1.
Stratford Hall (plantation)
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Stratford Hall is a historic house museum near Lerty in Westmoreland County, Virginia. It was the house of four generations of the Lee family of Virginia. The estate was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960, colonel Thomas Lee was a Virginian who served as acting Governor of the colony and was a strong advocate for westward expansion. Lee purchased the land for Stratford Hall in 1717, aware of its agricultural and commercial potential as a waterfront site, construction of the Georgian Great House did not begin until the late 1730s. Designed by an architect, the brick Great House is a two story H-shaped structure, surrounded on four corners by attending outbuildings, all of which still stand today. Blacksmiths, coopers, carpenters, tailors, gardeners, and weavers plied their trades at Thomas Lees Stratford, Stratford Hall is set in the Historic Northern Neck of Virginia, a rural peninsula where historic Christ Church is located. In the midst of this world, Thomas Lee and his wife Hannah Harrison Ludwell raised eight children, six sons. They played important roles in shaping the history of the nation. His eldest son, Philip Ludwell Lee, Sr. Esquire inherited Stratford Hall, Richard Henry Lee and Francis Lightfoot Lee were delegates from Virginia to the Second Continental Congress, and signers of the Declaration of Independence. Richard Henry was later instrumental in guiding the nation, serving as President of Congress in 1784-85. Thomas Ludwell Lee, active in politics, served as a Virginian legislator. William Lee and Dr. Arthur Lee were diplomats to England during the turbulent struggle for American independence, Hannah Lee was an early proponent of womens rights, and Alice Lee married the prominent physician William Shippen, Jr. of Philadelphia. Philip Ludwell Lee, Sr. a member of the House of Burgesses, a lover of horses and music, Philip and his wife Elizabeth Steptoe had two daughters, the oldest of them known as the divine Matilda. Philip died in 1775, and Elizabeth remarried in 1780 to Philip Richard Fendall I and it was there that Philip R. Fendall built the Lee-Fendall House. Several years passed before Light Horse Harry remarried to Ann Hill Carter of Shirley Plantation and their fourth child, Robert Edward Lee, was born at Stratford Hall in 1807. Robert E. Lee spent only his first four years at Stratford Hall, in the middle of the Civil War, Lee wrote his wife that In the absence of a home I wish I could purchase Stratford. That is the only place I could go to, now accessible to us and you and the girls could remain there in quiet. It is a place, but we could make enough cornbread and bacon for our support
2.
Westmoreland County, Virginia
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Westmoreland County is a county located in the Northern Neck of the Commonwealth of Virginia. At the 2010 census, the population was 17,454 and these were part of Westmoreland until 1664, when Stafford County was formed. The county was the place of residence for Colonel Nicholas Spencer, Spencer, who served as President of the Council and acting Governor of the Colony of Virginia, was the cousin of, and agent for, the Barons Colepeper, proprietors of the Northern Neck. Spencer lived at his plantation, Nomini, which his descendants later sold to Robert Carter I, Robert Carters grandson, Robert Carter III, voluntarily freed almost 500 slaves from Nomini Hall beginning in 1791 and settled many on lands he gave them. His manumission is the largest known release of slaves in North America prior to the American Civil War and the largest number ever manumitted by an individual in the U. S. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 253 square miles. The county is located on the Northern Neck and is part of the Northern Neck George Washington Birthplace AVA winemaking appellation, charles County, Maryland - north St. The population density was 73/sq mi, there were 9,286 housing units at an average density of 40/sq mi. 3. 46% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,26. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the family size was 2.91. 23. 00% of the population were under the age of 18,6. 30% from 18 to 24,23. 90% from 25 to 44,27. 80% from 45 to 64, the median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 92.30 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.90 males. The median household income was $35,797 and the family income was $41,357. Males had an income of $31,333 and females $22,221. The per capita income was $19,473, about 11. 20% of families and 14. 70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21. 10% of those under age 18 and 12. 50% of those age 65 or over. The countys economy is based on agriculture. The county is also an extended exurb of Washington, D. C, Northern Neck Coca-Cola Bottling Inc. and the weekly Westmoreland News are located in Montross. S
3.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
4.
Robert Carter I
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Robert King Carter, of Lancaster County, was an American businessman and colonist in Virginia and became one of the wealthiest men in the colonies. As President of the Governors Council of the Virginia Colony, he was acting Governor of Virginia in 1726-1727 after the death in office of Governor Hugh Drysdale and he acquired the moniker King from his wealth, political power, and autocratic business methods. Robert Carter was born at Corotoman Plantation in Lancaster County, Virginia, to John Carter of London, England, in 1688, he married Judith Armistead of Hesse in Gloucester County, an area which was included in the formation of Mathews County in 1691. After her death in 1699, he married Elizabeth Landon in 1701, at age 28, Robert Carter entered the General Assembly of Virginia as a Burgess from Lancaster County, serving five consecutive years. In 1726, as President of the Governors Council, he served as acting Governor of Virginia after the death of Governor Hugh Drysdale. As an agent of Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron – known simply as Lord Fairfax – he served two terms as agent for the Fairfax Proprietary of the Northern Neck of Virginia. During his first term, 1702–1711, he began to acquire large tracts of land for himself in the Rappahannock River region of Virginia, Carter died on 4 August 1732, in Lancaster County, Virginia, and was buried there at Christ Church. He left his family 300,000 acres of land,1,000 slaves and 10,000 British pounds in cash. When Lord Fairfax saw Carters obituary in the London monthly The Gentlemans Magazine, Fairfax himself then visited his vast Northern Neck Proprietary from 1735–37, and he moved there permanently in 1747. Carter had five children with his first wife, Judith Armistead, Judith Carter died in infancy before her mother and buried near her at Christ Church Judith Carter married Mann Page. John Carter married Elizabeth Hill of Shirley Plantation Carter had ten children with his wife, Betty Landon. Robert Carter II married Priscilla Churchill, Sarah Carter Betty Carter Charles Carter married Anne Byrd, daughter of Col. William Byrd II. Ludlow Carter Landon Carter married Maria Byrd, daughter of Col. William Byrd II, stuarts Field Surgeon during the Civil War, Robert E. Lee Confederate States Army general. Robert Randolph Carter, Confederate States Army first lieutenant John Page 13th Governor of Virginia, Mann Page Virginia delegate to the Continental Congress in 1777 Thomas Nelson Page US ambassador to Italy during the Woodrow Wilson administration. William Nelson Page American civil engineer and industrialist
5.
Lee family
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The Lee family of the United States is a historically significant Virginia and Maryland political family, whose many prominent members are known for their accomplishments in politics and the military. The family became prominent in colonial America when Richard Lee I immigrated to Virginia in 1639, Lee Confederate States of America commander in the American Civil War. President Zachary Taylor and Chief Justice Edward Douglass White were also descendants of Richard Lee I, Confederate President Jefferson Davis married Sarah Knox Taylor, daughter of Zachary Taylor. The Lee Family of Virginia is also related to the Lee–Hamblin family of the American West through Richard Lee II. Richard Lee asserted descent from the Lees of Shropshire and bore a coat of arms which was confirmed in 1660/1 by John Gibbon, the question, then, has been how did Richard Lee descend from the family with whom he shared a coat of arms. It also looks at the left by the Shropshire and Worcester Lee families. A great-uncle, Richard Lee, was probably the man of the name, called Richard Lee. In the U. S. the family began when Richard Lee I emigrated to Virginia, the Lees first gained wider significance with Thomas Lee. He became a member of the House of Burgesses and later went on to found the Ohio Company, Thomas and Hannah Lees two eldest children were Philip Ludwell Lee and Hannah Lee. Younger siblings included Alice Lee, who married American Chief Physician William Shippen, Jr. and diplomats William Lee and he was Governor of Virginia from 1791–1794. Among his six children was Robert Edward Lee, later the famed Confederate general during the American Civil War, Henry Lee IIIs brothers were the noted Richard Bland Lee, a three-term U. S. Congressman from Virginia, and Charles Lee, Attorney General of the United States from 1795–1801, Thomas Sim Lee, a second cousin of Henry Lee III, was elected Governor of Maryland in 1779 and 1792 and declined a third term in 1798. He played an important part in the birth of Maryland as state, a grandson of Thomas Sim Lee was John Lee Carroll, the 37th Governor of Maryland. Robert E. Lee, was the son of Henry Lee III and he served as Confederate general in the United States Civil War and President of Washington and Lee University, which was named for him and for George Washington. Washington and Lee University houses Lee Chapel, burial site of members of the Lee family. R. E. Lees children included George Washington Custis Lee, indirect relations of R. E. Lee who were C. S. General Officers were William N. Pendleton and Virginia Military Institute graduate William H. F. Payne, two other Civil War Generals who were related to Lee was George B. Crittenden and Thomas Leonidas Crittenden whose mother Sarah O. Lee was a great-great-granddaughter of Richard Lee I the Founder, a son of Thomas Crittenden was John Jordan Crittenden III killed at the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876
6.
Aristocracy
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Aristocracy is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning rule of the best, at the time of the words origins in Ancient Greece, the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best qualified citizens—and often contrasted it favourably with monarchy, rule by an individual. In later times, aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a group, the aristocratic class. The Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, in Ancient Rome, the Republic consisted of an aristocracy—as well as consuls, a senate, and a tribal assembly. In the Middle Ages and early modern era, aristocracies primarily consisted of an aristocratic class, privileged by birth. Since the French Revolution, aristocracy has generally been contrasted with democracy, however, this distinction is often oversimplified. In exchange feudal aid is received from tenants or vassals, oaths of military allegiance, however an oligarchy, nobility or royalty had the right to set taxes, assemble or raise armies and command loyalty by virtue of traditional authority. In the 1651 book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the citizens is an assembly by part and it is a system in which only a small part of the population represents the government. Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, history, John Cannon, Oxford University Press,1997, ISBN 978-0-19-866176-4 Aristocracy in the Modern World, Ellis Wasson, Palgrave Macmillan,2006
7.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
8.
Jamestown, Virginia
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The Jamestown settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. William Kelso writes that Jamestown is where the British Empire began, Jamestown was established by the Virginia Company of London as James Fort on May 4,1607, and was considered permanent after brief abandonment in 1610. It followed several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke, Jamestown served as the capital of the colony of Virginia for 83 years, from 1616 until 1699. The settlement was located within the country of Tsenacommacah, which was ruled by the Powhatan Confederacy, the natives initially welcomed and provided crucial provisions and support for the colonists, who were not agriculturally inclined. Relations with the newcomers soured fairly early on, leading to the annihilation of the Paspahegh in warfare within 3 years. Mortality at Jamestown itself was very high due to disease and starvation, the Second Supply also brought the first two European women to the settlement. They most likely worked in the fields as indentured servants. The modern conception of slavery in the future United States was formalized in 1640 and was entrenched in Virginia by 1660. In 1676, the town was burned during Bacons Rebellion. In 1699, the capital was relocated from Jamestown to what is today Williamsburg, after which Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement, existing today only as an archaeological site. Today, Jamestown is one of three locations comprising the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia, along with Williamsburg and Yorktown, with two primary heritage sites, Historic Jamestowne, the archaeological site on Jamestown Island, is a cooperative effort by Jamestown National Historic Site and Preservation Virginia. Jamestown Settlement, a living history site, is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation. Spain, Portugal, and France moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, the English did not attempt to found colonies until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot, and early efforts were failures—most notably the Roanoke Colony which vanished about 1590. Late in 1606, English entrepreneurs set sail with a charter from the London Company to establish a colony in the New World, the fleet consisted of the ships Susan Constant, Discovery, and Godspeed, all under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport. They made a long voyage of four months, including a stop in Puerto Rico. The expedition made landfall on April 26,1607 at a place which they named Cape Henry, Captain Edward Maria Wingfield was elected president of the governing council on April 25,1607. On May 14, he selected a piece of land on a peninsula some 40 miles inland from the Atlantic Ocean as a prime location for a fortified settlement. Perhaps the most favorable fact about the location was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginia Indian tribes, the island was swampy and isolated, and it offered limited space, was plagued by mosquitoes, and afforded only brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking
9.
Williamsburg, Virginia
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Williamsburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,068, in 2014, the population was estimated to be 14,691. Located on the Virginia Peninsula, Williamsburg is in the part of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area. It is bordered by James City County and York County, Williamsburg was founded in 1632 as Middle Plantation, a fortified settlement on high ground between the James and York rivers. The city served as the capital of the Colony of Virginia from 1699 to 1780 and was the center of events in Virginia leading to the American Revolution. S. Presidents as well as other important figures in the nations early history. The citys tourism-based economy is driven by Colonial Williamsburg, the restored Historic Area of the city, along with nearby Jamestown and Yorktown, Williamsburg forms part of the Historic Triangle, which attracts more than four million tourists each year. Modern Williamsburg is also a town, inhabited in large part by William & Mary students. Prior to the arrival of the English colonists at Jamestown in the Colony of Virginia in 1607, by the 1630s, English settlements had grown to dominate the lower portion of the Virginia Peninsula, and the Powhatan tribes had abandoned their nearby villages. Jamestown was the capital of Virginia Colony, but was burned down during the events of Bacons Rebellion in 1676. The members of the House of Burgesses discovered that the location was both safer and more pleasant environmentally than Jamestown, which was humid and plagued with mosquitoes. A school of education had long been an aspiration of the colonists. An early attempt at Henricus failed after the Indian Massacre of 1622, the location at the outskirts of the developed part of the colony had left it more vulnerable to the attack. In the 1690s, the colonists tried again to establish a school and they commissioned Reverend James Blair, who spent several years in England lobbying, and finally obtained a royal charter for the desired new school. It was to be named the College of William & Mary in honor of the monarchs of the time, when Reverend Blair returned to Virginia, the new school was founded in a safe place, Middle Plantation in 1693. Classes began in temporary quarters in 1694, and the College Building, four years later, in 1698, the rebuilt Statehouse in Jamestown burned down again, this time accidentally. The government again relocated temporarily to Middle Plantation, and in addition to the better climate now also enjoyed use of the Colleges facilities. The College students made a presentation to the House of Burgesses, a village was laid out and Middle Plantation was renamed Williamsburg in honor of King William III of England, befitting the towns newly elevated status
10.
Northern Neck
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The Northern Neck is the northernmost of three peninsulas on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay in the Commonwealth of Virginia. This peninsula is bounded by the Potomac River on the north and it encompasses the following Virginia counties, Lancaster, Northumberland, Richmond, and Westmoreland. The inclusion of King George County in the Northern Neck varies among commentators, historically, the grant for the Northern Neck included all land between the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers, including far upstream of King George County — some 5 million acres. The boundaries of King George and Westmoreland counties have changed radically since their establishment, significant portions of the early King George County lay in what is now Westmoreland County. In the winter of 1607–08, Captain John Smith traveled up the Rappahannock River as a prisoner of the Powhatans and he was the first European known to have visited the Northern Neck. The original Northern Neck land grant in 1661 was a land grant first contrived by the exiled English King Charles II in 1649 and it encompassed all the lands bounded by the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers and, later, by a straight line connecting their sources. This grant is significantly larger than the currently known as the Northern Neck. The original grant was given to a proprietor, semi-autonomy relative to the colonial government was provided by the proprietorial government until the American Revolution. Most of the development occurred on the eastern end of the peninsula where the Potomac. The autonomy and the excellent natural resources led the richest planters to establish plantations in the Northern Neck. During the Colonial period, the Northern Neck was referred to as the Athens of the New World because of its collection of rich landowners dedicated to learning, gentlemanly society and they based their elite society on the exploitation of slave labor by Africans and African Americans. Because of this influx of well-to-do planters, an aristocratic society grew earlier than in areas to the south, from this society, arose many leaders of the Revolution and the future young republic. These differences created strong antipathies between the regions, later as the remainder of the mid-Atlantic states became developed, the importance of the Northern Neck would decline. It was relatively isolated from main routes and cities. This isolation may be a product of the earlier antipathies related to the differences in society in the Neck, in 1687 a widespread slave conspiracy was crushed in the Northern Neck. During a mass funeral, slaves in the area planned to all whites. The plot was discovered and its leaders executed, when authorities learned that they had plotted the uprising at gatherings for slave funerals, they prohibited such events. The next year, the Northern Neck was the site of another attempted uprising, this one led by Sam, a repeat offender, he had several times endeavored to promote a Negro Insurreccon in this Colony
11.
James River
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The James River is a river in the U. S. state of Virginia. It is 348 miles long, extending to 444 miles if one includes the Jackson River, the James River drains a catchment comprising 10,432 square miles. The watershed includes about 4% open water and an area with a population of 2.5 million people and it is the 12th longest river in the United States that remains entirely within a single state. Tidal waters extend west to Richmond, the capital of Virginia, larger tributaries draining to the tidal portion include the Appomattox River, Chickahominy River, Warwick River, Pagan River, and the Nansemond River. At its mouth near Newport News Point, the Elizabeth River, many boats pass through this river to import and export Virginia products. The navigable portion of the river was the highway of the Colony of Virginia during its first 15 years, facilitating supply ships delivering supplies. However, for the first five years, despite many hopes of gold and riches, in 1612, businessman John Rolfe successfully cultivated a non-native strain of tobacco which proved popular in England. Soon, the became the primary means of exporting the large hogsheads of this cash crop from an ever-growing number of plantations with wharfs along its banks. This development made the efforts of the Virginia Company of London successful financially, spurring even more development, investments. The upper reaches of the river above the head of navigation at the line were explored by fur trading parties sent by Abraham Wood during the late 17th century. Although ocean-going ships were unable to navigate beyond present-day Richmond, portage of products, produce from the Piedmont and Great Valley regions traveled down the river to seaports at Richmond and Manchester through such port towns as Lynchburg, Scottsville, Columbia and Buchanan. The James River was considered as a route for transport of produce from the Ohio Valley, the James River and Kanawha Canal was built for this purpose, to provide a navigable portion of the Kanawha River, a tributary of the Ohio River. For the most mountainous section between the two points, the James River and Kanawha Turnpike was built to provide a link via wagons. However, before the canal could be completed, in the mid-19th century, railroads emerged as a more practical technology. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway was completed between Richmond and the Ohio River at the new city of Huntington, West Virginia by 1873, dooming the canals economic prospects. In the 1880s, the Richmond and Alleghany Railroad was laid along the portion of the canals towpath. In modern times, this line is used primarily in transporting West Virginia coal to export coal piers at Newport News. The James River contains numerous parks and other recreational attractions, canoeing, fishing, kayaking, hiking, and swimming are some of the activities that people enjoy along the river during the summer
12.
Rosewell (plantation)
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Rosewell Plantation in Gloucester County, Virginia, was for more than 100 years the home of a branch of the Page family, one of the First Families of Virginia. Begun in 1725, the Flemish bond brick Rosewell mansion overlooking the York River was one of the most elaborate homes in the American colonies. In Mansions of Virginia, the architectural historian Thomas Tileston Waterman described the house as the largest and finest of American houses of the colonial period. Through much of the 18th century and 19th centuries, and during the American Civil War, Rosewell plantation hosted the areas most elaborate formal balls, the building of Rosewell was begun in 1725 by Mann Page I. In 1718 he had married Judith Carter, the daughter of Robert King Carter, educated at Eton College and Oxford University in England, Mann Page was appointed to the Governors Council of the Virginia Colony shortly after his return to Virginia. He embarked on construction of Rosewell in 1725, but died five years later construction was completed. It was Pages intention to build a home that would rival or exceed the newly completed Governors Palace in Williamsburg in size, when Page died five years into construction on the home, the property passed to his wife Judith. The primary construction materials were brick, marble and mahogany, some of which was imported from England, architectural historians believe that the 12, 000-square-foot house, double the size of the Governors Palace, may have been designed by Mann Page himself. Larger than any built in colonial Virginia, Rosewell probably owed its design to the London townhouses built to the stricter codes following the Great Fire of London. Their son Mann Page II saw the mansion through to completion after the elder Pages early death. By then the Page family was strapped for cash due to the cost of building the great house, in 1837 the century old mansion was sold out of the Page family. The flat roof was replaced with a low hip roof with a single cupola surrounded by a widows walk, the plantation passed through several more owners before the Rosewell Mansion was destroyed by fire in 1916. Today, the remains of the house is a largely undisturbed historic ruin, the site has been the subject of archaeological work which has revealed many artifacts and shed light on some aspects of colonial life and architecture previously unclear. Governor of Virginia John Page was the grandson of Rosewells first owner and he grew up there, and was a classmate of Thomas Jefferson at the College of William and Mary in nearby Williamsburg where he graduated in 1763. John Page fought during the American Revolutionary War, attaining the rank of colonel and he also served multiple terms in the U. S. Congress and the Virginia General Assembly. The foundation walls are three and one-half feet thick, the reception hall is large, the ceilings lofty, and the whole mansion is indicative of refined taste and wealth. From the upper windows, a magnificent view is had of the level lands and the waters of the creeks. During the life of Governor Page, Thomas Jefferson was a frequent, while on one of his visits he wrote the rough draft of the Declaration of Independence in what is now known as the Blue Room, situated on the northwest corner of the second story of this house
13.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
14.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
15.
Charles I of England
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Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
16.
Primogeniture
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The son of a deceased elder brother inherits before a living younger brother by right of substitution for the deceased heir. In the absence of any children, brothers succeed, individually, among siblings, sons inherit before daughters. The principle has applied in history to inheritance of property as well as inherited titles and offices, most notably monarchies. Variations on primogeniture modify the right of the son to the entirety of a familys inheritance or, in the West since World War II. Most monarchies in Europe have eliminated male preference in succession, Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, absolute, equal, or lineal primogeniture is a form of primogeniture in which gender does not matter for inheritance. This form of primogeniture was not practiced by any modern monarchy before 1980, however, according to Poumarede, the Basques of the Kingdom of Navarre transmitted title and property to the firstborn, whatever the gender. This inheritance practice was adhered to by the nobility and free families alike in the early. The Navarrese monarchy, however, was inherited by dynasties from outside of Navarre which followed different succession laws, eventually only the Basque lower nobility and free families of the Basque country and other regions continued to follow this practice, which persisted as late as the 19th century. The most notable of these are the Egyptian cases of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, as well as the Ptolemaic Dynastys kings, Zapateros proposal was supported by the leader of the main opposition party, the conservative Partido Popular, making its passage likely. However, Zapateros administration ended before any amendment was drafted, Felipe succeeded to the throne as Felipe VI, upon his fathers abdication in 2014, by which time he had two daughters. Felipe VI has no son that would, absent the constitutional change, in July 2006, the Nepalese government proposed adopting absolute primogeniture, but the monarchy was abolished in 2008 before the change could be put into effect. In 2011, the governments of the 16 Commonwealth realms who share the person as their respective monarch announced the Perth Agreement. This was implemented when the legislation came into effect on 26 March 2015. In Japan, debates have occurred over whether to adopt absolute primogeniture, however, the birth of Prince Hisahito, a son of Prince Akishino has sidelined the debate. In 2006, King Juan Carlos I of Spain issued a decree reforming the succession to noble titles from male-preference primogeniture to absolute primogeniture. The order of succession for all noble dignities is determined in accordance with the title of concession and, if there is none, with that traditionally applied in these cases. Men and women have a right of succession to grandeeship and to titles of nobility in Spain. Male-preference primogeniture accords succession to the throne to a member of a dynasty if she has no living brothers
17.
Land grant
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The United States historically gave out numerous land grants as Homesteads to individuals desiring to prove a farm. Roman soldiers were given pensions at the end of their service including cash or land, augustus fixed the amount in AD5 at 3,000 denarii and by the time of Caracalla it had risen to 5,000 denarii. One denarius was roughly equivalent to a days wages for an unskilled laborer, starting from 1788, the British crown granted land to released convicts in the colony of New South Wales. Males were allowed 30 acres, plus 20 acres if they were married, instructions were issued on 20 August 1789 that non-commissioned Marine Officers were to be entitled to 100 acres additional and privates to 50 acres additional. Governor Macquarie canceled land grants issued during the Rum Rebellion 1808-09, Land grants started to be phased out when private tendering was introduced, and stricter limits were placed on grants without purchase. The instructions to Governor Brisbane were issued on 17 July 1825, eventually, on 9 January 1831, Viscount Goderich commanded that all land was to be sold at public auction. There were also significant land grants in the Swan River Colony, in 1886, the Midland Railway of Western Australia was granted land concessions to build and operate a railway from Midland, near Perth, to Walkaway, near Geraldton. This was built, but taken over by the government railway in the 1950s and it was and is 1,067 mm gauge. In 1889, a land grant railway was from Roebuck Bay in Western Australia to Angle Pole in the Northern Territory or South Australia was proposed and this would have been 1000 miles long. Angle Pole was a locality where the Telegraph line had bend in it, the gauge would have been 1,600 mm. In 1897, a transcontinental North-South land grant railway was proposed to complete the link between Oodnadatta and Darwin, the latter then called Palmerston or Port Darwin. This was still-born, though the government railway was extended in the 1920s from Oodnadatta to Alice Springs and it was originally 1,067 mm gauge, but was replaced by a new 1,435 mm gauge line on a different route. In 1909, a land grant railway was proposed in Queensland from Charleville to Point Parker on the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, but this was stillborn. The Hudsons Bay Company was incorporated in 1670 with the grant of Ruperts Land by King Charles II of England, following the Ruperts Land Act in the British Parliament, Ruperts Land was sold in 1869 to the newly formed Canadian Government for the nominal sum of £300,000. The Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company built and operated the 134 km Wellington-Manawatu Line north of Wellington to the Manawatu from 1881, the company was New Zealand owned. It was taken over by the government in 1908, and the became part of the North Island Main Trunk. In America, starting in the 16th century, land grants were given for the purpose of establishing settlements, missions, countries granting land included Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and Britain. Under colonial law, a patentee had to improve the land, under this doctrine of planting and seeding, the patentee was required to cultivate 1-acre of land and build a small house on the property, otherwise the patent would revert to the government
18.
Nicholas Spencer
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Col. Nicholas Spencer, Jr. was a London merchant who emigrated to Westmoreland County, Virginia, where he became a planter and which he represented in the Virginia House of Burgesses. Spencers role as agent for the Culpeppers helped him and his friend Lt. Col. John Washington, ancestor of George Washington, Nicholas Spencer was born to an aristocratic English family long seated at Cople, Bedfordshire, England. The family was related to the Spencer family of Northamptonshire, with whom they shared a coat of arms, in 1531 the Spencers bought the manor of Rowlands at Cople, which they owned for several centuries. Another brother, Robert Spencer later removed from Surry County, Virginia, to Talbot County, Maryland, where his descendants lived at Spencer Hall. Nicholas Spencer moved from London to Westmoreland County, Virginia, in the 1650s, Colepeper had inherited his fathers share of ownership in the Virginia Company in 1617, and was subsequently knighted and afterwards raised to the peerage. He became the proprietor of the Northern Neck of Virginia under the charter of 1649. Colepeper never lived in the colonies, and his son Thomas Culpeper, 2nd Baron Culpeper of Thoresway, in the meantime Nicholas Spencer had come to Virginia to help oversee his cousin Johns investment. On his arrival in the colony, Spencer secured an appointment as a customs collector, Spencer and John Washington jointly held the post of customs collector on the Potomac. He also won his own land grant, but Spencer was, unlikely as it sounds, apparently an efficient administrator on his own, later being appointed to additional posts in Virginia by virtue of his abilities. Spencer was apparently a pragmatic administrator and he was also a hard-nosed capitalist. When it came to slavery, for instance, Spencer weighed the benefits of enslaved labor in a strictly cost-benefit way, the low price of Tobacco, Spencer wrote, requires it should bee made as cheap as possible, and that Blacks can make it cheaper than Whites. Spencers rationale for slavery was probably as succinctly heartless as any committed to paper, Spencers role as an aristocratic bureaucrat in the new colony was a tricky one. He was navigating the shoals of dilemmas which have perplexed a nation for centuries, while simultaneously attempting to rationalize slavery, Spencer was also writing to the Privy Council in England about the Virginia Colonys precarious place on the edge of Catholic Maryland. The Virginia colony of the era was, as the eminent colonial historian Edmund S. Morgan wrote, there were popular uprisings such as Bacons Rebellion, as well as the tobacco plant-cutting riots. A communication to the Crown in 1674 noted that his opposition to the Bacon Rebellion, in 1682 Spencer wrote to London in the wake of the events roiling Virginia. Bacons Rebellion, Spencer told colonial overseers in London, had left an itching behind it, the Virginia government reacted harshly with militia patrols and the promise of steep fines. The frenzy, according to Spencer, destroyed crops on over 200 plantations, even the wives, Spencer wrote, took up hoes laid down by their husbands and continued to rip out the plants. Such civil disobedience, Nicholas Spencer saw, was the price paid by colonial administrators acting the foil for the empires merchants back home, for an aristocratic Englishman accustomed to centuries-old protocol, the mix must have been dizzying
19.
Washington (name)
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Washington /ˈwɒʃɪŋtən/ is a male given name and a surname. It most frequently refers to George Washington, the first President of the United States of America. The name itself is a name of origin and refers to names in England, such as Washington, Tyne and Wear. The word became a surname in 1183 when William de Hertburn took the name William de Wassyngtona, in 1657 the name came to Virginia, from 1789 to 1797 George Washington was president. Since this time the name spread throughout the USA as patriotic. In addition to an origin of the name, it is also a favored assumed name of freed slaves. The name appears also as a given name, often as a second or third name in honor of George Washington. The surname historically derived from the English place name and it is particularly popular in the United States and South America, evoking the memory of George Washington
20.
Mount Vernon
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Mount Vernon was the plantation house of George Washington, the first President of the United States, and his wife, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington. The estate is situated on the banks of the Potomac River in Fairfax County, Virginia, near Alexandria, across from Prince Georges County, the Washington family had owned land in the area since the time of Washingtons great-grandfather in 1674. In 1739 they embarked on an expansion of the estate that continued under George Washington, who came into possession of the estate in 1754, the mansion is built of wood in a loose Palladian style, and was constructed by George Washington in stages between 1758 and 1778. It occupies the site of an earlier, smaller house built by George Washingtons father Augustine and it remained Washingtons country home for the rest of his life. Following his death in 1799, under the ownership of successive generations of the family. Escaping the damage suffered by many plantation houses during the American Civil War, Mount Vernon was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and is today listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is still owned and maintained in trust by The Mount Vernon Ladies Association, allowing the public to see the estate is not an innovation, but part of a 200-year-old tradition started by George Washington himself. In 1794 he wrote, I have no objection to any sober or orderly persons gratifying their curiosity in viewing the buildings, Gardens, when George Washingtons ancestors acquired the estate, it was known as Little Hunting Creek Plantation, after the nearby Little Hunting Creek. Vernon had been Lawrences commanding officer in the British Royal Navy, when George Washington inherited the property, he retained the name. The current property consists of 500 acres, the main buildings, the present house was built in phases from 1758, by an unknown architect, on the site of the Washingtons former farmhouse. This staggered and unplanned evolution is indicated by the main door. As completed and seen today, the house is in a loose Palladian style, the principal block, dating from 1758, is a two-storied corps de logis flanked by two single-story secondary wings, built in 1775. These secondary wings, which house the hall on the northern side. The corps de logis and secondary wings have hipped roofs with dormers, the rooms at Mount Vernon have mostly been restored to their appearance at the time of George and Martha Washingtons occupancy. These rooms include Washingtons study, two dining rooms, the West Parlour, the Front Parlour, the kitchen and some bedrooms, instead they range from severe Palladianism to a finer and later neoclassicism in the style of Robert Adam. This varying of the style is best exemplified in the doorcases. Today, visitors to Mount Vernon are shown Washingtons study, a room to which in the century only a privileged few were granted entrée. It is a furnished room Washington used as a combined bathroom, dressing room and office
21.
Van de Passe family
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Most of their engravings were portraits, book title-pages, and the like, with relatively few grander narrative subjects. As with the dynasties, their style is very similar. Many of the family could produce their own designs, and have left drawings, by 1585 he was a member of the artists Guild of Saint Luke, and doing work for Christopher Plantin. Much of this was work engraving the paintings of Maerten de Vos, the disruptions of the Dutch Revolt scattered these artists across Northern Europe, de Passe was an Anabaptist, which made his position especially difficult. He first moved to Aachen, until Protestants were also expelled from there and he started his own engraving and publishing business in Cologne in 1589, but again was forced to leave in 1611. He set up in business in Utrecht, by about 1612, where he created engravings for the English and other markets, and his works include a famous rendition of the English Gunpowder Plotters, although it is not known what basis he had for the likenesses. The familys prints are not rare and are represented in most print rooms. Four of Crispijn Is children were notable engravers for the family business. His eldest son, Simon de Passe worked in England from about 1616 before moving to Copenhagen as royal engraver and designer of medals in 1624 and he is best remembered for his early London print of Pocahontas. Willem de Passe, the least productive of the siblings, took over from his brother in England, probably working in France. He joined the Huguenot church in Threadneedle Street in 1624, Magdalena van de Passe was, like her siblings, born in Cologne and died in Utrecht. She specialized in landscapes until her marriage to the minor artist Frederick van Bevervoorden in 1634, after which she essentially stopped engraving, the business presumably involved shipping drawings, engraved printing plates, and printed copies around Europe between the various cities involved. After the three deaths in 1637-38 only Crispijn II in the Netherlands and Simon in Denmark remained, Crispijn III was a more minor figure who died in 1678. Hortus Floridus, mostly by Crispijn II, sixty-five portraits of English notables, by various members of the family Hind Arthur M. A History of Engraving and Etching, Houghton Mifflin Co,1923, reprinted Dover Publications,1963 ISBN 0-486-20954-7 Getty Foundation, Union List of Artists Names online Mayor, Hyatt A. Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton,1971, ISBN 0-691-00326-2 British Library online database has 1838 items by or after the family Spamula feature Another biography
22.
Pocahontas
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Pocahontas was a Native American woman notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, the paramount chief of a network of tribal nations in the Tsenacommacah. Some historians have suggested that this story, as told by Smith, is untrue, Pocahontas was captured by the English during Anglo-Indian hostilities in 1613, and held for ransom. During her captivity, she converted to Christianity and took the name Rebecca, when the opportunity arose for her to return to her people, she chose to remain with the English. In April 1614, she married tobacco planter John Rolfe, and in January 1615, bore their son, in 1616, the Rolfes traveled to London. Pocahontas was presented to English society as an example of the savage in hopes of stimulating investment in the Jamestown settlement. She became something of a celebrity, was elegantly fêted, in 1617, the Rolfes set sail for Virginia, but Pocahontas died at Gravesend of unknown causes. She was buried in a church in Gravesend in the United Kingdom, numerous places, landmarks, and products in the United States have been named after Pocahontas. Her story has been romanticized over the years, and she is a subject of art, literature, Pocahontass birth year is unknown, but some historians estimate it to have been around 1596. In A True Relation of Virginia, Smith described the Pocahontas he met in the spring of 1608 as being a child of ten years old. In a letter written in 1616, he described her as she was in 1608. Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, paramount chief of Tsenacommacah, Pocahontass childhood was probably little different from that of most girls who lived in Tsenacommacah. She learned how to perform what was considered to be work, which included foraging for food and firewood, farming. As she grew older, she helped other members of Powhatans household with preparations for large feasts, serving feasts, such as the one presented to John Smith after his capture, was a regular obligation of the Mamanatowick, or paramount chief. Bestowed at different times, the names carried different meanings and might be used in different contexts, Early in her life she was given a secret name, Matoaka, but later she was also known as Amonute. Matoaka means Bright Stream Between the Hills, Amonute cannot be translated, according to the anthropologist Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas revealed to the English only after she had taken another religious—baptismal—name, Rebecca. Pocahontass Christian name, Rebecca, may have been a gesture to Rebecca of the Book of Genesis who, as the mother of Jacob
23.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
24.
Powhatan (Native American leader)
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He was the father of Pocahontas, who eventually converted to Christianity and married the English settler John Rolfe. Seventeenth-century English spellings were not standardized, and representations were many of the sounds of the Algonquian language spoken by Wahunsenacawh and he had many names and titles, his own people sometimes called him Ottaniack, sometimes Mamauatonick, and usually in his presence Wahunsenasawk. He apparently inherited the leadership of about 4-6 tribes, with its base at the line near present-day Richmond. Through diplomacy and/or force, he had assembled a total of about 30 tribes into the Powhatan Confederacy by the early 17th century, the confederacy was estimated to include 10, 000-15,000 people. In December 1607, English soldier and pioneer John Smith, one of the Jamestown colonys leaders, was captured by an expedition led by Opechancanough. Smith was taken to Werowocomoco, Powhatans capital along the York River, Smith recounted in 1624 that Pocahontas, one of Powhatans daughters, kept her father from executing him. However, since Smiths 1608 and 1612 reports omitted this account, some believe that the event Smith recounted as a prelude to his execution was an adoption ceremony by which Smith was ritually accepted as subchief of the town of Capahosic in Powhatans alliance. As the historian Margaret Williamson Huber has written, Powhatan calculated that moving Smith and his men to Capahosic would keep them nearby and better under his control. In January 1609, Smith recorded directing some of his men to build an English-style house for Powhatan at Werowocomoco, both sides looked for opportunities to surprise one another. When ambushed, he held the Powhatan at gunpoint before the warriors, when Smith returned to Werowocomoco, he found the house unfinished and the place abandoned. The men had deserted to the Powhatan side, since 2003, state officials and researchers have concluded the likely site of Werowocomoco is further west along the York River at Purtan Bay. There archeologists have found evidence of a residential settlement dating to 1200. They have found artifacts, including European goods, which indicate likely interaction with the English in the early 17th century. In 2006 the Werowocomoco Archeological Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, excavations continue by a team headed by the College of William and Mary. Powhatan made his capital at Orapake, located about 50 miles west in a swamp at the head of the Chickahominy River. The modern-day interchange of Interstate 64 and Interstate 295 is near this location, by the time Smith left Virginia in 1609, the fragile peace between colonists and Algonquians was already beginning to fray. Soon conflict led to the First Anglo-Powhatan War, and further English expansion beyond Jamestown, the English effectively destroyed two subtribes, the Kecoughtan and the Paspahegh, at the beginning of this war. Powhatan sent Nemattanew to operate against the English on the upper James River, with the capture of Pocahontas by Captain Samuel Argall in 1613, Powhatan sued for peace
25.
Powhatan
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The Powhatan are a Native American people in Virginia. It may also refer to a leader of those tribes. It is estimated there were about 14, 000–21,000 Powhatan people in eastern Virginia when the English settled Jamestown in 1607. They were also known as Virginia Algonquians, as they spoke a language known as Powhatan or Virginia Algonquian. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, a mamanatowick named Wahunsunacawh, created an organization by affiliating 30 tributary peoples. Wahunsunacawh came to be known by the English as Powhatan, each of the tribes within this organization had its own weroance, but all paid tribute to Powhatan. After Powhatans death in 1618, hostilities with colonists escalated under the chiefdom of his brother, Opechancanough and his large-scale attacks in 1622 and 1644 met strong reprisals by the English, resulting in the near elimination of the tribe. By 1646, what is called the Powhatan Paramount Chiefdom by modern historians had been decimated, the Native Americans did not have any immunity to these, which had been endemic in Europe and Asia for centuries. The wholesale deaths greatly weakened and hollowed out the Native American societies, by the mid-17th century, the leaders of the colony were desperate for labor to develop the land. Almost half of the English and European immigrants arrived as indentured servants, as settlement continued, the colonists imported growing numbers of enslaved Africans for labor. By 1700, the colonies had about 6,000 black slaves and it was common for black slaves to escape and join the surrounding Powhatan, some white servants were also noted to have joined the Indians. Africans and whites worked and lived together, some also intermarried with them. After Bacons Rebellion in 1676, the colony enslaved Indians for control, in 1691, the House of Burgesses abolished Indian slavery, however, many Powhatan were held in servitude well into the 18th century. In the 21st century, eight Indian tribes are recognized by Virginia as having ancestral ties to the Powhatan confederation. The Pamunkey and Mattaponi are the two peoples who have retained reservation lands from the 17th century. The Powhatan Renape Nation has been recognized by the state of New Jersey, the competing cultures of the Powhatan and English settlers were united through unions and marriages of members, of which the most well known was that of Pocahontas and John Rolfe. Their son Thomas Rolfe was the ancestor of many Virginians, many of the First Families of Virginia have both English and Virginia Indian ancestry, the name Powhatan is the name of the native village or town of Wahunsunacawh. The title Chief or King Powhatan, used by the English is believed to have derived from the name of this site
26.
Samuel Argall
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Sir Samuel Argall was an English adventurer and naval officer. He captained one of Lord De La Warrs ships in the rescue mission to Virginia in 1610 which saved the colony from starvation. As a sea warrior, he is best known for his diplomacy with the Powhatan Confederacy. He kidnapped the Chiefs daughter, Pocahontas, and held her as a captive at Henricus as security against the return of English captives and property held by Powhatan on 13 April 1613. Pocahontas had long been a friend of the English and was treated with respect according to her rank, in the eyes of the English. Argall was also successful in his actions against French efforts at colonisation in Acadia and his voyage took only nine weeks and six days, including two weeks becalmed. This new route enabled the English to avoid enemy Spanish ships, upon his arrival at Jamestown, Captain Argall found the colonists in dire straits. Argall resupplied them with all the food he could spare and returned to England at the end of the summer. The help came to the colony at one of the most critical moments in its history, as it began the Starving Time, however, without the provisions Argall had left, the colony may have been totally destroyed. Argalls voyage also prevented the Spanish from gaining knowledge of the weakness of the Jamestown colony, Argalls larger ship, Mary and John, stationed at Cape Henry, chased the Spanish ship and ultimately denied it entrance into the Chesapeake Bay. De La Warr, became so ill that in the spring of 1611 he sailed home to England, serving under Dale, in March 1613, Argall, who was looking for food for the settlement, sailed up the Potomac River. There, he traded with the Patawomecks, a Native American tribe and they lived at the village of Passapatanzy. When two English colonists began trading with the Patawomecks, they discovered the presence of Pocahontas, the daughter of Wahunsonacock, according to a book by Captain John Smith, she had been there for around three months. As soon as he heard this, Argall resolved to capture Pocahontas, sending for the local chief, Japazaws, Argall told him he must bring her on board his ship, and suggested luring her with the present of a copper kettle. With the help of Japazaws, they tricked Pocahontas into captivity and their purpose, as they explained in a letter, was to ransom her for some English prisoners held by Chief Powhatan, along with various weapons and farming tools that the Powhatans had stolen. Powhatan returned the prisoners but failed to satisfy the colonists with the amount of weapons and tools he returned, after the capture of Pocahontas, later in 1613, under orders from London, Argall began to raid Acadia. First he eradicated the French Jesuit colony of Saint-Sauveur on Mount Desert Island, after the first of two trips to accomplish this, he carried fourteen prisoners back to Jamestown. He then went on to burn the settlement and the restant structures of a one on Sainte-Croix
27.
Henricus
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It was named for Prince Henry, the eldest son of King James I. The site of Henricus later became part of the Shire of Henrico, in 1749, the portion of Henrico County that lay south of the James River was detached to form the present-day Chesterfield County. Today, the settlement is interpreted via Henricus Historical Park, a history museum. Henricus was one of the earliest English settlements in the New World and it was located on the James River, a few miles southeast of the modern city of Richmond, Virginia. Prior to the development of Richmond, Henricus was one of the westernmost outlying developments from the Colony of Virginias fortified capital downriver at Jamestown. In 1612–1613, a facility known as Mt. Malady was built nearby and this settlement was near where Pocahontas grew up among the Appomattoc tribe of the Powhatan Confederacy. Reverend Alexander Whitaker converted her to Christianity during her captivity under Sir Thomas Dale and she met settler John Rolfe during this time and they married on April 5,1614. Rolfes longtime friend, Richard Buck, presided at their wedding and they lived together across the river at the Varina Farms Plantation. Their mixed-race son, Thomas Rolfe, was born on the plantation and his descendants were among many of the so-called First Families of Virginia. The Virginia Company tried to found the first institution of education in British America. In 1618, they obtained a charter for a proposed University of Henrico. By 1622, the settlers had established a school for Native Americans on the site, much of the English settlement was destroyed in the Indian Massacre of 1622. By 1623, more settlers occupied the land than before the massacre. The next year King James I of England dissolved the Virginia Company and its college, seizing its assets, the Crown controlled it from then on. In 1693, the College of William and Mary was established in Williamsburg, a plaque on the Wren Building, the colleges first structure, ascribes the institutions origin to the college proposed at Henrico. The area later saw action during the American Revolutionary War, the channel was later widened, and the old river channel silted up, forming what is now the 810-acre Dutch Gap Conservation Area. Eventually the exact location of the town of Henricus was forgotten. The 12-acre archeological site in Chesterfield County was listed as Henrico on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places in 1972
28.
John Rolfe
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John Rolfe was one of the early English settlers of North America. He is credited with the first successful cultivation of tobacco as a crop in the Colony of Virginia and is known as the husband of Pocahontas. Rolfe was born in Heacham, Norfolk, England, as the son of John Rolfe and Dorothea Mason, at the time, Spain held a virtual monopoly on the lucrative tobacco trade. Most Spanish colonies in the New World were located in southern climates more favourable to growth than the English settlements. As the consumption of tobacco had increased, the balance of trade between England and Spain began to be seriously affected, Rolfe was one of a number of businessmen who saw the opportunity to undercut Spanish imports by growing tobacco in Englands new colony in Virginia. A project of the proprietary Virginia Company of London, Jamestown had been established by an group of settlers on 14 May 1607. Heading the Third Supply fleet was the new flagship of the Virginia Company, the Third Supply fleet left England in May 1609 destined for Jamestown with seven large ships, towing two smaller pinnaces. In the southern region of the North Atlantic, they encountered a three-day-long storm, the ships of the fleet became separated. The new Sea Venture, whose caulking had not cured, was taking on water faster than it could be bailed, the Admiral of the Company, Sir George Somers, took the helm and the ship was deliberately driven onto the reefs of Bermuda to prevent its foundering. All aboard,150 passengers and crew, and 1 dog, most remained for ten months in Bermuda, subsequently also known as The Somers Isles, while they built two small ships to continue the voyage to Jamestown. A number of passengers and crew, however, did not complete this journey, some had died or been killed, lost at sea, or left behind to maintain Englands claim to Bermuda. Because of this, although the Virginia Companys charter was not extended to Bermuda until 1612, among those left buried in Bermuda were Rolfes wife and his infant daughter, Bermuda Rolfe. In May 1610, the two newly constructed ships set sail from Bermuda, with 142 castaways on board, including Rolfe, Admiral Somers, Stephen Hopkins, and Sir Thomas Gates. On arrival at Jamestown, they found the Virginia Colony almost destroyed by famine, very few supplies from the Third Supply had arrived because the same hurricane that caught the Sea Venture badly affected the rest of the fleet. After finally settling in—although his first wife, the English-born Sarah Hacker, in competing with Spain for European markets, there was another problem beside the warmer climates the Spanish settlements enjoyed. The native tobacco from Virginia was not liked by the English settlers, however, Rolfe wanted to introduce sweeter strains from Trinidad, using the hard-to-obtain Spanish seeds he brought with him. The appeal of Orinoco tobacco was in its nicotine, and the conviviality of its use in social situations. In 1612, Rolfe established Varina Farms, a plantation along the James River about 30 miles upstream from Jamestown, and across the river from Sir Thomas Dales progressive development at Henricus
29.
Cash crop
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A cash crop is an agricultural crop which is grown for sale to return a profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm, the term is used to differentiate marketed crops from subsistence crops, which are those fed to the producers own livestock or grown as food for the producers family. In earlier times cash crops were only a small part of a farms total yield, while today, especially in developed countries. In the least developed countries, cash crops are usually crops which attract demand in developed nations. Prices for major crops are set in commodity markets with global scope, with some local variation based on freight costs and local supply. A consequence of this is that a nation, region, or individual producer relying on such a crop may suffer low prices should a bumper crop elsewhere lead to excess supply on the global markets and this system has been criticized by traditional farmers. Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant commodity futures price variations, Issues involving subsidies and trade barriers on such crops have become controversial in discussions of globalization. The practice of exporting at artificially low prices is known as dumping, the Arctic climate is generally not conducive for the cultivation of cash crops. However, one potential cash crop for the Arctic is Rhodiola rosea, there is currently consumer demand for the plant, but the available supply is less than the demand. Cash crops grown in regions with a temperate climate include many cereals, oil-yielding crops, vegetables, tree fruit or top fruit, in regions with a subtropical climate, oil-yielding crops and some vegetables and herbs are the predominant cash crops. In regions with a climate, coffee, cocoa, sugar cane, bananas, oranges, cotton. The oil palm is a palm tree, and the fruit from it is used to make palm oil. Around 60 percent of African workers are employed in the agricultural sector, for example, in Burkina Faso 85% of its residents are reliant upon cotton production for income, and over half of the countrys population lives in poverty. Larger farms tend to grow crops such as coffee, tea, cotton, cocoa, fruit. These farms, typically operated by corporations, cover tens of square kilometres. Subsistence farms provide a source of food and a small income for families. Africa has realized significant growth in plantations, many of which are on lands which were purchased by British companies. Jatropha curcas is a crop grown for biofuel production in Africa
30.
Thomas Rolfe
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Thomas Rolfe was the only child of Pocahontas and her English husband, John Rolfe. His maternal grandfather was Wahunsunacock, the chief of Powhatan tribe in Virginia, Thomas Rolfe was born in Virginia on January 30,1615. Governor Sir Thomas Dale accompanied Thomas Rolfe and his parents on their trip to England aboard the Treasurer in 1616 and he was a year old during this voyage, and was not necessarily immune to the diseases and hardships of the voyage. Thomas survived, but a later in spring 1617 was stricken with a severe fever. The Rolfe family was preparing to re-embark on the George ship commanded by Samuel Argall when Rebecca died, the voyage continued but Thomas was left in Plymouth, England with Sir Lewis Stukley, and was later transferred into the care of his uncle, Henry Rolfe. Thomas remained in his uncles care until he reached roughly 21 years of age and it is assumed that Thomas returned to Virginia in 1635, and there is no further mention of his whereabouts or doings until 1641. Once established in Virginia again, Thomas fostered both his reputation as an owner, and as a member of his mothers lineage. As Rolfe was a child of an Englishman and a Native American woman and he expressed interest in rekindling relations with his Native American relatives, despite societal ridicule and laws that forbade such contact. In 1641, Rolfe petitioned the governor for permission to visit his aunt, Cleopatra, often quoted as the son of John Rolfe was a different man named Thomas Rolfe, who married Elizabeth Washington in September 1632 at St Jamess Church in Clerkenwell, London. This couple had 5 children and lived in England until after 1642, many people wrongly claim descent from Pocahontas and John Rolfe through this unrelated Thomas Rolfe. Thomas Rolfe later married a woman named Jane Poythress, who was the daughter of Captain Francis Poythress and they had one daughter together, who was also named Jane, after her mother. As confirmed by the 1698 deed quoted above, his daughter Jane married Robert Bolling, Robert Bolling and Jane Rolfe Bolling had one child, their son John was born January 26,1676. According to his fathers will, both Thomas and Elizabeth, his half-sister, received named land, there is no extant proof that some land came from the Native Americans. However Native Americans did not hold land in the English way, there is no mention of former Indian land in John Rolfes will, however, John Rolfe names Thomas as the rightful heir of all his land, profits and any royalties pertaining to such land. There is no extant documentation that when Thomas arrived in Virginia in 1640, thomass step-grandfather, named Captain William Peirce, received a grant of 2000 acres of land on June 22,1635, for the transportation of 40 persons among whom was Thomas Rolfe. He then listed Thomas as heir to his fathers land, prior to March 1640, Thomas took possession of this land which was located on the lower side of the James River. The year after the 1644 Indian attack on the colony, four forts were established to defend the frontier, Fort Henry, Fort Royal, Fort James, Fort James was to be under the command of Thomas Rolfe as lieutenant as of October 5,1646. He was given six men, and was instructed to fight against the Native Americans—his own people, And it is enacted and granted
31.
Reconstruction Era
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
32.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
33.
Wyndham Robertson
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Wyndham Robertson was the Acting Governor of the U. S. state of Virginia from 1836 to 1837. He also served twice in the Virginia House of Delegates, the time during the American Civil War. Robertson was a Whig, and was an advocate for Union during the crisis that precipitated the Civil War. However, after Lincolns call for troops, he advocated secession, after the war, he was a member of the Committee of Nine that helped usher Virginia back into the Union. Robertson, a descendant of Pocahontas, published a book near the end of his life in her defense, Robertson was born near Manchester, in Chesterfield County, Virginia, the son of William Robertson and Elizabeth Bolling, a descendant of Pocahontas and John Rolfe. His father was a member of the Virginia Council of State, Robertson attended private schools in Richmond and graduated from The College of William and Mary in 1821. He then married Mary Trigg Smith, daughter of Captain Francis Smith, Robertson, a Governor of Louisiana, and John Robertson, a U. S. Congressman. Robertson studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1824, in 1827, he made a short trip to Paris and London, and in 1830 he was made Councillor of State. Robertson was re-elected to the Council of State in 1833, and on March 31,1836, he became the member of this body. When Governor Littleton Waller Tazewell resigned that day, Robertson became Governor. Robertson was then elected to the Virginia House of Delegates for the 1838 session and he was re-elected for three successive sessions, ending his service in 1841. He moved to his wifes home south of Abingdon, in southwest Virginia in 1841 and he was made a Justice of Washington County on July 25,1842, and was appointed a trustee of Abingdon Academy in 1843. In 1850, he leased the King Saltworks for five years, in 1858, he returned to Richmond. In 1859, he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates for the 1859-1861 session, when Virginia was struggling with the idea of seceding from the United States, Robertson was a staunch Unionist and tried to prevent its secession. He later wrote of himself as a friend to peace and the Union and he then proposed the following toast, The Constitutional Union of the States - The Union of the States is the harmony of the spheres. While obedient to the laws of their creation, they sing ever as they go glad tidings of great joy to all the world, rebelling against them, light and joy are swallowed up in darkness, and order falls back into primordial chaos. After South Carolina and several states started seceding in the winter of 1860-61. However, when President Abraham Lincoln made his call for troops on April 15,1861, the call for troops was precisely the scenario detailed in their Anti-Coercion Resolution and Virginia seceded
34.
Multiracial
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Multiracial is defined as made up of or relating to people of many races. Many terms exist for people of multiracial backgrounds. While some of the used in the past are considered insulting and offensive. Individuals of multiracial backgrounds make up a significant portion of the population in parts of the world. In North America, studies have found that the population is continuing to grow. Because of a decline in racism, multiracial people no longer feel the need to hide their heritage, in many countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, mixed-race people make up the majority of the population. While defining race is controversial, race remains a commonly used term for categorization, insofar as race is defined differently in different cultures, perceptions of multiraciality will naturally be subjective. Some percentage of people who look black will possess genetic markers indicating the majority of their recent ancestors were European. The revised OMB standards identify a minimum of five categories, White, Black or African American, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian. Perhaps the most significant change for Census 2000 was that respondents were given the option to one or more races on the questionnaire to indicate their racial identity. Census 2000 race data are shown for people who reported a race either alone or in combination with one or more other races, in the English-speaking world, many terms for people of various multiracial backgrounds exist, some of which are pejorative or are no longer used. Mulato, zambo and mestizo are used in Spanish, mulato, caboclo, cafuzo, ainoko and mestiço in Portuguese and mulâtre and these terms are also in certain contexts used in the English-speaking world. In Canada, the Métis are an ethnic group of mixed European and First Nation descent. Half-breed is a term that referred to people of partial Native American ancestry, it is now considered pejorative. Mestee, once used, is now used mostly for members of historically mixed-race groups, such as Louisiana Creoles, Melungeons, Redbones. In South Africa, and much of English-speaking southern Africa, the term Coloured was used to describe a mixed-race person, while the term is socially accepted, it is becoming an outdated due to its association with the apartheid era. Charts and diagrams intended to explain the classifications were common, the well-known Casta paintings in Mexico and, to some extent, Peru, were illustrations of the different classifications. Most Brazilians of all groups are to some extent mixed-race according to genetic research
35.
38th Virginia Infantry
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The 38th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment was an infantry regiment raised in Virginia for service in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. It fought mostly with the Army of Northern Virginia, the 38th Virginia was organized in Pittsylvania County, Virginia in June 1861. Its members were recruited in Pittsylvania, Halifax, and Mecklenburg counties and it served under the command of Generals Early, Garland, Armistead, Barton, and Stuart. Among the founders of the regiment was Lt. Col. Powhatan Bolling Whittle of Mecklenburg County, the 38th participated in the campaigns of the Army of Northern Virginia from Williamsburg to Gettysburg, then served in North Carolina. Later it was attached to the Department of Richmond, fought at Drewrys Bluff and Cold Harbor, endured the hardships of the Petersburg trenches, and ended the war at Appomattox. The regiment totaled 544 effectives in April 1862, and sustained 9 casualties at Williamsburg,147 at Seven Pines,94 at Malvern Hill, and 16 in the Maryland Campaign. More than fifty-five percent of the 400 engaged at Gettysburg were disabled and it reported 11 killed,30 wounded, the unit surrendered 12 officers and 82 men. Its commanders were Colonels Joseph R. Cabell, Edward C, edmonds, George K. Griggs, and Powhatan Whittle, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Martin, and Majors Isaac H. Carrington and Henderson L. Lee. List of Virginia Civil War units This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document Civil War Soldiers and Sailors System, National Park Service
36.
Confederate States Army
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The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
37.
Jamestown Exposition
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The Jamestown Exposition was one of the many worlds fairs and expositions that were popular in the United States in the early part of the 20th century. Commemorating the 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown in the Virginia Colony, it was held from April 26 to December 1,1907, at Sewells Point on Hampton Roads, in Norfolk and it celebrated the first permanent English settlement in the present United States. In 1975 the 20 remaining exposition buildings were included on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district. Early in the 20th century, as the tercentennial of the 1607 Founding of Jamestown in the Virginia Colony neared, leaders in Norfolk, during the planning phase, virtually no one thought that the original site of Jamestown would be suitable, as it was isolated and long-abandoned. There were no facilities to handle large crowds, and it was believed that the fort housing the settlement had long ago been swallowed by the James River. No rail lines ran near Jamestown, many Virginia residents thought that Richmond, the state capital, would be chosen as the site of the celebration. On February 4,1901, James M. Thomson began a campaign for the celebration in his Norfolk Dispatch, proclaiming, by September 1901, the Norfolk City Council had given support to the project. And in December,100 prominent residents of Hampton Roads journeyed to Richmond to urge Norfolk as the site, in 1902, the Jamestown Exposition Co. was incorporated. Former Virginia Governor Fitzhugh Lee, a nephew of General Robert E. Lee, the Company decided to locate the international exposition on a mile-long frontage at Sewells Point. The location was almost an equal distance from the cities of Norfolk, Portsmouth, Newport News, while hard to reach by land, it was much more favorably accessible by water, which ultimately proved a great asset. Because of the isolation of Sewells Point, the choice made the site difficult to reach by land in order to develop it for the Exposition. New roads had to be built to the site, two existing streetcar lines had to be extended a considerable distance to reach the site. On the shore, new piers had to be constructed for moving supplies to exposition buildings, hotels had to be raised to handle the millions of anticipated exposition visitors. Another major setback was the death of Fitzhugh Lee in 1905 while traveling in New England to drum up trade for the celebration, Henry St. George Tucker, a former Virginia Congressman, succeeded him. The Norfolk businessman David Lowenberg ran most of the operation as director general and they recorded giving thanks, planting a cross and naming the location Cape Henry. Within the next few weeks, they found and explored the harbor now known as Hampton Roads, sailing upriver on its biggest tributary, the James River, they eventually settled at what they would call Jamestown to begin their first settlement. The first day of the Exposition had its share of difficulties, only a fifth of the electric lights could be turned on, and the Warpath recreation area was far from ready. Construction of the government pier left much of the ground in the center of the exposition muddy soup, the company failed to complete two planned buildings, the Historic Art and Education buildings, by the Exposition’s end in late November
38.
Preservation Virginia
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Founded in 1889, the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities was the United States first statewide historic preservation group. In 2003 the organization adopted the new name APVA Preservation Virginia to reflect a focus on statewide Preservation. Preservation Virginia has helped preserve several key historic properties and items and its 1889 rescue of the Powder Magazine in Williamsburg came decades before Colonial Williamsburgs creation. Preservation Virginia also operates the statewide revolving fund, which protects historic properties with easements before placing them on the market, Preservation Virginia has operated a revolving fund program since 1989. The program is dedicated to saving historic property in the state of Virginia that is at risk of destruction from either demolition or severe neglect, Preservation Virginia owned and restored many historic properties that are now owned and operated as museums by other organizations. Some of the properties are open on a basis or by appointment. Hugh Mercer Apothecary Mary Washington House Rising Sun Tavern St. James House Preservation Virginia official web site Open Library, items related to the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities
39.
Isaac Allerton
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Isaac Allerton, Sr. and his family, were passengers in 1620 on the historic voyage of the ship Mayflower. Allerton was a signatory to the Mayflower Compact, in Plymouth Colony he was active in colony governmental affairs and business and later in trans-Atlantic trading. Problems with the latter regarding colony expenditures caused him to be censured by the colony government and he later became a well-to-do businessman elsewhere and in his later years resided in Connecticut. Based on a given in 1639, Allerton was born in England about 1586–88. Some records from colonial Dutch New Amsterdam note he was from the English county of Suffolk, Allertons son Bartholomew did return to England from Plymouth and served as a minister in Suffolk which may indicate a connection to that county. In 1659 the will of Bartholomew was proved, and at time he was residing in Bramfield. Suffolk but no records relating to the Allertons, a quite rare name, have ever been found in Suffolk. This record indicates Isaac to have been the son of Bartholomew Allerton, tailor of Ipswich, in Leiden in 1611, Allerton stated he was from London but the actual place of his birth is unknown. Also living in Leiden in 1611 was Allertons sister Sarah Vincent, Isaac and his wife, Mary, and Sarah and her second husband Degory Priest, had a double wedding in Leiden on November 4,1611. In the records of the time, Sarah is noted to have been of London, also in Leiden at this time was John Allerton, who may well have been a relative of Isaacs or Isaacs brother, but this has never been proven for certain. Allerton became betrothed to Mary Norris in Leiden by October 7,1611 and he lived in Pieterskerkhof near St. Peters Church. In 1614 he became a citizen of Leiden, while in Leiden in 1619 Allerton worked as a tailor, John Hooke, who would travel with Allerton on the Mayflower, was his apprentice. The Allerton family boarded the Mayflower consisting of Allertons wife Mary, the Mayflower departed Plymouth, England on September 6/16,1620. The small, 100-foot ship had 102 passengers and a crew of about 30–40 in extremely cramped conditions and this, combined with a lack of proper rations and unsanitary conditions for several months, attributed to what would be fatal for many, especially the majority of women and children. On November 9/19,1620, after three months at sea, including a month of delays in England, they spotted land. The Mayflower Compact was signed that day, issac Allerton was one of the signers. Of Isaac Allerton and his first wife, William Bradford recorded, Mr. Allertons wife died with the first and his son Bartle is married in England but I know not how many children he hath. His daughter Remember is married at Salem and hath three or four children living and his daughter Mary is married here and hath four children
