
20.
Larix laricina
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Larix laricina, commonly known as the tamarack, hackmatack, eastern larch, black larch, red larch, American larch or juniper. The word tamarack is the Algonquian name for the species and means wood used for snowshoes, larix laricina is a small to medium-size boreal coniferous and deciduous tree reaching 10–20 metres tall, with a trunk up to 60 centimetres diameter. Tamaracks and Larches are deciduous conifers, the bark is tight and flaky, pink, but under flaking bark it can appear reddish. The leaves are needle-like, 2–3 cm short, light blue-green, turning bright yellow before they fall in the autumn, the needles are produced spirally on long shoots and in dense clusters on long woody spur shoots. The cones are the smallest of any larch, only 1–2.3 cm long, with 12-25 seed scales, they are red, turning brown. Key characteristics, The needles are normally borne on a shoot in groups of 10–20 needles. The larch is deciduous and the needles turn yellow in autumn, the seed cones are small, less than 2 cm long, with lustrous brown scales. Larch are commonly found in swamps, fens, bogs, tamaracks are very cold tolerant, able to survive temperatures down to at least −65 °C, and commonly occurs at the Arctic tree line at the edge of the tundra. Trees in these severe climatic conditions are smaller than farther south and they can tolerate a wide range of soil conditions but grow most commonly in swamps, bogs, or muskeg in wet to moist organic soils such as sphagnum peat and woody peat. They are also found on soils that range from heavy clay to coarse sand. Although tamarack can grow well on calcareous soils, it is not abundant on the areas of eastern Ontario. Tamarack is commonly an early invader, Tamarack is generally the first forest tree to invade filled-lake bogs. In the lake states, tamarack may appear first in the mat, sphagnum moss. Farther north, it is the tree in the bog shrub stage. Tamarack is fairly well adapted to reproduce successfully on burns, so it is one of the pioneers on sites in the boreal forest immediately after a fire. Tamarack forms extensive pure stands in the region of Canada. In the rest of its United States range and in the Maritime Provinces and it is a major component in the Society of American Foresters forest cover types Tamarack and black spruce–tamarack. Black spruce is usually tamaracks main associate in mixed stands on all sites, the other most common associates include balsam fir, white spruce, and quaking aspen in the boreal region
21.
Joule
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The joule, symbol J, is a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal to the transferred to an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when a current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule, one joule can also be defined as, The work required to move an electric charge of one coulomb through an electrical potential difference of one volt, or one coulomb volt. This relationship can be used to define the volt, the work required to produce one watt of power for one second, or one watt second. This relationship can be used to define the watt and this SI unit is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every International System of Units unit named for a person, note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. The CGPM has given the unit of energy the name Joule, the use of newton metres for torque and joules for energy is helpful to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications. The distinction may be also in the fact that energy is a scalar – the dot product of a vector force. By contrast, torque is a vector – the cross product of a distance vector, torque and energy are related to one another by the equation E = τ θ, where E is energy, τ is torque, and θ is the angle swept. Since radians are dimensionless, it follows that torque and energy have the same dimensions, one joule in everyday life represents approximately, The energy required to lift a medium-size tomato 1 m vertically from the surface of the Earth. The energy released when that same tomato falls back down to the ground, the energy required to accelerate a 1 kg mass at 1 m·s−2 through a 1 m distance in space. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 0.24 °C, the typical energy released as heat by a person at rest every 1/60 s. The kinetic energy of a 50 kg human moving very slowly, the kinetic energy of a 56 g tennis ball moving at 6 m/s. The kinetic energy of an object with mass 1 kg moving at √2 ≈1.4 m/s, the amount of electricity required to light a 1 W LED for 1 s. Since the joule is also a watt-second and the unit for electricity sales to homes is the kW·h. For additional examples, see, Orders of magnitude The zeptojoule is equal to one sextillionth of one joule,160 zeptojoules is equivalent to one electronvolt. The nanojoule is equal to one billionth of one joule, one nanojoule is about 1/160 of the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito
22.
Birch
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A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae, the genus Betula contains 30 to 60 known taxa of which 11 are on the IUCN2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are a typically rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in northern temperate, Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees or shrubs, mostly of northern temperate and boreal climates. The simple leaves are alternate, singly or doubly serrate, feather-veined and they often appear in pairs, but these pairs are really borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruit is a samara, although the wings may be obscure in some species. They differ from the alders in that the female catkins are not woody and disintegrate at maturity, falling apart to release the seeds, unlike the woody, cone-like female alder catkins. The bark of all birches is characteristically marked with long, horizontal lenticels and its decided color gives the common names gray, white, black, silver and yellow birch to different species. The buds form early and are grown by midsummer, all are lateral, no terminal bud is formed. The wood of all the species is close-grained with satiny texture, staminate aments are pendulous, clustered or solitary in the axils of the last leaves of the branch of the year or near the ends of the short lateral branchlets of the year. They form in autumn and remain rigid during the winter. The scales of the staminate aments when mature are broadly ovate, rounded, yellow or orange color below the middle, each scale bears two bractlets and three sterile flowers, each flower consisting of a sessile, membranaceous, usually two-lobed, calyx. Each calyx bears four short filaments with one-celled anthers or strictly, the pistillate aments are erect or pendulous, solitary, terminal on the two-leaved lateral spur-like branchlets of the year. The pistillate scales are oblong-ovate, three-lobed, pale yellow green often tinged with red and these scales bear two or three fertile flowers, each flower consisting of a naked ovary. The ovary is compressed, two-celled, and crowned with two styles, the ovule is solitary. Each scale bear a small, winged nut that is oval. Betula species are organised into five subgenera, pendula and B. pubescens confused, though they are distinct species with different chromosome numbers. This root is derived from *bʰreh₁ǵ- ‘to shine’, in reference to the birchs white bark. The Proto-Germanic rune berkanan is named after the birch, the generic name betula is from Latin, which is a diminutive borrowed from Gaulish betua
23.
Abies magnifica
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Abies magnifica, the red fir or silvertip fir, is a western North American fir, native to the mountains of southwest Oregon and California in the United States. It is a high tree, typically occurring at 1, 400–2,700 metres elevation. The name red fir derives from the color of old trees. Abies magnifica is a evergreen tree typically up to 40–60 metres tall and 2 metres trunk diameter, rarely to 76.5 metres tall and 3 metres diameter. The bark on trees is smooth, grey, and with resin blisters, becoming orange-red, rough. The leaves are needle-like, 2-3.5 cm long, glaucous blue-green above and below with strong stomatal bands, and they are arranged spirally on the shoot, but twisted slightly s-shaped to be upcurved above the shoot. The cones are erect, 9–21 cm long, yellow-green, ripening brown, there are two, perhaps three varieties, Abies magnifica var. magnifica, red fir — cones large, cone bract scales short, not visible on the closed cones. Most of the range, primarily in the Sierra Nevada. Abies magnifica var. shastensis, Shasta red fir — cones large, cone bract scales longer, the northwest of the species range, in southwest Oregon and Shasta, Siskiyou and Trinity Counties in northwest California. A. magnifica on the slopes of southern Sierra Nevada — possibly a third variety, have not been formally named, also having long bracts. Red fir is very related to noble fir, which replaces it further north in the Cascade Range. They are best distinguished by the leaves, noble fir leaves have a groove along the midrib on the upper side, while red fir does not show this. Red fir also tends to have the less closely packed. Some botanists treat Abies magnifica var. shastensis as a hybrid between red fir and noble fir. This tree was discovered by William Lobb on his expedition to California of 1849 –1853, the wood is used for general structural purposes and paper manufacture. It is also a popular Christmas tree, Sierra Nevada subalpine zone Chase, J. Smeaton. Cone-bearing Trees of the California Mountains, LCC QK495. C75 C4, with illustrations by Carl Eytel - Kurut, Gary F. Carl Eytel, Southern California Desert Artist, California State Library Foundation, Bulletin No. 95, pp. 17-20 retrieved Nov.13,2011 Farjon, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
24.
Abies concolor
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Abies concolor, commonly known as the white fir or Colorado white-fir, is a fir native to the mountains of western North America, occurring at elevations of 900–3,400 m. It is a medium to large coniferous tree growing to 25–60 m tall. It is popular as a landscaping tree and as a Christmas tree. It is sometimes called concolor fir, the cones are 6–12 cm long and 4–4.5 cm broad, green or purple ripening pale brown, with about 100–150 scales, the scale bracts are short, and hidden in the closed cone. The winged seeds are released when the cones disintegrate at maturity about 6 months after pollination. As treated here, there are two subspecies, these are variously treated at either the lower rank of variety by some authors, or as distinct species by others. Concolor — Colorado white fir or Rocky Mountains white fir, a smaller tree to 25–35 m tall, rarely 45 m. Foliage strongly upcurved to erect on all except weak shaded shoots in the crown, leaves mostly 3. 5–6 cm. Tolerates winter temperatures down to about −40 °C, lowiana — Lows white fir or Sierra Nevada white fir. In the United States, at altitudes of 900–2,700 m from the Cascades of central Oregon south through California to northern Baja California, a larger tree to 40–60 m tall. Tolerates winter temperatures down to about −30 °C, to the south in Mexico, it is replaced by further close relatives, Durango fir and Mexican fir. It is sometimes regarded as a pest by those in the industry, as it drives out trees of greater stature, has weaker, knottier wood than its competitors. This latter trait creates a fire ladder that allows flames to reach up to the canopy and this tree was discovered by William Lobb on his expedition to California of 1849–1853, having been overlooked previously by David Douglas. This tree is host to fir mistletoe, a parasitic plant and it is attacked by many types of insects, such as the fir engraver. White fir is a preferred construction species because of its ability, lightness in weight, and resistance to split, twist. It is straight-grained, non-resinous, fine-textured, stiff, and strong, White fir is popular as a Christmas tree and for Christmas decoration owing to its soft needles, generally excellent needle retention and abundance. It is often marketed as concolor or white fir, White fir is widely planted as an ornamental tree in parks and larger gardens, particularly some cultivars of subsp. Concolor selected for very bright blue foliage, such as cv
25.
Metric system
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The metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system of measurement. Many sources also cite Liberia and Myanmar as the other countries not to have done so. Although the originators intended to devise a system that was accessible to all. Control of the units of measure was maintained by the French government until 1875, when it was passed to an intergovernmental organisation. From its beginning, the features of the metric system were the standard set of interrelated base units. These base units are used to larger and smaller units that could replace a huge number of other units of measure in existence. Although the system was first developed for use, the development of coherent units of measure made it particularly suitable for science. Although the metric system has changed and developed since its inception, designed for transnational use, it consisted of a basic set of units of measurement, now known as base units. At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, most countries, the metric system was designed to be universal—in the words of the French philosopher Marquis de Condorcet it was to be for all people for all time. However, these overtures failed and the custody of the metric system remained in the hands of the French government until 1875. In languages where the distinction is made, unit names are common nouns, the concept of using consistent classical names for the prefixes was first proposed in a report by the Commission on Weights and Measures in May 1793. The prefix kilo, for example, is used to multiply the unit by 1000, thus the kilogram and kilometre are a thousand grams and metres respectively, and a milligram and millimetre are one thousandth of a gram and metre respectively. These relations can be written symbolically as,1 mg =0, however,1935 extensions to the prefix system did not follow this convention, the prefixes nano- and micro-, for example have Greek roots. During the 19th century the prefix myria-, derived from the Greek word μύριοι, was used as a multiplier for 10000, prefixes are not usually used to indicate multiples of a second greater than 1, the non-SI units of minute, hour and day are used instead. On the other hand, prefixes are used for multiples of the unit of volume. The base units used in the system must be realisable. Each of the units in SI is accompanied by a mise en pratique published by the BIPM that describes in detail at least one way in which the base unit can be measured. In practice, such realisation is done under the auspices of a mutual acceptance arrangement, in the original version of the metric system the base units could be derived from a specified length and the weight of a specified volume of pure water
26.
Tonne
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
27.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
28.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
29.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
30.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
31.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
32.
NRK2
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NRK2 is one of the TV channels of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. It was launched on 3 September 1996 and it has traditionally concentrated on more on cultural and in-depth programmes than its sister channel NRK1 and has also shown drama series, comedies, and news. When not broadcasting regular programmes, it used to show Svisj, with the launch of NRK3 in early September 2007, Svisj moved to the new station and NRK2 refocused its programming to focus on news, documentaries, and cultural programs. NRK TV overview, all television channels NRK2 Live TV on internet NRK TV history Program overview for Norwegian television channels About NRK
33.
Biomass
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Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today, examples include forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, in the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, first-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for production only aggravates the food shortage problem. Second-generation biofuels, on the hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a waste for many industries. Despite being the alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass. Plant energy is produced by crops grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy
34.
Cordwood construction
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Cordwood construction is a term used for a natural building method in which cordwood or short pieces of debarked tree are laid up crosswise with masonry or cob mixtures to build a wall. Walls are usually constructed such that the pieces of wood are proud of the mortar by a small amount, walls typically range between 12 and 24 inches thick, though in northern Canada, some walls are as much as 36 inches thick. Cordwood homes are attractive for their appeal, maximization of interior space, economy of resources. Wood usually accounts for about 40- 60% of the wall system, Cordwood construction can be sustainable depending on design and process. There are two types of Cordwood Construction, Throughwall and M-I-M. In Throughwall, the mortar mix itself contains an insulative material, usually sawdust, chopped newsprint, or paper sludge, in the more common M-I-M, and unlike Brick or Throughwall masonry, the mortar does not continue throughout the wall. Instead, three- or four-inch beads of mortar on each side of the wall provide stability and support, Cordwood walls can be load-bearing or laid within a post and beam framework which provides structural reinforcement and is suitable for earthquake-prone areas. As a load-bearing wall, the strength of wood and mortar allows for roofing to be tied directly into the wall. Different mortar mixtures and insulation fill material both affect the walls overall R value, or resistance to flow, and conversely, to its inherent thermal mass. Remains of cordwood structures still standing date back as far as one years in northern Greece. However, more contemporary versions could be found in Europe, Asia, however, it is plausible that forest dwellers eventually erected a basic shelter between a fire and a stacked wood pile. In the work of William Tischler of University of Wisconsin, he states that current cordwood probably started in the late 1800s in Quebec, Wisconsin and he believes that the technique started in these areas around the same time. Cordwood construction is an use of log ends or fallen trees in heavily timbered areas. Other common sources for wood include sawmills, split firewood, utility poles, split rail fence posts and it is more sustainable and often economical to use recycled materials for the walls. Regardless of the source, all wood must be debarked before the construction begins, while over 30 different types of wood can be used, the most desirable rot resistant woods are Pacific yew, bald cypress, cedars, and juniper. Acceptable woods also include Douglas fir, western larch, Eastern White Pine, less dense and more airy woods are superior because they shrink and expand in lower proportions than dense hardwoods. Most wood can be used in an if it is dried properly. Furthermore, logs of identical species and source are preferred because they limit expansion/contraction variables, various experts advise different recipes for mortar mix
35.
Multipurpose tree
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Multipurpose trees are trees that are deliberately grown and managed for more than one output. “Multipurpose tree” is a common to agroforestry, particularly when speaking of tropical agroforestry where the tree owner is a subsistence farmer. In most cases multipurpose trees have a role, such as being part of a living fence, or a windbreak. In addition to this they will have one or more roles, most often supplying a family with food or firewood. When a multipurpose tree is planted, a number of needs and they may be used as a windbreak, while also supplying a staple food for the owner. They may be used as fencepost in a fence, while also being the main source of firewood for the owner. They may be intercropped into existing fields, to nitrogen to the soil. Common multipurpose trees of the include, Gliricidia sepium – the most common tree used for living fences in Central America, firewood, fodder. Moringa – edible leaves, pods and beans, commonly used for forage and shade Coconut palm – used for food, purified water, roof thatching, firewood. Neem - limited use as insect repellent, antibiotic, adding nitrogen to the soil, windbreaks, biomass production for use as mulch, ideally most trees found on tropical farms should be multipurpose, and provide more to the farmer than simply shade and firewood. In most cases they should be nitrogen fixing legumes, or trees that greatly increase the food security
36.
Wood ash
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Wood ash is the residue powder left after the combustion of wood, such as burning wood in a home fireplace or an industrial power plant. It is used traditionally by gardeners as a source of potash. Many studies have been conducted regarding the composition of wood ash. Some quote calcium carbonate as the constituent, others find no carbonate at all. Some show as much as twelve percent iron oxide while others show none, a comprehensive set of analyses of wood ash composition from many tree species has been carried out by Emil Wolff, among others. Several factors have a impact on the composition, Fly ash, Some studies include the solids escaping via the flue during combustion. Temperature of combustion produces two direct effects, Dissociation, Conversion of carbonates, sulfides, etc. to oxides results in no carbon, sulfur, carbonates, Some metallic oxides even dissociate to their elemental state and/or vaporize completely at wood fire temperatures. Volatilization, In studies in which the fly ash is not measured, experimental process, If the ashes are exposed to the environment between combustion and the analysis, oxides may convert back to carbonates by reacting with carbon dioxide in the air. Type, age, and growing environment of the wood stock affect the composition of the wood, typically between 0.43 and 1.82 percent of the mass of burned wood results in ash. Also the conditions of the affect the composition and amount of the residue ash. Much wood ash contains calcium carbonate as its major component, representing 25 or even 45 percent, less than 10 percent is potash, and less than 1 percent phosphate, there are trace elements of iron, manganese, zinc, copper and some heavy metals. However, these numbers vary, as temperature is an important variable in determining wood ash composition. All of these are, primarily, in the form of oxides, wood ash can be used as an organic fertilizer used to enrich agricultural soil nutrition. In this role, wood ash serves a source of potassium and calcium carbonate, wood ash can also be used as an amendment for organic hydroponic solutions, generally replacing inorganic compounds containing calcium, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus. Because wood ash has a high content, it can be used as an odor control agent. Wood ash has a long history of being used in ceramic glazes, particularly in the Chinese, Japanese and Korean traditions. It acts as a flux, reducing the melting point of the glaze, potassium hydroxide can be made directly from wood ash and in this form, is known as caustic potash or lye. Because of this property, wood ash has also traditionally used to make wood-ash soap
37.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
38.
Fire making
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Fire making, fire lighting or fire craft is the process of starting a fire artificially. It requires completing the fire triangle, usually by heating tinder above its autoignition temperature, Fire is an essential tool for survival and was important in early human cultural development. Today, its a key component of Scouting and bushcraft, fine tinder is a material that combusts first and in doing so heats other material until it burns. Fine tinder is characterized by its ability to combust from a spark, friction, autognition temperatures of common tinder, Tinder is preserved within a Tinderbox, which today is often a plastic bag. Tinder when formed into a tight bundle can also be used to preserve/carry an ember, often in the form of a cigar and made of compacted tinder materials held within a tinderbox, a smouldering ember could safely be saved inside. Fire occurs naturally as a result of activity, meteorites. Many animals are aware of fire and adapt their behavior to it, plants, too, have adapted to the natural occurrence of fire. Thus, humans encountered and were aware of fire, and later its beneficial uses, natural sources of animal fats and petrochemicals that burn could have been used to keep and maintain fires that started naturally. Fire can be created through friction by rapidly grinding pieces of solid combustable material against each other which are heated, successfully creating fire by friction involves skill, fitness, knowledge, and acceptable environmental conditions. Once hot enough, the ember is introduced to the tinder, more oxygen is added by blowing and this repeated spinning and downward pressure causes black dust to form in the notch of the fireboard, eventually creating a hot, glowing coal. The coal is then carefully placed among dense, fine tinder, the advantage of the hand drill technique is that it requires no rope. The bow drill uses the principle as the hand drill but the spindle is shorter, wider and driven by a bow. Additional downward pressure is generated by the handhold, a pump drill is a variant of the bow drill that uses a coiled rope around a cross-section of wooden stake spin the shaft by pumping up and down a cross-member. The fire plough or fireplow consists of a cut to a dull point. The stake is pressed down hard and rubbed quickly against the groove of the piece in a plowing motion. A split is made down the length of the grooved piece. A fire-saw is a method by which a piece of wood is sawed through a notch in a piece or pieces to generate friction. The tinder may be placed between two slats of wood with the piece or saw drawn over them above the tinder so as to catch a coal
39.
Bonfire
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A bonfire is a large but controlled outdoor fire, used either for informal disposal of burnable waste material or as part of a celebration. In many regions of continental Europe, bonfires are traditionally on 16 January. Bonfires are also a feature of Walpurgis Night in central and northern Europe, in Finland bonfires are tradition on Midsummer Eve and Easter, also in midst of May celebrations. Bonfire traditions of early spring, lit on the Sunday following Ash Wednesday, are throughout the Alemannic German speaking regions of Europe. The burning of winter in effigy at the Sechseläuten in Zürich is inspired by this Alemannic tradition, in Austria Osterfeuer, Easter fires, are widespread, but also regulated in some cities, districts and countries to hold down the resulting annual peak of PM10-dust immission. There are also Sonnwendfeuer ignited on the evening of 21 June, since 1988 Feuer in den Alpen have been lit on a day in August on mountains so they can be seen from afar as an appeal for sustainable development of mountain regions. In the Czech Republic, the festival called Burning the Witches takes place on the night between 30 April and 1 May and this is a very old and still observed folk custom and special holiday. On that night, people together, light bonfires. In many places people erect maypoles, the night between 30 April and 1 May was considered magical. The festival was originally celebrated when the moon was full closest to the day exactly between the spring equinox and summer solstice. People believed that on this night witches fly on the Sabbath, people also believed, for example, in the opening of various caves and underground caverns in which treasures are hidden. The main purpose of this old folk custom was probably a celebration of fertility, to protect themselves against witches, people lit bonfires in high places, calling these fires Burning the Witches. Some people took to jumping over the fire in order to ensure youth, the ash from these fires supposedly had a special power to raise crops, and people also walked the cattle through the ashes to ensure fertility. In Australia, bonfires may be lit to celebrate Commonwealth Day or the Queens Official Birthday, in the province of Quebec, many communities light up bonfires on 24 June to celebrate Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day. In France, the bonfire celebrates Saint Jean le Baptiste during the Fête de la Saint Jean, first saturday after the solstice, like the other countries, it was a pagan celebration of the solstice, or midsummer, but christianisation transformed it into a catholic celebration. People have bonfires on communal land, if there has been a recent wedding or a new born in the family, people will have a bonfire outside their house to celebrate this event. The festival falls in the week of January every year. In Assam in the part of India, a harvest festival called Bhogali Bihu is celebrated to mark the end of the harvest season in mid-January
40.
Glossary of firelighting
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This is an alphabetized glossary of terms pertaining to lighting fires, along with their definitions. Firelighting is the process of starting a fire artificially, fire was an essential tool in early human cultural development. It requires completing the fire triangle, usually by initiating the combustion of a suitably flammable material, amadou – a spongy, flammable substance prepared from bracket fungi. Arson – the crime of intentionally or maliciously lighting structures, wildland areas and it is the deliberate setting of fires for personal, monetary or political gain. Auto reignition – a process used in gas burners to control ignition devices based on whether a burner flame is lit. Autoignition temperature – the lowest temperature at which a substance will ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition. Batoning – the technique of cutting or splitting wood by using a stick or mallet to repeatedly strike the spine of a sturdy knife. The batoning method can be used to make kindling or desired forms such as boards, the practice is most useful for obtaining dry wood from the inside of logs for the purpose of fire making. Black match – in pyrotechnics, a type of crude fuse, blow George – an implement used in fire lighting, used to increase the efficiency of firelighting through acceleration of the chimney draw. Bow drill – an ancient tool usually used to make fire and it was also used for primitive woodworking and dentistry. Bridgewire – a relatively thin resistance wire used to set off a pyrotechnic composition serving as pyrotechnic initiator, Bryant and May – a United Kingdom company created in the mid-nineteenth century specifically to make matches. Burning glass – a large convex lens that can concentrate the suns rays onto an area, heating up the area. Campfire – a fire lit at a campsite, to serve the functions, light, warmth, a beacon, an insect and/or apex predator deterrent, to cook. Char cloth – a swatch of fabric made from vegetable fiber that has been converted via pyrolysis into a fuel of very low ignition temperature. Combustion – the sequence of chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or a flame, control of fire by early humans – A turning point in the cultural aspect of human evolution that allowed humans to cook food and obtain warmth and protection. Making fire also allowed the expansion of human activity into the hours of the night. Dickheads – a brand of matches released by Australian businessman Dick Smith in 1999, the name is a pun on the Redheads brand of matches
