1.
Tower of London
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The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle
2.
Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red
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It consisted of 888,246 ceramic red poppies, each intended to represent one British or Colonial serviceman killed in the War. The artist was Paul Cummins, with setting by stage designer Tom Piper, the works title was taken from the first line of a poem by an unknown World War I soldier. The works title, and Cummins inspiration for the work, came from a poem by an unknown World War I soldier from Derbyshire, the poem begins, The blood swept lands and seas of red, / Where angels dare to tread /. The poem was contained in the unsigned will, found by Cummins among old records in Chesterfield. The Tower of London moat, in which the work was set, was used in the days of the war as a training ground for City of London workers who had enlisted to fight – the Stockbrokers Battalion. The work consisted of a sea of red poppies, which were individually hand-made at Cummins ceramics works in Derbyshire. The poppies were added to the installation progressively by volunteers, the sea of flowers was arranged to resemble a pool of blood which appeared to be pouring out of a bastion window. The first poppy was planted on 17 July 2014, and the work was unveiled on 5 August, a team of about 17,500 volunteers put the poppies in place. The last one was planted on 11 November 2014, by a 13-year-old cadet, Harry Hayes, after that day a team of about 8000 volunteers began removing the flowers. The installation was visited by the Princes William and Harry and the Duchess of Cambridge on the day of its opening, the Queen later spoke about the memorial in her annual Christmas Message, broadcast on 25 December 2014. In recognition of the work, Paul Cummins and Tom Piper were both awarded the MBE in the 2015 New Year Honours, although the installation struck a chord with the public, it received negative reactions from some press critics. Gill of The Sunday Times called it impressive but curiously bland, the Guardians art critic Jonathan Jones described it as having a false nobility and being a prettified and toothless memorial. Tom Piper said in response that and it is a remarkably good thing that it is so accessible. We should not be trying to something that is difficult to understand. Remembrance poppy Media related to Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red at Wikimedia Commons
3.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
4.
Centenary of the outbreak of World War I
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The centenary of the outbreak of World War I was commemorated in Europe in late July and early August 2014. A century later, governments in Europe held a series of commemorative events to mark the occasion. Over 30,000 soldiers from both sides died in the fighting here at the Battle of Hartmannswillerkopf, the site, in the Vosges mountains of Alsace in France, is the location of a cemetery and a crypt containing the ashes of 12,000 unknown soldiers. The presidents observed a minutes silence in the crypt, representing Belgium were Philippe, King of the Belgians and Queen Mathilde, together with the Presidents of France and Germany, François Hollande and Joachim Gauck. Representatives were present from the United Kingdom, the United States, Spain, Italy, Ireland, Serbia, Romania, speeches were given by King Philippe, Hollande, Gauck, and Prince William, Duke of Cambridge. The commemoration culminated in the laying of a wreath of roses at the memorial by King Philippe. On the evening of 4 August 2014, an event was held at St Symphorien cemetery in Belgium. Originally built by the Germans during the war, and containing both German and British graves, this cemetery is now maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the commemorative event here marked the losses at the Battle of Mons. Those attending the event and ceremony included King Philippe and Queen Mathilde representing Belgium, representing the United Kingdom were Prince William, Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge and Prince Harry. Politicians present included Joachim Gauck, Elio Di Rupo and David Cameron, also present was Justin Welby, the Archbishop of Canterbury. The event was broadcast on television by the British Broadcasting Corporation, with narration by historian Dan Snow and readings, music, wreath-laying and a silence was followed by the playing of The Last Post. The final event of commemoration on 4 August 2014 was held in London at Westminster Abbey, with a service and those present at the service included Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, the Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg and Labour leader Ed Miliband. The culmination of the service was a vigil at the Tomb of The Unknown Warrior. Part of the same Lights Out event was the Spectra installation, first World War centenary Germanys Great War commemorations are filled with shame Scotland commemorates World War One centenary
5.
City of Brisbane
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The City of Brisbane is the local government area that has jurisdiction over the inner portion of the metropolitan area of Brisbane, the capital of Queensland, Australia. Brisbane is located in the county of Stanley and is the largest city followed by Ipswich with bounds in part of the county, as such, it has a larger population than any other local government area in Australia. The City of Brisbane was the first Australian LGA to reach a population of more than one million and its population is roughly equivalent to the populations of Tasmania, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory combined. The Council administers a budget of over A$3 billion, the City derives from cities, towns and shires that merged in 1925. The main offices and Central Library of the Council are at 266 George Street, Brisbane City Hall houses the Council Chamber, the offices of the Lord Mayor and Deputy Mayor, meeting and reception rooms and the Museum of Brisbane. The City of Brisbane Act 1924 received assent from the Governor on 30 October 1924, the Brisbane City Council maintains the Brisbane Local Heritage Register, a list of nominated sites that satisfy the Councils heritage criteria. The City of Brisbane is governed by the Brisbane City Council, due to the City of Brisbanes status as the countrys largest LGA, the Lord Mayor is elected by the largest single-member electorate in Australia. Like all mayors in Queensland, he has very broad executive power, the current Deputy Mayor is Adrian Schrinner of the LNP. The day-to-day management of Councils operations is the responsibility of the executive officer who is currently Colin Jensen. Elections are held four years with ballots for the Lord Mayoralty. Voting is compulsory for all eligible electors, the LNP gained a 5. 5% swing on the councillor votes in the March 2008 election, resulting in the Liberals taking control of the council as well. Graham Quirk won re-election as Lord Mayor in 2012 with 61. 94% of the vote, the last election was held on 19 March 2016. Lord Mayor Graham Quirk defeated Labors candidate Rod Harding, the Brisbane City Council is incorporated under the City of Brisbane Act 1924, while other local governments in Queensland are governed by the Local Government Act 1993. Council meetings are held at Level 2, City Hall,64 Adelaide Street, Brisbane City every Tuesday at 2pm except during recess and this temporary venue is in use due to the restoration work being performed on the traditional venue Brisbane City Hall. Meetings are generally open to the public, Brisbane City Council aims to be carbon neutral by 2026 via the reduction of emissions and carbon offsetting. The motto of the City of Brisbane is Meliora sequimur, Latin for We aim for better things, the Councils corporate slogan is Dedicated to a better Brisbane. The Citys colours are blue and gold and its corporate logo was introduced in 1982 in preparation for the Commonwealth Games hosted in Brisbane that year. It features a version of Brisbanes City Hall which opened in 1930
6.
Shrine of Remembrance, Brisbane
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The Shrine of Remembrance is located in ANZAC Square, between Ann Street and Adelaide Street, in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. With its Eternal Flame, the Shrine is a war dedicated to the Australian. A service marking Singapore Day is held annually on the closest Sunday to the 15th, funds were raised by public subscription for a memorial to fallen soldiers in World War I and in 1928 a competition was held for its design. The competition was won by Sydney architects Buchanan and Cowper who proposed a Greek Revival structure, the Shrine took two years to build and was dedicated on Armistice Day 11 November 1930 by Governor John Goodwin with a dedication plaque. Designed in the Greek Classic Revival style, the columns of the Shrine of Remembrance are built of Helidon sandstone, the steps leading to the Shrine of Remembrance from ANZAC Square are made of Queensland granite. The 18 columns of the Shrine symbolise the year 1918, when hostilities ceased, there is also a World War I memorial sculpture on the Shrine of Memories external wall. Each year, on ANZAC Day, on 25 April, a Dawn memorial service is held at the Shrine of Remembrance, there is also a memorial service held each year on Remembrance Day,11 November and wreaths are again laid at the Eternal Flame
7.
ANZAC Square, Brisbane
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ANZAC Square is a heritage-listed town square and war memorial located between Ann Street and Adelaide Street, in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It is a memorial to the men and women who participated in overseas armed service and is named in honour of the Australian. ANZAC Square is adjacent to ANZAC Square Arcade, ANZAC Square was opened on Armistice Day,1930. It is also known as 9th Battalion Memorial and Queensland Womens War Memorial, ANZAC Square was registered on the Register of the National Estate in 1980 and added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992. ANZAC Square contains the Shrine of Remembrance and the Eternal Flame of Remembrance held in a continuously lit bronze urn, there is also the World War II Shrine of Memories. Daphne Mayo sculptured the Womens War Memorial that forms part of the memorials wall, the external wall of the Shrine of Memories is dedicated to the 60,000 Queenslanders who fought in World War I. On 25 April, every year, a Dawn Service is held at the Shrine of Remembrance, some of the symbolism used are as follows, the 18 columns of the Shrine represent the year of peace after World War 1—1918. Also symbolizing the year are the number of leading up to the shrine—19 stairs in the first row and 18 stairs in the second row. The bottle trees commemorate the Queensland Light Horse Regiments, which served in South Africas Boer War, the palm trees are Middle East date palms and they represent Australias success in the Middle East during both World Wars. Palms are also a symbol of victory. Australias involvement in World War I exacted a toll in death. Of a relatively small population of five million people,60,000 troops were killed and 152,000 wounded. Australias casualty rate of 68. 5% was the highest of the Allied forces, the idea of a large memorial park and monument in the centre of the city commemorating those who had participated and died in the Great War was first raised in 1916. In 1928 State and Federal governments agreed to grant lands for the Square, Anzac Square commemorates all Queenslanders who participated in war, not just Brisbane residents. In 1928 a competition for the design of a Shrine of remembrance was won by Sydney architects Buchanan, construction proceeded over the following two years and on Armistice Day 11 November 1930 the Queensland Governor Sir John Goodwin dedicated the Shrine and the Square. In 1933 the Square was declared a Reserve for Park purposes, in 1932 the Queensland Womens War Memorial was unveiled. This memorial was an initiative of the Brisbane Womens Club and funded by public subscription and it was designed and executed by Daphne Mayo with assistance from George Harvey. A memorial commissioned by the 9th Battalion Association was mounted in the Crypt, commemorating the battalions 45 officers and 1048 other ranks who lost their lives in the war, it was undertaken by former Brisbane sculptor William Leslie Bowles at a cost of £500
8.
Belgium in World War I
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It was this action that technically caused the British to enter the war, as they were still bound by the 1839 agreement to protect Belgium in the event of war. On 2 August 1914, the German government demanded that German armies be given passage through Belgian territory. The Belgian King Albert I addressed his Parliament on 4 August, the strength of our right and the need of Europe for our autonomous existence make us still hope that the dreaded events will not occur. The same day German troops invaded Belgium crossing the frontier at dawn, Liège was attacked on 4 August and fell on 7 August. In fact, the German advance on Paris was almost exactly on schedule, the German invaders treated any resistance—such as demolition of bridges and rail lines—as illegal and subversive, shooting the offenders and burning buildings in retaliation. Flanders was the base of the British army and it saw some of the greatest loss of life on both sides of the Western Front. The Germans governed the areas of Belgium while a small area around Ypres remained under Belgian control. For the majority of the occupation, the German military governor was Moritz von Bissing, beneath the governor was a network of regional and local German kommandanturen and each locality was under the ultimate control of a German officer. Many civilians fled the war zones to safer parts of Belgium, many refugees from all over the country went to the Netherlands and about 300,000 to France. Over 200,000 went to Britain, where they resettled in London, the British and French governments set up the War Refugees Committee and the Secours National, to provide relief and support, there were an additional 1,500 local WRC committees in Britain. The high visibility of the refugees underscored the role of Belgium in the minds of the French, on the advice of the Belgian government in exile, civil servants remained in their posts for the duration of the conflict, carrying out the day-to-day functions of government. All political activity was suspended and Parliament shut down, while farmers and coal miners kept up their routines, many larger businesses largely shut down, as did the universities. The Germans helped set up the first solely Dutch-speaking university in Ghent, the Germans sent in managers to operate factories that were underperforming. Lack of effort was a form of resistance, Kossmann says that for many Belgians the war years were a long. Belgian workers were conscripted into forced labour projects, by 1918, the German army was outraged at how Belgium had frustrated the Schlieffen Plan to capture Paris. From top to bottom there was a belief that the Belgians had unleashed illegal saboteurs. The response was a series of multiple attacks on civilians. Individuals suspected of activities were summarily shot
9.
Brussels
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Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the region of Flanders or Wallonia. The region has a population of 1.2 million and an area with a population of over 1.8 million. Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, the secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are also located in Brussels. Today, it is considered an Alpha global city, historically a Dutch-speaking city, Brussels has seen a language shift to French from the late 19th century onwards. Today, the majority language is French, and the Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. All road signs, street names, and many advertisements and services are shown in both languages, Brussels is increasingly becoming multilingual with increasing numbers of migrants, expatriates and minority groups speaking their own languages. The most common theory of the origin of Brussels name is that it derives from the Old Dutch Broekzele or Broeksel, meaning marsh, Saint Vindicianus, the bishop of Cambrai made the first recorded reference to the place Brosella in 695 when it was still a hamlet. The origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lotharingia transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel to the Saint Gaugericus chapel, Charles would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island. Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven gained the County of Brussels around 1000 by marrying Charles daughter, as it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant at about this time, in the 13th century, the city got its first walls. After the construction of the city walls in the early 13th century, to let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Today, traces of it can still be seen, mostly because the small ring, Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous Low Countries, and flourished. In 1516 Charles V, who had been heir of the Low Countries since 1506, was declared King of Spain in St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 and it was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant. In 1695, during the Nine Years War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery, together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels
10.
Sarajevo
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Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans. Due to its long and rich history of religious and cultural variety and it is the only major European city to have a mosque, Catholic church, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighbourhood. Although settlement in the area back to prehistoric times, the modern city arose as an Ottoman stronghold in the 15th century. Sarajevo has attracted international attention several times throughout its history, in 1885, Sarajevo was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. For nearly four years, from 1992 to 1996, the city suffered the longest siege of a city in the history of warfare during the Bosnian War. Sarajevo has been undergoing reconstruction, and is the fastest growing city in Bosnia. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet, has named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, in 2011, Sarajevo was nominated to be the European Capital of Culture in 2014 and will be hosting the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2019. The earliest known name for the large central Bosnian region of todays Sarajevo is Vrhbosna, Sarajevo is a slavicized word based on saray, the Turkish word for palace. The evo portion may come from the term saray ovası first recorded in 1455, the first mention of name Sarajevo was in 1507 letter written by Feriz Beg. The earliest is Šeher, which is the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to build and it is a Turkish word meaning an advanced city of key importance which in turn comes from Persian, شهر shahr. As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, the most popular of these was European Jerusalem. Some argue that a correct translation of saray is government office or house. Saray is a word in Turkish for a palace or mansion. Sarajevo is located near the center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated 518 meters above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, the valley itself once formed a vast expanse of greenery, but gave way to urban expansion and development in the post-World War II era. The city is surrounded by forested hills and five major mountains. The last four are known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo
11.
Emir Kusturica
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Emir Kusturica is a Serbian filmmaker, actor and musician. He has been recognized for several internationally acclaimed feature films, as well as his projects in town-building and he has competed at the Cannes Film Festival on five occasions and won the Palme dOr twice, as well as the Best Director prize for Time of the Gypsies. He has also won a Silver Bear at the Berlin Film Festival for Arizona Dream, in addition he was also named Commander of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. Since the mid-2000s, Kusturicas primary residence has been in Drvengrad and he had portions of the historic village reconstructed for the film. He is a member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of the Republika Srpska since 9 November 2011, a lively youth, young Emir was by his own admission a borderline delinquent while growing up in the Sarajevo neighbourhood of Gorica. After graduating from FAMU, Kusturica began directing short films in Yugoslavia. He made his film debut in 1981 with Do You Remember Dolly Bell. A coming-of-age drama that won the prestigious Silver Lion for Best First Work at that years Venice Film Festival, the same year, at the age of 27, he became lecturer at the newly established Academy of Performing Arts in Sarajevo, a job that he performed until 1988. He was also art director of Open Stage Obala, Kusturica wrote the screenplays for both Do You Remember Dolly Bell. and When Father Was Away on Business. In 1989 Kusturica earned more accolades for Time of the Gypsies, a film about Romani culture, in 1989 he was a member of the jury at the 16th Moscow International Film Festival. Kusturica continued to highly regarded films into the next decade, including his American debut. He won the Palme dOr for his black comedy epic, Underground, based upon a scenario of Dušan Kovačević and he also taught Film Directing at Columbia Universitys Graduate Film Division. In 1998, he won the Venice Film Festivals Silver Lion for Best Direction for Black Cat, White Cat, the music for the film was composed by the Belgrade-based band No Smoking Orchestra. In 2001, Kusturica directed Super 8 Stories, a road and concert movie about The No Smoking Orchestra. He was appointed President of the Jury of the 2005 Cannes Film Festival and his film, Maradona, a documentary on Argentine soccer star Diego Maradona, was released in Italy in May 2007. It premiered in France during the Cannes Film Festival in 2008 and his film Promise Me This premiered at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. In June 2007, Kusturica directed the video to Manu Chaos single Rainin in Paradize. On 8 September 2007, Kusturica was appointed a UNICEF National Ambassador for Serbia, alongside Ana Ivanovic, Jelena Janković, since January 2008 he has organized the annual private Küstendorf Film Festival
12.
Gavrilo Princip
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Gavrilo Princip was a Serb member of Young Bosnia, a Yugoslavist organization seeking an end to Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina. He assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Sophie, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 and this was used as pretext for Austria-Hungarys invasion of Serbia, which then led to World War I. Princip was a Yugoslav nationalist associated with the movement Mlada Bosna which predominantly consisted of Serbs, but also Bosniaks and Croats. During his trial he stated, I am a Yugoslav nationalist, aiming for the unification of all Yugoslavs, and I do not care what form of state, but it must be freed from Austria. Princip died on April 28,1918, from tuberculosis caused by poor conditions that had cost him a limb earlier. Gavrilo Princip was born in the hamlet of Obljaj, near Bosansko Grahovo. He was the second of his parents nine children, six of whom died in infancy, a Serb family, the Princips had lived in northwestern Bosnia for many centuries and adhered to the Serbian Orthodox Christian faith. Princips parents, Petar and Marija, were farmers who lived off the little land that they owned. They belonged to a class of Christian peasants known as kmets, Petar, who insisted on strict correctness, never drank or swore and was ridiculed by his neighbours as a result. In his youth, he fought in the Herzegovina Uprising against the Ottoman Empire, following the revolt, he returned to being a farmer in the Grahovo valley, where he worked approximately 4 acres of land and was forced to give one-third of his income away to his landlord. Despite his fathers opposition, Princip first began attending school in 1903. He overcame a difficult first year and became successful in his studies. At the age of 13, Princip moved to Sarajevo, where his older brother Jovan intended to enroll him into an Austro-Hungarian military school. By the time Princip reached Sarajevo, Jovan had changed his mind after a friend advised him not to make Gavrilo an executioner of his own people, Princip was enrolled into a merchant school instead. Jovan paid for his tuition with the money he had earned performing manual labour, after three years of study, Gavrilo transferred to a local gymnasium. In 1911, Princip joined Young Bosnia, a society that wanted to separate Bosnia from Austria-Hungary, because the local authorities had forbidden students from forming organizations and clubs, Princip and other members of Young Bosnia met in secret. During their meetings, they discussed literature, ethics and politics, in 1912, Princip was expelled from school for being involved in a demonstration against Austro-Hungarian authorities. A student who witnessed the incident claimed that Princip went from class to class, Princip left Sarajevo shortly after being expelled and made the 280 kilometres journey to Belgrade on foot
13.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
14.
Bosnian crisis
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In April 1909 the Treaty of Berlin was amended to reflect the fait accompli and bring the crisis to an end. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary on one hand and Serbia, Italy and the Russian Empire on the other, the Italian historian Luigi Albertini regarded it as laying the grounds for World War I. Although the crisis ended with what appeared to be a total Austro-Hungarian diplomatic victory, Russia became determined not to back down again, the mid-1870s witnessed a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans, and equally violent and repressive responses from the Turks. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, wanting to intervene against the Ottomans, sought, as compensation for this support, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungarys annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Shortly thereafter, the Russians declared war, and, after a few setbacks and this had the effect of bottling up the Russian fleet in the Black Sea, but would be worthless if Russian troops gained control of the straits by land. The treaty of San Stefano was overturned by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, under article 29, Austria-Hungary received special rights in the Ottoman Empires provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Sanjak of Novi Pazar separated Montenegro from Serbia and prevented the geographic, the Bosnian population was already religiously divided among Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox Christians. Austria-Hungary exercised its rights, taking control of Bosnia-Herzegovina and jointly occupying the Sanjak of Novi Pazar together with the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Berlin allowed for sole Austrian occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and this omission was addressed in the Three Emperors League treaty of 1881, where both Germany and Russia endorsed Austrias right to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina. However, by 1897, under the new Tsar, Nicholas II, the Russian Foreign Minister, Count Michael Muraviev, stated that an Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina would raise an extensive question requiring special scrutiny. In 1903 a coup in Serbia brought in a new pro-Russian Karađorđević dynasty and these Serbs wanted to take over the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and Bosnia-Herzegovina from the Austro-Hungarians. Relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary gradually deteriorated, however, Russias ability to support Serbia was greatly reduced following military humiliation in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War and the ensuing internal unrest. By 1907, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Alois Aehrenthal began formulating a plan to solidify Austria-Hungarys position towards Serbia through annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and his opportunity came in the form of a letter from Russian Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky and a subsequent meeting at Buchlau castle in Moravia, Austria-Hungary. On 14 July Aehrenthal responded with guarded acceptance of the proposed discussions, the letter then went on to offer to discuss, as a separate matter, the Straits question, on a friendly basis. On 16 September, Izvolsky and Aehrenthal met face-to-face at Buchlovice Castle, no minutes were taken during these private meetings which lasted a total of six hours. Izvolsky accepted the responsibility to write up the conclusions of the meeting, on 21 September, Aehrenthal wrote to Izvolsky asking for this document to which Izvolsky replied two days later that the document had been sent to the Czar for approval. This document, if it existed, has never been produced. By Aehrenthal’s account given by Albertini, Izvolsky agreed that Russia would maintain a friendly, reciprocally, should Russia move to open the Straits to single ships of war, Austria-Hungary would maintain a benevolent attitude
15.
Oskar Potiorek
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Oskar Potiorek was an officer of the Austro-Hungarian Army, who served as Governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1911 to 1914. He was a passenger in the car carrying Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, in the following World War I, Potiorek commanded the Austro-Hungarian forces in the Serbian Campaign of 1914/15. Born in Bad Bleiberg, Carinthia the son of an official, Potiorek attended the Imperial and Royal military institute of technology. He joined the Austro-Hungarian general staff in 1879, appointed deputy chief by Emperor Franz Joseph in 1902, Potiorek became Commanding General at Graz, Styria in the rank of a Feldzeugmeister. Serving as Inspector General in Sarajevo since 1910, he was appointed Bosnian governor the next year, in 1913 Potiorek had invited Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie to watch his troops on maneuvers scheduled for 26 and 27 June 1914. On 28 June the royal couple arrived from Ilidža by train, Potiorek was waiting to take the royal party to the city hall for the official reception. Franz Ferdinand, his wife and several officials switched into a six-car motorcade driving down Appel Quay along Miljacka River without further security measures. Potiorek was in the car, a Gräf & Stift open six-seater driven by Leopold Lojka, together with the owner Count Harrach. At 10,10, when the vehicles passed the police station. Lojka accelerated when he saw the object flying towards the car, a furious Franz Ferdinand, after attending the official reception at the City Hall, asked about visiting the members of his party that had been wounded by the bomb. A member of the staff, Andreas von Morsey, according to his own accounts suggested this might be dangerous. Nevertheless, the governor decided that the car should travel on an alternative route to the Sarajevo hospital. However, he forgot to tell the driver about this decision, on the way to the hospital, he took a right turn on the Latin Bridge, where one of the conspirators, Gavrilo Princip, was sitting in a corner café at the time. The assassin had already abandoned his plans, when he saw the driver began to back up the car right in front of him. He stepped forward, drew his gun, and at a distance of five feet. Franz Ferdinand was hit in the neck and Sophie in the abdomen, neither Potiorek nor Count Harrach or Lojka were injured. Princip later claimed that the bullet that killed Sophie was meant for the governor, following the assassination, Potiorek organized and stimulated Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo. Potiorek reestablished an auxiliary militia Schutzkorps to implement the policy of anti-Serb repression, Schutzkorps, predominantly recruited among Bosniak population, were involved in the persecution of people of Serb ethnicity particularly in Serb populated areas of eastern Bosnia
16.
National War Memorial (Canada)
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The National War Memorial is a tall, granite memorial arch with accreted bronze sculptures in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, designed by Vernon March and first dedicated by King George VI in 1939. It now serves as the pre-eminent war memorial of 76 cenotaphs in Canada, in 2000, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier was added in front of the memorial and symbolizes the sacrifices made by all Canadians who have died or may yet die for their country. The National War Memorial is the point of Confederation Square in Canadas capital city, Ottawa. This locates it between Parliament Hill to the west and the Château Laurier hotel to the east. The memorial, from grade to the tip of the surmounting statues wings, is approximately 21.34 m, with the arch itself 3.05 m wide,2.44 m deep, and 8.03 m high. The lowest step of the pedestal is 15.9 m by 8.08 m, below are the depictions of 22 Canadian servicemen and women from all branches of the forces and other groups engaged in the First World War. At front, to the left, a Lewis gunner, to the right, following these are a pilot in full gear and an air mechanic of the Royal Canadian Air Force, as well as a sailor in the Royal Canadian Navy from HMCS Stadacona. There are three additional infantrymen, all six carry among them respirators and other items of the load carried by every member of the infantry. The figures are moving towards the call of duty atop a pedestal, the dates 1939-1945 and 1950-1953 are on the east and west flanks of the base, while the years 1899-1902 and 2001-2014 are on the east and west arch pier footings, respectively. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier rests in the surface immediately in front of. Since 1940, the National War Memorial is the site of the national Remembrance Day ceremony, some of these groups place wreaths at the foot of the war memorial. The event is attended by between 25,000 and 45,000 people and is nationally televised, plywood is placed over surrounding flower beds and approximately 6,000 metres of cable is run to connect sound systems and 12 television cameras. Whenever the monarch or another member of the Royal Family is in Ottawa, they will, regardless of the date, the Department of Canadian Heritage and the Department of Veterans Affairs also fund summer students at the site, hired to provide site and historical information. There was opposition to the idea, mostly to its cost, especially as the argument continued through the Great Depression. An early proposal in 1919 was a hall in Ottawa. It did not grow past the stage, but, an idea from the CWMF for a memorial building did progress to the detail design phase. It would have resembled the Pantheon in Rome and housed the art in the CWMFs collection, immediately after the wars end, however, focus shifted to the burial of the dead, the design of markers and headstones. This, Mackenzie King later said, put it in the most visible spot in the city, akin to The Cenotaph and Nelsons Column in London, in May 1923, the Minister of Public Works James Horace King asked the legislature to approve $10,000 for the memorial
17.
Canadian War Museum
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The Canadian War Museum is Canadas national museum of military history. There is also a storage area displaying large objects from the Museums collection, from naval guns to tanks. Much of the Museums public exhibition space is devoted to its Canadian Experience Galleries and these displays underline the profound effect that war has had on Canadas development and the significant role Canadians have played in international conflicts. Their content is a mixture of some 2,500 objects from war art to armoured vehicles, as well as scores of audio-visual displays. A changing program of temporary or special exhibitions, plus public programs and special events, besides exhibitions, the Museum also supports educational outreach such as Lest We Forget Project. Its current building opened in May 2005 and is located less than 2 km west of Canadas Parliament Buildings, the buildings architecture has received professional and public acclaim. The Museum originated in 1880 as a collection of artifacts in the possession of the Canadian federal government. Its first facility was a series of rooms in the Cartier Square Drill Hall, the collection was later adopted by the Public Archives of Canada. The Canadian War Museum was officially established in 1942, the collection of war artifacts gained its own dedicated facility in 1967 when it moved to the former Public Archives building on Sussex Drive in Ottawa. That location was too small for the Museums growing post-war collection, in the 1990s, the federal government made plans to relocate the War Museum to a new site east of central Ottawa, near the Canada Aviation Museum. The proposed site was criticized for its distance from the core. The new location allowed for ceremonial processions between the National War Memorial and the new War Museum, and was situated in an urban space soon to begin redevelopment. The new, modern building emerges from the ground just west of Booth Street and rises higher at its eastern end. The building rises in the east to a large fin, clad in copper that matches the rooftops of other prominent public buildings in the national capital, the small windows on the fin spell out in Morse code Lest we forget and its French equivalent, Noublions jamais. The copper used on the interior of the building was recovered from the Library of Parliament during refurbishment of the Librarys roof in 2004. On 6 May 2005, Canada Post issued a 50¢ stamp, designed by Tiit Telmet and Marko Barac, in its first year of operation the museum attracted 500,000 visitors and in 2010 there were 470,000 visitors. The Canadian War Museum contains several permanent galleries and other important display spaces and this gallery explores the history of war on Canadian soil and the way in which armed conflict affected the evolution of the country and its peoples. Content includes the Seven Years War, the American Revolution, the War of 1812, Canadian forces went abroad in 1899 and again in 1914 to fight in wars as part of the British Empire
18.
Stephen Harper
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Stephen Joseph Harper PC is a Canadian entrepreneur and retired politician who served as the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada, from February 6,2006 to November 4,2015. He was the first prime minister to come from the modern Conservative Party of Canada, which was formed by a merger of the Progressive Conservative Party, Harper was member of parliament for the riding of Calgary Heritage in Alberta from 2002 to 2016. Earlier, from 1993 to 1997, he was the MP for Calgary West and he was one of the founding members of the Reform Party, but did not seek re-election in the 1997 federal election. Harper instead joined and later led the National Citizens Coalition, a conservative lobbyist group, in 2002, he succeeded Stockwell Day as leader of the Canadian Alliance, the successor to the Reform Party and returned to parliament as Leader of the Opposition. In 2003, he reached an agreement with Progressive Conservative leader Peter MacKay for the merger of their two parties to form the Conservative Party of Canada and he was elected as the partys first leader, in March 2004. Harper stepped down as MP on August 26,2016, the 2006 federal election resulted in a minority government led by the Conservative Party with Harper becoming the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada. By proportion of seats, this was Canadas smallest minority government since Confederation, despite this, it was the longest-serving minority government overall. The 40th Canadian Parliament was dissolved in March,2011, after a vote that deemed the Cabinet to be in contempt of parliament. Harper resigned as party leader on October 19,2015, Harper moved back to Calgary, Alberta, and commuted to Ottawa as an opposition backbench member of parliament. Harper was born and raised in Leaside, Toronto, the first of three sons of Margaret and Joseph Harris Harper, an accountant at Imperial Oil. Harper attended Northlea Public School and, later, John G. Althouse Middle School and Richview Collegiate Institute and he graduated in 1978, and was a member of Richview Collegiates team on Reach for the Top, a television quiz show for Canadian high school students. Harper enrolled at the University of Toronto but dropped out two months. He then moved to Edmonton, Alberta, where he work in the mail room at Imperial Oil. Later, he advanced to work on the computer systems. He took up post-secondary studies again at the University of Calgary and he later returned there to earn a masters degree in economics, completed in 1991. Harper has kept strong links to the University of Calgary, Harper was the first prime minister since Joe Clark without a law degree. Harper became involved in politics as a member of his high schools Young Liberals Club and he later changed his political allegiance because he disagreed with the National Energy Program of Pierre Trudeaus Liberal government. He left the PC Party that same year and he was then recommended by the University of Calgarys economist Bob Mansell to Preston Manning, the founder and leader of the Reform Party of Canada
19.
Ceremonial Guard
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However, since 2007 the Ceremonial Guard has been manned by a more pan–Canadian Forces approach, Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force personnel. As with any unit in the Canadian Forces, uniforms originate from the Queens Guard. When the Guard comes together it comprises the Public Duties Company, the Headquarters Company and the Band of the Ceremonial Guard, the total strength is about 420 people. The uniforms worn represent both infantry regiments, the Governor Generals Foot Guards and the Canadian Grenadier Guards. The colours carried on Parliament Hill are also from these regiments, the Public Duties Company is further broken down into platoons and divisions. The Public Duties Company has eight divisions, a division is about 18–24 soldiers. The Ceremonial Guard maintains no regimental colour nor has it any battle honours of its own as it is not a permanent unit in the Canadian Forces order of battle, the only colours flown in the ceremonies are those of the two guards regiments. The Ceremonial Guard also maintains its own band and pipers that form a separate company, as well as the Headquarters Company for administration. Musicians are drawn from units and colleges or universities across Canada. All new musicians must pass the Canadian Armed Forces Basic Military Qualification Course before they can be employed with the Ceremonial Guard, the unit exists with a full composition only from early June to the end of August. The unit also plans and executes the Canadian Forces beating the retreat Fortissimo and this takes place each year in August. All members of the Ceremonial Guard are fully trained members of the Canadian Armed Forces, the primary and most visible function of the Ceremonial Guard is, as mentioned, the Changing of the Guard on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Ontario, the national capital of Canada. The parade begins at the Cartier Square Drill Hall with the major, followed by the band. Turning north onto Queen Elizabeth Drive, the parade continues underneath the Laurier Avenue bridge, while the New Guard is en route to Parliament Hill the Old Guard forms up behind the East Block with the colour. They set off at approximately 9,46 a. m. with the Pipes and they march to the east lawn and move into position, then they await the New Guard arriving. The New Guard makes a turn onto Elgin Street up to the National War Memorial. At this time the band begins to play The 10 Provinces March by Howard Cable, the parade marches onto the east lawn of Parliament, with the band centred at the northernmost edge of the lawn and facing south. The old guard is in position on the west side of the east lawn and faces the east block, while the new guard marches to the east side of the lawn and faces west towards the old guard
20.
Vimy Ridge Day
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Vimy Ridge Day is a day to commemorate the deaths and casualties of members of the Canadian Corps during the First World War Battle of Vimy Ridge. The holiday has been observed annually since 2003 and it is not considered a public holiday. In 2003, the Government of Canada declared April 9 to be Vimy Ridge Day, to honour and remember the Battle of Vimy Ridge which took place during the First World War at Vimy Ridge, France, in 1917. The initiative to create the day of commemoration was spearheaded by Robert Manuel, the annual holiday was created through passage of Bill C-227, introduced by Brent St. Denis, the Member of Parliament for Algoma-Manitoulin. By law, it is required that the Canadian flag on the Peace Tower of Parliament Hill in Ottawa be lowered to half-mast, for the first time, all four Canadian divisions were to be assembled to operate in combat as a corps. The Canadian divisions were joined by the British 5th Infantry Division, the Canadian Corps was supported to the north by the 24th British Division of I Corps which advanced north of the Souchez river and by the advancing XVII Corps to the south. The attack began at 5,30 a. m. on Easter Monday,9 April 1917 whereupon every artillery piece at the disposal of the Canadian Corps began firing. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions reported reaching and capturing their first objective, the 4th Canadian Division encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later. After a planned pause, during which positions were consolidated, the advance resumed. Shortly after 7,00 a. m. the 1st Canadian Division had taken half of its objective, the Red Line. The 2nd Canadian Division reported reaching the Red Line and capturing the town of Les Tilleuls at approximately the same time, units at the 3rd Canadian Division reached their section of the Red Line at around 7,30 a. m. It was not until 11,00 a. m. that the defending German 79th Reserve Division mounted a counterattack, by which time only the 4th Canadian Division had not reached its objective. Three fresh brigades were moved up to the Red Line by 9,30 a. m.10 April to support the advance whereupon they leapfrogged existing units occupying the Red line and advanced to the Blue Line. By approximately 11,00 a. m. the Blue Line, including Hill 135, the advance briefly halted, the artillery barrage remaining stationary for 90 minutes to give troops time to consolidate the Blue Line and bring supporting machine guns forward. Shortly before 1 p. m. the advance recommenced with the Brown Line being secure around 2,00 p. m, by this point only the northern half of Hill 145 and the Pimple, a fortified highpoint outside of Givenchy-en-Gohelle, remained under German control. By nightfall on 12 April 1917 the Canadian Corps was in control of the ridge. The corps had suffered 10,602 casualties,3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded, the German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties with an approximate 4,000 men becoming prisoners of war. The Germans did not attempt to recapture the ridge, including during the Spring Offensive, Battle of Vimy Ridge Canadian National Vimy Memorial Vimy Award Robert Manuel
21.
Remembrance Day
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Following a tradition inaugurated by King George V in 1919, the day is also marked by war remembrances in many non-Commonwealth countries. Remembrance Day is observed on 11 November in most countries to recall the end of hostilities of World War I on that date in 1918, the First World War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919. The memorial evolved out of Armistice Day, which continues to be marked on the same date, the first official Armistice Day was subsequently held on the grounds of Buckingham Palace the following morning. The red remembrance poppy has become an emblem of Remembrance Day due to the poem In Flanders Fields written by Canadian physician Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae. After reading the poem, Moina Michael, a professor at the University of Georgia, wrote the poem, We Shall Remember, the custom spread to Europe and the countries of the British Empire and Commonwealth within three years. Madame Anne E. Guerin tirelessly promoted the practice in Europe, in the UK Major George Howson fostered the cause with the support of General Haig. Poppies were worn for the first time at the 1921 anniversary ceremony, at first real poppies were worn. These poppies bloomed across some of the worst battlefields of Flanders in World War I, the Flowers of the Forest, O Valiant Hearts, I Vow to Thee, My Country and Jerusalem are often played during the service. Services also include wreaths laid to honour the fallen, a blessing, the central ritual at cenotaphs throughout the Commonwealth is a stylised night vigil. The Last Post was the bugle call at the close of the military day. This makes the ritual more than just an act of remembrance, the act is enhanced by the use of dedicated cenotaphs and the laying of wreaths—the traditional means of signalling high honours in ancient Greece and Rome. Services are held at 11 am at war memorials and schools in suburbs and cities across the country, at which the Last Post is sounded by a bugler and a one-minute silence is observed. In recent decades, Remembrance Day has been eclipsed as the national day of war commemoration by ANZAC Day. When Remembrance Day falls on a working day in Melbourne and other major cities. While this occurs, the majority of passers by stop and observe a moment of silence while waiting for the bugler to finish the recital, in Barbados, Remembrance Day is not a public holiday. It is recognised as 11 November, but the parade and ceremonial events are carried out on Remembrance Sunday, the day is celebrated to recognise the Barbadian soldiers who died fighting in the First and Second World Wars. The parade is held at National Heroes Square, where a service is held. The Governor-General and Barbadian Prime Minister are among those who attend, along with government dignitaries
22.
Halifax, Nova Scotia
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Halifax, legally known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, is the capital of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. The municipality had a population of 403,131 in 2016, the regional municipality consists of four former municipalities that were amalgamated in 1996, Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, and the Municipality of Halifax County. Halifax is an economic centre in Atlantic Canada with a large concentration of government services. Agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry and natural gas extraction are major resource found in the rural areas of the municipality. Additionally, Halifax has consistently placed in the top 10 for business friendliness of North and South American cities, the first permanent European settlement in the region was on the Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the 2nd Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War. Cornwallis brought along 1,176 settlers and their families, St. Margarets Bay was first settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia during the American Revolution. The resulting explosion, the Halifax Explosion, devastated the Richmond District of Halifax, killing approximately 2,000 people, the blast was the largest artificial explosion before the development of nuclear weapons. Significant aid came from Boston, strengthening the bond between the two coastal cities, the municipal boundary thus now includes all of Halifax County except for several First Nation reserves. Since amalgamation, the region has officially been known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, on April 15,2014, the regional council approved the implementation of a new branding campaign for the region developed by the local firm Revolve Marketing. The campaign would see the region referred to in promotional materials simply as Halifax, mayor Mike Savage defended the decision, stating, Im a Westphal guy, Im a Dartmouth man, but Halifax is my city, we’re all part of Halifax. Because when I go and travel on behalf of this municipality, metropolitan Halifax is a term used to describe the urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour, including the Halifax Peninsula, the core of Dartmouth, and the Bedford-Sackville areas. It is the Statistics Canada population centre of Halifax, the dense urban core is centred on the Halifax Peninsula and the area of Dartmouth inside of the Circumferential Highway. The suburban area stretches into areas known as Mainland Halifax to the west, Cole Harbour to the east and this urban area is the most populous on Canadas Atlantic coast, and the second largest coastal population centre in the country after Vancouver, British Columbia. Halifax currently accounts for 40% of Nova Scotias population, and 15% of that of Atlantic Canada, Halifaxs urban core is home to a number of regional landmark buildings and retains significant historic buildings and districts. The downtowns office towers are overlooked by the fortress of Citadel Hill with its iconic Halifax Town Clock, Dalhousie Universitys campus is often featured in films and documentaries. Dartmouth also has its share of historic neighbourhoods and this has resulted in some modern high rises being built at unusual angles or locations
23.
Basilica of St. John the Baptist
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The Basilica-Cathedral was the largest building project to its date in Newfoundland history. Construction lasted from the excavation of the ground in May 1839, through the laying of the cornerstone in May 1841, at this time, it was the largest church building in North America and remains the second largest in Canada behind Saint Josephs Oratory in Montreal. On October 17,2007, Bishop Martin Currie of the Grand Falls diocese was appointed archbishop of St. Johns and he assumed his position on November 30,2007. Built between 1839–1855, the basilica is located on the highest ridge overlooking the city of St. Johns, the church is not oriented on the liturgically correct east-west axis, but faces toward the narrows that form the entrance to St. Johns harbour. The Basilica-Cathedral of St. John the Baptist is built in the form of a Latin cross, the Basilica-Cathedral of St. Johns and Kellys Island in Conception Bay, giving the Cathedral its characteristic grey colour. During its centenary celebration in 1955, Pope Pius XII raised the cathedral to the rank of minor Basilica, for its day, the St. Johns Basilica was the largest Irish cathedral anywhere outside Ireland. No other Irish building in North America can boast of such intimate influences from or upon Ireland, the building has also been designated as a Registered Heritage Structure and Provincial Historic Site by the Heritage Foundation of Newfoundland and Labrador. The Basilica is built in the Lombard Romanesque style, based on visual features associated with the churches of northern Italy. The Basilica is built of limestone and white granite quarried in Galway and Dublin, Ireland and grey sandstone from St. Johns and Kellys Island, Conception Bay. The exterior is 260 ft long and 220 ft wide, the two towers rise 150 ft from street level, the statue is Hogans greatest masterpiece and is the final of three similar statues created by Hogan in the early 19th century and the only one presently located outside Ireland. The East Tower contains nine bells including the largest bell, the St. John Bell and this two-ton bell was purchased by Bishop Mullock in February,1850. Struck by James Murphy of Dublin, it was the largest ever cast in Ireland at that time, there are eight bells in the West Tower. The three largest bells were cast by James Murphy in 1854 and 1857, the five smaller bells were cast in 1906 by Matthew OByrne of the Fountain Head Bell Foundry in Dublin, Ireland. The Basilica contains twenty-eight beautiful stained glass windows adorn the upper walls and are of Irish, English. All the windows were the gifts of religious societies, such as the Benevolent Irish Society, in 1955 a great pipe organ from the world-renowned Casavant Frères firm of St-Hyacinthe, Québec was installed as a memorial to the parishioners who died in World War I and World War II. The 66 stop organ with 4,050 pipes is the largest instrument in Newfoundland, when completed in 1855, the Basilica of St. John The Baptist was the largest church building in all of North America. The Basilica is one of the few buildings in St. Johns to survive The Great Fire of 1892, the Basilica Museum is open seasonally, and is currently located in the Basilica Residence
24.
Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
25.
Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although Brussels itself has an independent regional government, in historical contexts, Flanders originally refers to the County of Flanders, which around AD1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made two political entities, the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a cultural mandate, covers Brussels. Flanders has figured prominently in European history, as a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution, geographically, Flanders is generally flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea. Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated, with a density of almost 500 people per square kilometer. It touches France to the west near the coast, and borders the Netherlands to the north and east, the Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region. Flanders has exclaves of its own, Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands. It comprises 6.5 million Belgians who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, the political subdivisions of Belgium, the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community. The first does not comprise Brussels, whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels, the political institutions that govern both subdivisions, the operative body Flemish Government and the legislative organ Flemish Parliament. The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders, a feudal territory that existed from the 8th century until its absorption by the French First Republic. Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of France, one of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders, namely French Flanders in the Nord department. French Flanders can be divided into two regions, Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders. The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century, the city of Lille identifies itself as Flemish, and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres. The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the part of the Low Countries
26.
Canadian National Exhibition
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With approximately 1.5 million visitors each year, the CNE is Canada’s largest annual fair and the fifth largest in North America. The first Canadian National Exhibition took place in 1879, largely to promote agriculture, agriculturists, engineers, and scientists exhibited their discoveries and inventions at the CNE to showcase the work and talent of the nation. As Canada has grown as a nation, the CNE has also changed over time, reflecting the growth in diversity and innovation, though agriculture, to many people in the Greater Toronto Area and the surrounding communities, the CNE is an annual family tradition. The CNE is held at Exhibition Place, which is a 192 acres site located along Toronto’s waterfront on the shores of Lake Ontario, the site features several buildings and structures, many of which have been named as significant under the Ontario Heritage Act. There are several live music venues on-site including the permanent CNE Bandshell. All of the roads are named after the Canadian provinces and territories, the site includes a football stadium, parks, fountains, plazas, a rose garden, statues and parking lots. Both the Toronto Transit Commission and GO Transit provide public service to Exhibition Place. The 18-day fair itself consists of a mix of shopping areas, exhibits, live entertainment, agricultural displays, sports events, casino, the Canadian International Air Show on Labour Day weekend has been a feature of the fair since 1949. Several buildings house exhibits and displays from vendors, government agencies and these include the International Pavilion of products from around the world, and the Arts, Crafts and Hobbies building of crafts, collectibles and unusual items. The Enercare Centre complex holds the international pavilion, a show, the SuperDogs performances. It also has exhibit space used for agricultural or industrial displays, the Food Building houses a large number of vendors of food from many cultures, reflecting Torontos multicultural population. The Better Living Centre building is used for a casino on one side, the CNE continues its tradition of agricultural produce competition and the winners are displayed in the Better Living Centre, along with a butter sculpting competition. Other exhibit areas are used differently in different years, there are a large number of vendors outside along the streets of the fair offering discount and unusual products. Some exhibits are held for a few days of the year. The 1792 Scadding Cabin log cabin display dates back to the first year of the fair and is the time the cabin is open for display. The Coliseum building is used for live shows and these have included high-wire acts, skating, the RCMP Musical Ride in the past. Outdoors, the Bandshell is used for music and nightly headliners. Additionally, areas are set up at points around the fair for outdoor entertainment
27.
Czech Radio
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Český rozhlas is the public radio broadcaster of the Czech Republic, which has operated since 1923. The service broadcasts throughout the Czech Republic nationally and locally and its four national services are Radiožurnál, Dvojka, Vltava and Plus. 13 regional stations are also provided, Czech Radio celebrated 90 years of existence in 2013. Český rozhlas, then Československý rozhlas was established on 18 May 1923, making its first broadcast from a tent in the Kbely district of Prague. The first regular announcer of the station, who prepared and presented the news from the papers, was Adolf Dobrovolný. He took up the position on 17 January 1924, becoming the stations first professional radio announcer and he held the position until his death in 1934. A message broadcast on Czech Radio on 5 May 1945 brought about the start of the Prague uprising, in the same year, regional studios in the cities of Plzeň, České Budějovice, Hradec Králové and Ústí nad Labem were launched. In 1991, the Czech radio group changed its status and became an independent organisation, a regional studio was established in Olomouc in 1994. In 2002 the Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty station stopped broadcasting in the Czech Republic, Czech Radio launched a new logo in 2013, featuring the letter R with stripes, at a cost of 2.2 million Czech koruna. The organisation marked 90 years of existence in 2013, celebrating the occasion with a 48-hour broadcast including 90 interviews interspersed with news reports every half-hour, the event, which took place on Wenceslas Square, set a new national record for the longest uninterrupted radio broadcast. 2013 saw three Czech Radio stations Česko, Leonardo and Čro 6 taken off the airwaves, at the same time, three new stations were launched, namely ČRo Junior for young listeners, ČRo Plus, a spoken word station and ČRo Jazz
28.
Czech Republic
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The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast. The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres with mostly temperate continental climate and it is a unitary parliamentary republic, has 10.5 million inhabitants and the capital and largest city is Prague, with over 1.2 million residents. The Czech Republic includes the territories of Bohemia, Moravia. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire, after the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire, becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria, the Protestant Bohemian Revolt against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, reimposed Roman Catholicism, the Czech part of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II, and was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the Soviet Union and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections. Following the 1948 coup détat, Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence, in 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring, which ended in a Soviet-led invasion. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution, when the communist regime collapsed, on 6 March 1990, the Czech Socialistic Republic was renamed to the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, it is a member of the United Nations, the OECD, the OSCE, and it is a developed country with an advanced, high income economy and high living standards. The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development, the Czech Republic also ranks as the 6th most peaceful country, while achieving strong performance in democratic governance. It has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union, the traditional English name Bohemia derives from Latin Boiohaemum, which means home of the Boii. The current name comes from the endonym Čech, spelled Cžech until the reform in 1842. The name comes from the Slavic tribe and, according to legend, their leader Čech, the etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning member of the people, kinsman, thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk. The country has traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the southeast, and Czech Silesia in the northeast. Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia at the end of 1992, the Czech part of the former nation found itself without a common single-word geographical name in English, the name Czechia /ˈtʃɛkiə/ was recommended by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs
29.
Second Schleswig War
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The Second Schleswig War was the second military conflict as a result of the Schleswig-Holstein Question. It began on 1 February 1864, when Prussian forces crossed the border into Schleswig, decisive controversy arose due to the passing of the November Constitution, which integrated the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom in violation of the London Protocol. Reasons for the war were the controversy in Schleswig and the co-existence of conflicting political systems within the Danish unitary state. The war ended on 30 October 1864, when the Treaty of Vienna caused Denmarks cession of the Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, the northern and middle parts of Schleswig spoke Danish, but over time, the language in the southern half had shifted gradually to German. German culture was dominant among the clergy and nobility, Danish culture had a social status and was spoken mainly by the rural population. For centuries, while the rule of the king was absolute, however, when ideas of liberal democracy spread and nationalist currents emerged about 1820, identification was mixed between Danish and German. To that was added a grievance about tolls charged by Denmark on shipping passing through the Danish Straits between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, to avoid that expense, Prussia planned the Kiel Canal, which could not be built so long as Denmark ruled Holstein. Much of the focused on the heir of King Frederick VII of Denmark. Prince Christian had served on the Danish side in the First Schleswig War in 1848-1851, at the time, the king of Denmark was also duke of the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig. In 1848, Denmark had received its first free constitution and at the time had fought a civil war with the Germans of Schleswig-Holstein in which Prussia had intervened. The peace treaty stipulated that the duchy of Schleswig should not be treated any differently from the duchy of Holstein in its relations with the Kingdom of Denmark and that was a clear breach of the 1851 peace treaty and gave Prussia and the German union a casus belli against Denmark. France had colonial problems, not least with Britain, Bismarck had effectively neutralized Russia politically and succeeded in obtaining cooperation from Austria which underlined its major power status within the German union. The adoption of the Constitution of Denmark in 1849 complicated matters further, as many Danes wished for the new constitution to apply to all Danes. Thus two systems of government co-existed within the state, democracy in Denmark, and absolutism in Schleswig. This caused a deadlock for practical lawmaking, in Copenhagen, the Palace and most of the administration supported a strict adherence to the status quo. In 1858, the German Confederation deposed the union constitution of the Danish monarchy concerning Holstein and Lauenburg, the two duchies were henceforth without any constitution, while the union constitution still applied to Schleswig and Denmark proper. As the heirless King Frederick VII grew older, Denmarks successive National-Liberal cabinets became increasingly focused on maintaining control of Schleswig following the kings demise. The king died in 1863 at a critical time, work on the November Constitution for the joint affairs of Denmark and Schleswig had just been completed
30.
Province of Schleswig-Holstein
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The Province of Schleswig-Holstein was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Free State of Prussia from 1868 to 1946. It was created from the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which had been conquered by Prussia, following the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, which ended in Austrian defeat, Schleswig and Holstein were annexed by Prussia. The province was created in 1868 and also included the Duchy of Lauenburg since 1876, following the defeat of Imperial Germany in World War I, the Allied powers organised two plebiscites in Northern and Central Schleswig on 10 February and 14 March 1920, respectively. In Northern Schleswig 75% voted for reunification with Denmark and 25% for staying with Germany, in Central Schleswig the situation was reversed with 80% voting for Germany and 20% for Denmark. No vote ever took place in the third of Schleswig. On 15 June 1920, Northern Schleswig was officially reunited with Denmark, the remainder of Schleswig remained part of Schleswig-Holstein, now a province of the Free State of Prussia. This again ceded its exclaves of Geesthacht and Großhansdorf to Schleswig-Holstein, the British-occupied section became the new German state of Schleswig-Holstein on 23 August 1946, which joined the Federal Republic of Germany on 23 May 1949. Schleswig-Holstein Schleswig-Holstein Question History of Schleswig-Holstein Peace of Prague Schleswig Plebiscites Schleswig-Holstein
31.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
32.
Treaty of Versailles
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The Treaty of Versailles was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers and it was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties, although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919 and this article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty forced Germany to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, in 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks. On the other hand, prominent figures on the Allied side such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently, although it is often referred to as the Versailles Conference, only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. Most of the negotiations were in Paris, with the Big Four meetings taking place generally at the Quai dOrsay, the First World War was fought across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia. Countries beyond the war zones were also affected by the disruption of trade, finance. In 1917, two revolutions occurred within the Russian Empire, which led to the collapse of the Imperial Government, the American war aim was to detach the war from nationalistic disputes and ambitions after the Bolshevik disclosure of secret treaties between the Allies. The existence of these treaties tended to discredit Allied claims that Germany was the power with aggressive ambitions. On 8 January 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points and this speech outlined a policy of free trade, open agreements, democracy and self-determination. After the Central Powers launched Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front and this treaty ended the war between Russia and the Central powers and annexed 1,300,000 square miles of territory and 62 million people. During the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse, desertion rates within the German army began to increase, and civilian strikes drastically reduced war production. On the Western Front, the Allied forces launched the Hundred Days Offensive, sailors of the Imperial German Navy at Kiel mutinied, which prompted uprisings in Germany, which became known as the German Revolution. The German government tried to obtain a settlement based on the Fourteen Points. Following negotiations, the Allied powers and Germany signed an armistice, the terms of the armistice called for an immediate evacuation of German troops from occupied Belgium, France, and Luxembourg within fifteen days. In addition, it established that Allied forces would occupy the Rhineland, in late 1918, Allied troops entered Germany and began the occupation. Both the German Empire and Great Britain were dependent on imports of food and raw materials, primarily from the Americas, the Blockade of Germany was a naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers to stop the supply of raw materials and foodstuffs reaching the Central Powers
33.
Schleswig plebiscites, 1920
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The process was monitored by a commission with representatives from France, the United Kingdom, Norway and Sweden. Between 1864 and 1866, Prussia and Austria ruled the region as a condominium. The condominium was terminated due to the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, the idea of a plebiscite had been presented earlier. Bismarcks initiative was not adopted by the conference, primarily since the option had not been included in the instruction to the Danish delegation, the inclusion of the promise of a plebiscite in the 1866 Austro-Prussian Peace of Prague was a diplomatic concession to Austria, but was not implemented. The reference to it was dropped in the 1877 Gastein Convention between Austria and Germany. The 1864 border was confirmed in the 1907 German-Danish Optant Treaty, during the 1880s and 1890s, Clausen had travelled extensively on both sides of a possible future Dano-German border, for which he published two suggestions. Clausen had excluded both from his two lines, Zone I was based on Clausens estimations of the local populations national self-identification. In addition, Clausen believed that it would minimize the risk of future conflict if the border in the marshy West Schleswig followed either the Vidå river or a dyke. This caused resentment on the German side, as this implied that the town of Tønder would be included in Zone I. e. vote en bloc and this wish was conveyed to the Paris Peace Conference in Versailles, and became the basis for the plebiscites Zone I. As a compromise, it was decided to request the Allied Powers to extend the plebiscite until Clausens second line, in this smaller Zone II, each town or - in the rural areas each parish - was to decide its own allegiance. Two other requests were made, which were only followed by the Allied Powers. Firstly, Denmark requested that the plebiscite areas German civil administration be replaced by an international administration, the Allied Powers replaced the German garrisons with a small international force, but the civil administration was only partially replaced in Zone I, and not at all in Zone II. Secondly, Denmark had requested that persons previously expelled from the region should be allowed to vote in the plebiscite, the Allied Powers granted this request but extended it, consequently entitling anyone who had previously lived in the region to vote in the plebiscite. On February 10,1920, the plebiscite was held in Zone I, there,74. 9% of the public voted to come under Danish rule,25. It was mostly this area that caused controversy after the voting, the vote in Central Schleswig took place on March 14,1920. 80. 2% fell for Germany,19. 8% for Denmark, the poor result for Denmark in Central Schleswig, particularly in Flensburg, Schleswigs largest city, triggered Denmarks 1920 Easter Crisis. A plebiscite was not held in the southernmost third of the province as the population was almost exclusively pro-German, the Allied Powers had offered to include this region in the plebiscite, but the Danish government had expressly asked for Zone III to be excluded. Selected results in detail, Directly after the announcement of the results from Zone I, an alternative draft for the frontier was made by the German administrator Johannes Tiedje
34.
Meaux
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Meaux is a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department in the Île-de-France region in the metropolitan area of Paris, France. It is located 41.1 km east-northeast from the center of Paris, Meaux is a subprefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department. In France, a subprefecture is the chef-lieu of an arrondissement and it is also the chef-lieu of two other smaller administrative land divisions, the cantons of Meaux-Nord and Meaux-Sud. Finally, since its creation in 2003, Meaux has been the center and the town of an agglomeration community. With a population of 51,398 inhabitants, Meaux is the second most populated city in the Seine-et-Marne department after Chelles, inhabitants of Meaux are called Meldois. Both names Meaux and Meldois originated with the Meldi, the Latin name of the original Gaulish tribe who occupied this area of the valley of the Marne river. Although during the Roman period the city was called Iantinum by the Romans, a meander of the Marne river divides the old city into the North Quarter and the South Quarter. The South Quarter of the old city includes the historic covered market. Centuries later, in 1806, during the Napoleonic era, was built the Canal de lOurcq, Meaux is nowadays mainly known for Brie de Meaux and the local variety of mustard. Following the official administrative French AOC there are two designations of Brie de Meaux, Brie de Meaux fermier and Brie de Meaux laitier, several festivals and concerts are celebrated in Meaux, venues for live music like the Music Festival Musikelles. Theres a local concert band in Meaux, LHarmonie du Pays de Meaux. It is constituted by three different ensembles, following different ages, Les Minimes, Les Juniors and LHarmonie de Meaux, the band is also one of the two official music academies of the town. The other one is the conservatory of the city, the show represents the history of Meaux all along the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and also, more recently, during World War I. There is only one cinema in Meaux, The Majestic, a stage theatre. In modern days there are three theatres in the city. One is the Théâtre Gérard Philippe, a theatre, situated close to the covered market. In an eastern area of Meaux, the Beauval quarter, there is the stage theatre of the town, the Salle Champagne, located in the Espace Caravelle. Private theatre companies and community arts associations play in all three theatres, two museums can be found in Meaux, the Musée Bossuet and the Musée de la Grande Guerre du pays de Meaux
35.
Armistice Day
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The date was declared a national holiday in many allied nations, and coincides with Remembrance Day and Veterans Day, public holidays. The first Armistice Day was held at Buckingham Palace, commencing with King George V hosting a Banquet in Honour of the President of the French Republic during the hours of 10 November 1919. The first official Armistice Day events were held in the grounds of Buckingham Palace on the morning of 11 November 1919. This would set the trend for a day of Remembrance for decades to come, in 1919, South African Sir Percy Fitzpatrick proposed a two-minute silence to Lord Milner. People observe a one or more commonly a two-minute moment of silence at 11,00 a. m. local time, similar ceremonies developed in other countries during the inter-war period. m. Presumably to coincide with the traditional 11,00 a. m. time for Armistice ceremonies taking place in Europe due to the time difference between Eastern Australia and Europe. Veterans in New Zealand have used silence to pay homage to departed comrades in general at veteran functions, as the toast of Fallen or Absent Comrades. In Britain, beginning in 1939, the silence was moved to the Sunday nearest to 11 November in order not to interfere with wartime production should 11 November fall on a weekday. They adopted the name Remembrance Day or Remembrance Sunday, other countries also changed the name of the holiday just prior to or after World War II, to honor veterans of that and subsequent conflicts. The United States chose All Veterans Day, later shortened to Veterans Day, to honor military veterans. Both Armistice Day and Remembrance Sunday are commemorated formally, in recent years Armistice Day has become increasingly recognised, and many people now attend the 11,00 a. m. In New Zealand and Australia observance ceremonies take place, but the day is not a public holiday, anzac Day, on 25 April, is a public holiday and day of remembrance. In Canada,11 November is a time to both living and dead veterans. Patriotic displays are created annually, and veterans are offered free transit and cab rides in a number of cities, including Halifax, Ottawa, Toronto, Mississauga, London, Calgary, and Vancouver. In the U. S. the function of Veterans Day is subtly different from that of other 11 November observances, instead of specifically honoring war dead, Veterans Day honors all American veterans living and dead. Armistice Day remains the name of the holiday in France and Belgium, in Italy the end of World War I is commemorated on 4 November, the day of the Armistice of Villa Giusti. In Denmark, Netherlands and Norway, the end of World War I is not commemorated as the three countries remained neutral, Denmark instead observes Flagday on 5 September in commemoration of both living and dead soldiers who served in any conflict. The same counts for 4 May in Netherlands
36.
Glasnevin Cemetery
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Glasnevin Cemetery is a large cemetery in Glasnevin, Dublin, Ireland which opened in 1832. OConnell pushed for the opening of a ground in which both Irish Catholics and Protestants could give their dead dignified burial. Glasnevin Cemetery was consecrated and opened to the public for the first time on 21 February 1832, the first burial, that of eleven-year-old Michael Carey from Francis Street in Dublin, took place on the following day in a section of the cemetery known as Currans Square. The cemetery was known as Prospect Cemetery, a name chosen from the townland of Prospect. Originally covering nine acres of ground, the area of the cemetery has now grown to approximately 124 acres and this includes its expansion on the southern side of the Finglas Road with the section called St. Pauls. The option of cremation has been provided since March 1982, Glasnevin Cemetery remains under the care of the Dublin Cemeteries Committee. The development of the cemetery is a task with major expansion. The Catholic Mass is celebrated by members of the parish clergy every Sunday at 9.45 a. m, the annual blessing of the graves takes place each summer as it has done since the foundation of the cemetery in 1832. The cemetery is located in Glasnevin, Dublin, in two parts, the Glasnevin Trust Museum was designed by A&D Wejchert & Partners Architects. The cemetery contains historically notable monuments and the graves of many of Irelands most prominent national figures. The Sisters from the Convent arranged to have the remains cremated and reburied in a grave at Glasnevin Cemetery. The high wall with watch-towers surrounding the part of the cemetery was built to deter bodysnatchers. The watchmen also had a pack of blood-hounds who roamed the cemetery at night and these names are inscribed on two memorials, rededicated and relocated in 2011 to near the main entrance. A Cross of Sacrifice was erected in the cemetery, in a joint Irish-British commemoration ceremony, as of March 2017, there are 214 service personnel of the Commonwealth of both wars identified as buried here. Glasnevin is one of the few cemeteries that allowed babies to be buried in consecrated ground. In 1982, a crematorium was constructed within the grounds by Glasnevin Trust. Since then, the service has used for people of various religious denominations who wished to be cremated. Boyzone singer Stephen Gately was cremated at Glasnevin Crematorium within the grounds in October 2009
37.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
38.
East Africa Protectorate
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East Africa Protectorate was an area in the African Great Lakes occupying roughly the same terrain as present-day Kenya from the Indian Ocean inland to Uganda and the Great Rift Valley. European missionaries began settling in the area from Mombasa to Mount Kilimanjaro in the 1840s and he formed a British East Africa Association which led to the Imperial British East Africa Company being chartered in 1888 and given the original grant to administer the dependency. It administered about 240 kilometres of coastline stretching from the River Jubba via Mombasa to German East Africa which were leased from the Sultan. The British sphere of influence, agreed at the Berlin Conference of 1885, extended up the coast and inland across the future Kenya, Mombasa was the administrative centre at this time. However, the company began to fail, and on 1 July 1895 the British government proclaimed a protectorate, in 1902 administration was again transferred to the Colonial Office and the Uganda territory was incorporated as part of the protectorate also. In 1897 Lord Delamere, the pioneer of settlement, arrived in the Kenya highlands. Lord Delamere was impressed by the possibilities of the area. In 1902, the boundaries of the Protectorate were extended to include what was previously the Eastern Province of Uganda, also, in 1902, the East Africa Syndicate received a grant of 1,300 square kilometres to promote white settlement in the Highlands. The capital was shifted from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1905, a regular Government and Legislature were constituted by Order in Council in 1906. This constituted the administrator a governor and provided for legislative and executive councils, lieutenant Colonel J. Hayes Sadler was the first governor and commander in chief. There were occasional troubles with local tribes but the country was opened up by the Government, after the First World War, more farmers arrived from England and South Africa, and by 1919 the European population was estimated at 9,000 settlers. On 23 July 1920, the areas of the Protectorate were annexed as British dominions by Order in Council. That part of the former Protectorate was thereby constituted as the Colony of Kenya, the remaining 16-kilometre-wide coastal strip, remained a Protectorate under an agreement with the Sultan of Zanzibar. That coastal strip, remaining under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar, was constituted as the Protectorate of Kenya in 1920, after 1896, immigrants from India came to the area as money lenders, traders, and artisans. Racial segregation was normalised, with the Europeans assigning the Highlands to themselves, other restrictions included commercial and residential segregation in the towns, and restrictions on Indian immigration. Nevertheless, the Indians rapidly grew to outnumber the Europeans by more than two to one by 1919, bittlebank and Mr. Brown, to assess the mineral wealth of the region. In the process of carrying out this policy of colonisation a dispute arose between Sir Charles Eliot, then Commissioner of British East Africa and Lord Lansdowne, the British Foreign Secretary. Eliot thereupon resigned his post, and in a telegram to the Prime Minister, dated Mombasa,21 June 1904, gave as his reason
39.
Tanzania
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Tanzania /ˌtænzəˈniːə/, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in Eastern Africa within the African Great Lakes region. Parts of the country are in Southern Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro, Africas highest mountain, is in northeastern Tanzania. Tanzanias population of 51.82 million is diverse, composed of ethnic, linguistic. Dar es Salaam, the capital, retains most government offices and is the countrys largest city, principal port. Tanzania is a one party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi party in power, from its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats were last held in October 2015, the CCM holds approximately 75% of the seats in the assembly. Prehistoric population migrations include Southern Cushitic speakers, who are ancestral to the Iraqw, Gorowa, and Burunge and who moved south from Ethiopia into Tanzania. Based on linguistic evidence, there may also have two movements into Tanzania of Eastern Cushitic people at about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago. These movements took place at about the time as the settlement of the iron-making Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria. They brought with them the west African planting tradition and the staple of yams. They subsequently migrated out of these regions across the rest of Tanzania, European colonialism began in mainland Tanzania during the late 19th century when Germany formed German East Africa, which gave way to British rule following World War I. The mainland was governed as Tanganyika, with the Zanzibar Archipelago remaining a separate colonial jurisdiction, following their respective independence in 1961 and 1963, the two entities merged in April 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. Tanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the northeast, where Mount Kilimanjaro is located, three of Africas Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria, Africas largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika, the eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibars largest marine protected area, over 100 different languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa. Among the languages spoken in Tanzania are all four of Africas language families, Bantu, Cushitic, Nilotic, Swahili and English are Tanzanias official languages. In connection with his Ujamaa social policies, President Nyerere encouraged the use of Swahili, approximately 10% of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, and up to 90% speak it as a second language. Most Tanzanians thus speak both Swahili and a language, many educated Tanzanians are trilingual, also speaking English
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German East Africa
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German East Africa was a German colony in the African Great Lakes region, which included what are now Burundi, Rwanda, and the mainland part of present Tanzania. Its area was 994,996 km2, nearly three times the area of present-day Germany, the colony was organized when the German military was called upon to put down a revolt against the activities of a colonial company during the late 1880s. It ended with Imperial Germanys defeat in World War I, ultimately it was divided between Britain and Belgium and reorganized as a mandate of the League of Nations. Like other powers, the Germans expanded their empire in the Africa Great Lakes region on the basis of fighting slavery, unlike other imperial powers, however, they never actually formally abolished it, preferring instead to curtail the production of new recruits and regulate the extant slaving business. The colony began with Carl Peters, an adventurer who founded the Society for German Colonization, on 3 March 1885, the German government announced it had granted an imperial charter to Peters company and intended to establish a protectorate in the Africa Great Lakes region. Peters then recruited specialists, who began exploring south to the Rufiji River and north to Witu, the British and Germans agreed to divide the mainland between themselves, and the Sultan had no option but to agree. The Abushiri Revolt of 1888 was put down the following year, in 1890, London and Berlin concluded the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty, returning Heligoland to Germany and deciding on the borders of German East Africa. Between 1891 and 1894, the Hehe tribe, led by Chief Mkwawa and they were defeated because rival tribes supported the Germans. After years of warfare, Mkwawa himself was cornered and committed suicide in 1898. The Maji Maji Rebellion occurred in 1905 and was put down by the governor, but scandal soon followed, with stories of corruption and brutality, and in 1907 Chancellor Bülow appointed Bernhard Dernburg to reform the colonial administration. It became a model of efficiency and commanded extraordinary loyalty among the natives during the First World War. German colonial administrators relied heavily on native chiefs to keep order, Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, was a successful general in German East Africa during World War I. Commerce and growth started in earnest under German direction, early on it was realized that economic development would depend on reliable transportation. Over 100,000 acres were under sisal cultivation – the biggest cash crop, two million coffee trees were planted and rubber trees grew on 200,000 acres, along with large cotton plantations. To bring these agricultural products to market, beginning in 1888, the longest line, the Central Railroad covered 775 miles from Dar es Salaam to Morogoro, Tabora and Kigoma. The final link to the shore of Lake Tanganyika had been completed in July 1914 and was cause for a huge and festive celebration in the capital with an agricultural fair. Harbor facilities were built or improved with electrical cranes, with rail access, wharves were remodeled at Tanga, Bagamoyo and Lindi. In 1912 Dar es Salaam and Tanga received 356 freighters and passenger steamers and over 1,000 coastal ships and local trading vessels
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East African Campaign (World War I)
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The campaign all but ended in November 1917, when the Germans entered Portuguese East Africa and continued the campaign living off Portuguese supplies. The strategy of the German colonial forces, led by Lieutenant Colonel Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck, was to divert forces from the Western Front to Africa. His strategy achieved only mixed results after 1916, when he was out of German East Africa and Allied forces became composed almost entirely of South African, Indian. The Germans fought for the whole of World War I, receiving word of the armistice on 14 November 1918 at 7,30 a. m, both sides waited for confirmation and the Germans formally surrendered on 25 November. German East Africa became two League of Nations Class B Mandates, Tanganyika Territory of the United Kingdom and Ruanda-Urundi of Belgium, German East Africa was colonized by the Germans in 1885. The territory itself spanned 384,180 square miles and covered the areas of modern-day Rwanda, Burundi, the colonys indigenous population numbered seven and a half million and was governed by just 5,300 Europeans. Although the colonial regime was relatively secure, the colony had recently been shaken by the Maji Maji Rebellion of 1904–05 whose effects were still being felt by 1914. The outbreak of World War I in Europe led to the popularity of German colonial expansion. Mittelafrika effectively involved the annexation of territory, mostly occupied by the Belgian Congo, the territory would dominate central Africa and would make Germany as by far the most powerful colonial power on the African continent. Nevertheless, the German colonial military in Africa was weak, poorly equipped, although better trained and more experienced than their opponents, many of the German soldiers were reliant on weapons like the Model 1871 rifle which used obsolete black powder. Even the largest concentration of German troops in the continent in East Africa, was unable to fight an aggressive war. By threatening the important British Uganda Railway, von Lettow hoped to force British troops to invade East Africa, in 1912, the German government had formed a defence strategy for East Africa in which the military would withdraw from the coast into the hinterland and fight a guerrilla campaign. For the Belgians, the German presence in East Africa was a threat to the security of Congo, the Colonial Minister, Jules Renkin, favoured a policy of trading territory gained in East Africa with the Portuguese, to expand the western Congo coast in a post-war settlement. A successful campaign in Africa was also seen as a way for the De Broqueville government to avenge the German invasion of Belgium, in East Africa, the Congo Act was first broken by the British. On 15 August, German Askari forces stationed in the Neu Moshi region engaged in their first offensive of the campaign, taveta on the British side of Kilimanjaro fell to 300 Askari of two field companies with the British firing a token volley and retiring in good order. In September, the Germans began to stage raids deeper into British East Africa, German naval power on Lake Victoria was limited to Hedwig von Wissmann and Kingani a tugboat armed with one pom-pom gun, causing minor damage but a great deal of news. The British then armed the Uganda Railway lake steamers SS William Mackinnon, SS Kavirondo, Winifred, the tug was trapped and then scuttled by the Germans. In an effort to solve the raiding nuisance and to capture the northern, white settler region of the German colony
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Schutztruppe
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Schutztruppe was the official name of the colonial troops in the African territories of the German colonial empire from the late 19th century to 1918. Similar to other armies, the Schutztruppe consisted of volunteer European commissioned and non-commissioned officers, medical. Most enlisted ranks were recruited locally. Military contingents were formed in German East Africa, where they became famous as Askari, in the Kamerun colony of German West Africa, control of the German colonies of New Guinea, in Samoa, and in Togoland was performed by small local police detachments. Kiautschou in China under Imperial Navy administration was a notable exception, as part of the East Asian Station the navy garrisoned at Tsingtao the marines of 3rd Sea Battalion, the only all-German unit with permanent status in an overseas protectorate. The designation for the German colonial force dates back to the parlance of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Schutztruppe contingents arose from local police forces or private paramilitary units, where German colonizers met with stronger resistance. Upon the establishment of German East Africa, these Wissmann troops were transformed into Schutztruppe forces by an act of the Reichstag parliament on 22 March 1891. Likewise, the forces for South-West Africa under Curt von François. Schutztruppe formations under the command of the German Emperor were organizationally never a part of the Imperial German Army, though German military law. Initially supervised by the Imperial Navy Office, they were under the authority of the Colonial Department in the German Foreign Office by the act of 7 and 18 July 1896. In 1907 the Colonial Department with the Schutztruppe command was set up as the independent Imperial Colonial Office agency directly answerable to the German chancellor, in 1896 a central Schutztruppe command was established as part of the Colonial Department. Despite its name, this agency exercised no military leadership but served as an administrative authority. It was located at Berlin’s Mauerstrasse, in proximity to the Colonial Office, including carriers and laborers, the force totaled approximately 14,000 personnel. On 13 April 1914, Lieutenant Colonel Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck assumed command in German East Africa and he led his units throughout World War I, eventually being promoted to Generalmajor. The Schutztruppe in East Africa became the last German formation to surrender – days after the armistice in November 1918, a pre-war company consisted of 160 men in three platoons of 50 to 60 men each, including two machine gun teams. Each of the 14 companies also had a minimum 250 man carrier contingent as well as native irregulars known as Ruga-Ruga, during the Great War, companies numbered 15 through 30 were added, plus A through H temporary companies, and 1st through 8th Schützenkompagnies. Numerous other small detachments were also formed, several Reserve Kompagnien were also raised consisting of older askaris, they were prefixed by the letter R. The Schutztruppe in German Southwest Africa was structured in 12 companies of mounted infantry totalling 1,500 men, the 7th Company, stationed in the northern desert area of the colony, was mounted on imported camels
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National Museums of Kenya
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The National Museums of Kenya is a state corporation that manages museums, sites and monuments in Kenya. It carries out research, and has expertise in subjects ranging from palaeontology, ethnography and biodiversity research. Its headquarters and the National Museum are located on Museum Hill, the museum houses collections, and temporary and permanent exhibits. Today the National Museum of Kenya manages over 22 regional museums, many sites, the East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society was founded in 1910–11 by persons with an interest in nature in British East Africa. The group included two canons of the Church Missionary Society, The Rev. Harry Leakey and The Rev, kenneth St. Aubyn Rogers, some government officials, C. W. Hobley and John Ainsworth, doctors, dentists, big-game hunters and plantation owners. In 1911 they established the Natural History Museum and library with an honorary curator, aladina Visram put up the money for a one-story, two-room building. In 1914 they could afford a paid curator and they brought in Arthur Loveridge, a herpetologist, who arrived in March 1914. Loveridge concentrated on collections, with the members volunteering to contribute specimens, labour and they also ran the museum while Loveridge fought for the British in German East Africa. He returned for a brief stay after the war, only to go to America, the next curator was A. F. J. Gedye. The museum moved to a new building at the corner of Government Road, among the new volunteers for the society were Sir Robert Coryndon, Governor of Kenya. At his unexpected death in 1927, Lady Coryndon established the Coryndon Memorial Fund to build a museum for the society in memory of her husband. The government offered matching funds for public donations and in 1928 construction began, the building was ready in 1929. Unfortunately no workrooms or storage space had been provided and therefore the Natural History Society declined to move in, the government then bought the old museum and the society used the money to add three rooms, gave its collections to the museum trustees, but retained the library. Everything was moved to the museum, Lady Coryndon donated Sir Roberts books to it. The museum was opened on 22 September 1930, as Coryndon Museum, with Victor Gurney Logan Van Someren. He was given a house on the grounds, in 1930 Evelyn Molony, née Napier was appointed the Museums first botanist after a grant was given to the Museum by Ernest Carr to fund her employment. During her tenure she established within the Museum a herbarium on East African plants as well as publishing a series of papers on East African flora. The committee turned everything over to the museum except for the library in exchange for payments for 15 years to the society
