1.
Basel
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Basel is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine. Basel is Switzerlands third-most-populous city with about 175,000 inhabitants, located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany. In 2014, the Basel agglomeration was the third largest in Switzerland with a population of 537,100 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland, the official language of Basel is German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. Basel has been the seat of a Prince-Bishopric since the 11th century, the city has been a commercial hub and important cultural centre since the Renaissance, and has emerged as a centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry in the 20th century. It hosts the oldest university of the Swiss Confederation, There are settlement traces on the Rhine knee from the early La Tène period. The unfortified settlement was abandoned in the 1st century BC in favour of an Oppidum on the site of Basel Minster, probably in reaction to the Roman invasion of Gaul. In Roman Gaul, Augusta Raurica was established some 20 km from Basel as the administrative centre. The city of Basel eventually grew around the castle, the name of Basel is derived from the Roman-era toponym Basilia, first recorded in the 3rd century. It is presumably derived from the personal name Basilius, the Old French form Basle was adopted into English, and developed into the modern French Bâle. The Icelandic name Buslaraborg goes back to the 12th century Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan, Basel was incorporated into Germania Superior in AD83. Roman control over the area deteriorated in 3rd century, and Basel became an outpost of the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum formed by Diocletian, the Alamanni attempted to cross the Rhine several times in the 4th century, but were repelled. In a great invasion of AD406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace, from this time, Basel has been an Alemannic settlement. The Duchy of Alemannia fell under Frankish rule in the 6th century, and by the 7th century, based on the evidence of a third solidus with the inscription Basilia fit, Basel seems to have minted its own coins in the 7th century. Under bishop Haito, the first cathedral was built on the site of the Roman castle, at the partition of the Carolingian Empire, Basel was first given to West Francia, but passed to East Francia with the treaty of Meerssen of 870. The city was plundered and destroyed by a Magyar invasion of 917, the rebuilt city became part of Upper Burgundy, and as such was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1032. Since the donation by Rudolph III of Burgundy of the Moutier-Grandval Abbey and all its possessions to Bishop Adalbero II in 999 till the Reformation, in 1019, the construction of the cathedral of Basel began under German Emperor Heinrich II. In 1225–1226, the Bridge over the Rhine was constructed by Bishop Heinrich von Thun, the bridge was largely funded by Basels Jewish community which had settled there a century earlier. For many centuries to come Basel possessed the only permanent bridge over the river between Lake Constance and the sea, the Bishop also allowed the furriers to found a guild in 1226
2.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
3.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
4.
Congress
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A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different nations, constituent states, independent organizations, or groups. The term was chosen for the Continental Congress to emphasize the status of each colony represented there as a self-governing unit. Subsequent to the use of congress by the U. S. legislature, the term has been adopted by states within unions. Countries with Congresses and presidential systems, The Congress of Guatemala is the legislature of Guatemala. The National Congress of Honduras is the branch of the government of Honduras. The Congress of Mexico is the branch of Mexican government. The Congress of Paraguay is the legislature of Paraguay. The Congress of the Argentine Nation is the branch of the government of Argentina. The Congress of the Dominican Republic is the legislature of the Dominican Republic. The Palau National Congress is the legislative branch of the Republic of Palau. The Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia is the legislature of the Federated States of Micronesia. The Congress of the Philippines is the branch of the Philippine government. The Congress of the Republic of Peru is the legislature of Peru. The Congress of Colombia is the legislature of Colombia. The United States Congress is the legislative branch of the United States federal government. The National Congress of Bolivia was the legislature of Bolivia before being replaced by the Plurinational Legislative Assembly. The National Congress of Brazil is Brazils bicameral legislature, the National Congress of Chile is the legislative branch of the government of Chile. The National Congress of Ecuador was the legislature of Ecuador before being replaced by the National Assembly
5.
World Zionist Organization
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When it was founded, the goals of the Zionist movement were stated in a resolution that came of that Congress and came to be known as the “Basel Program. ”Zionism aims at establishing for the Jewish people a legally assured home in Palestine. Significant changes to the statutes of both organisations occurred in 1952,1970 and 1979, founded as the Zionist Organization, or ZO, in 1897 at the First Zionist Congress, held from August 29 to August 31 in Basel, Switzerland. The ZOs journal, Die Welt was founded in the same year and it changed its name to World Zionist Organization in January 1960. Some of these remain to this day. Membership in the ZO was open to all Jews, and the right to vote for delegates to the congresses was secured by the purchase of the Zionist Shekel. In 1960 the ZO changed its name to the World Zionist Organization and adopted a new constitution under which individuals are ineligible for membership, in 2009, the positions were separated again. Natan Sharansky was elected as the head of the Jewish Agency and Avraham Duvdevani was elected as the new Chairman of the WZO at the 36th Zionist Congress, on 15 June 2010. The finances of the WZO were conducted by the Jewish Colonial Trust, the World Zionist Congress established by Theodor Herzl, is the supreme organ of the World Zionist Organization and its legislative authority. It elects the officers and decides on the policies of the WZO, the first World Zionist Congress was held in Basel, Switzerland in 1897. The platform of the WZO is the Jerusalem Program, the Zionist Council, meeting in Jerusalem in June 2004, adopted this text as the latest version. A document, which was brought before Israels Supreme Court, showed that private Palestinian land was taken and given to Israeli settlers by the World Zionist Organization, the land in question had been ruled off-limits by Israel. The World Zionist Organization had been acting as an agent of the government in assigning land to Jewish settlers in the Israeli-occupied territories, the Israeli government, to avoid responsibilities under international law, used the World Zionist Organization to settle its citizens in the territory occupied in 1967. The document concerns several homes in the Israeli settlement of Ofra, the Israeli Justice Ministry confirmed that the land in question was owned by Palestinians and that the nine houses in question had been ordered demolished. Dror Etkes of Yesh Din said Its an international organization that is, simply put, the Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem. Collections of the World Zionist Organization, WZO – Doing Zionism The WZO Hagshama Department The Center for Diaspora Communications & Countering Antisemitism
6.
Chairman
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The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs
7.
Theodor Herzl
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Herzl formed the World Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish migration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state. Though he died long before its establishment, he is considered a father of the State of Israel. While Herzl is often identified as the first major Zionist activist, scholars such as Yehuda Bibas, Zvi Hirsch Kalischer. He was born in Pest, Kingdom of Hungary, to a secular Jewish family and his fathers family were originally from Zimony. He was the child of Jeanette and Jakob Herzl, who were German-speaking. Jakob Herzl, Herzls father, was a successful businessman. Herzl had one sister, Pauline, an older than he was. Theodor lived with his family in a next to the Dohány Street Synagogue located in Belváros. This passion later developed into a career in journalism and a less-celebrated pursuit of playwrighting. In 1878, after the death of his sister, Pauline, the moved to Vienna, Austria-Hungary. At the University of Vienna, Herzl studied law, as a young law student, Herzl became a member of the German nationalist Burschenschaft Albia, which had the motto Ehre, Freiheit, Vaterland. He later resigned in protest at the organisations antisemitism and he later became literary editor of Neue Freie Presse, and wrote several comedies and dramas for the Viennese stage. His early work did not focus on Jewish life and it was of the feuilleton order, descriptive rather than political. Herzl was witness to mass rallies in Paris following the Dreyfus trial, there has been some controversy surrounding the impact that this event had on Herzl and his conversion to Zionism. Herzl himself stated that the Dreyfus case turned him into a Zionist and this had been the widely held belief for some time. That he may have exaggerated the influence it had on him in order to further support for his goals. Jacques Kornberg claims that the Dreyfus influence was a myth that Herzl did not feel necessary to deflate and it was at this time that Herzl wrote his play The New Ghetto, which shows the ambivalence and lack of real security and equality of emancipated, well-to-do Jews in Vienna. According to Henry Wickham Steed, Herzl was initially devoted to the propagation of Jewish-German Liberal assimilationist doctrine
8.
Hatikvah
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Hatikvah is the national anthem of Israel. Its lyrics are adapted from a poem by Naftali Herz Imber, Imber wrote the first version of the poem in 1877, while the guest of a Jewish scholar in Iași, Romania. The romantic anthems theme reflects some Jews hope of moving to the Land of Israel and declaring it a sovereign nation. The text of Hatikvah was written in 1878 by Naphtali Herz Imber, a Jewish poet from Zolochiv, in 1882 Imber immigrated to Ottoman-ruled Palestine and read his poem to the pioneers of the early Jewish colonies - Rishon Lezion, Rehovot, Gedera and Yesud Hamaala. Imbers nine-stanza poem, Tikvatenu, put into words his thoughts, published in Imbers first book Barkai, Jerusalem,1886, the poem was subsequently adopted as an anthem by the Hovevei Zion and later by the Zionist Movement at the First Zionist Congress in 1897. Hatikvah was chosen as the anthem of the First Zionist Congress in 1897, the British Mandate government briefly banned its public performance and broadcast from 1919, in response to an increase in Arab anti-Zionist political activity. A former member of the Sonderkommando reports that the song was sung by Czech Jews in the entryway to the Auschwitz-Birkenau gas chamber in 1944. While singing they were beaten by Waffen-SS guards, when the State of Israel was established in 1948, Hatikvah was unofficially proclaimed the national anthem. It did not officially become the anthem until November 2004. In its modern rendering, the text of the anthem incorporates only the first stanza. The predominant theme in the stanzas is the establishment of a sovereign and free nation in the Land of Israel. The melody for Hatikvah derives from La Mantovana, a 16th-century Italian song and its earliest known appearance in print was in the del Biados collection of madrigals. It was later known in early 17th-century Italy as Ballo di Mantova and this melody gained wide currency in Renaissance Europe, under various titles, such as the Pod Krakowem, Cucuruz cu frunza-n sus and the Kateryna Kucheryava. The adaptation of the music for Hatikvah was set by Samuel Cohen in 1888, Cohen himself recalled many years later that he had hummed Hatikvah based on the melody from the song he had heard in Romania, Carul cu boi. The harmony of Hatikvah follows a scale, which is often perceived as mournful in tone and is uncommon in national anthems. As the title The Hope and the words suggest, the import of the song is optimistic, the official text of the national anthem corresponds to the first stanza and amended refrain of the original nine-stanza poem by Naftali Herz Imber. Along with the original Hebrew, the transliteration and English translation are listed below. Below is the text of the original nine-stanza poem Tikvateinu by Naftali Herz Imber
9.
National anthem
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The majority of national anthems are either marches or hymns in style. The countries of Latin America tend towards more operatic pieces, while a handful of countries use a simple fanfare, a national anthem is usually in the national or most common language of the country, whether de facto or official, there are notable exceptions. Amhrán na bhFiann, the anthem of the Republic of Ireland, was written in English, the current national anthem of South Africa is unique in that five of the countrys eleven official languages are used in the same anthem. One of the two national anthems of New Zealand, God Defend New Zealand, is commonly now sung with the first verse in Māori. The tune is the same but the words are not a translation of each other. God Bless Fiji has lyrics in English and Fijian which are not translations of each other, although official, the Fijian version is rarely sung, and it is usually the English version that is performed at international sporting events. There are several countries that do not have official lyrics to their anthems, one of these is the Marcha Real, the anthem of Spain. In 2007 a national competition to write words was held, other anthems with no words include Inno Nazionale della Repubblica, the anthem of San Marino, and that of Kosovo, entitled Europe. National anthems rose to prominence in Europe during the 19th century, the oldest national anthem belongs to the Netherlands and is called the Wilhelmus. It was written between 1568 and 1572 during the Dutch Revolt, but did not become the anthem until 1932. The Japanese anthem, Kimigayo, has the oldest lyrics, which were taken from a Heian period poem, in contrast, the music of Qaumi Taranah, Pakistans national anthem was composed in 1949, preceding its lyrics, which were written in 1952. The Philippine anthem Lupang Hinirang was composed in 1898 as wordless incidental music for the ceremony declaring independence from the Spanish Empire, the Spanish poem Filipinas was written the following year to serve as the anthems lyrics, the current Tagalog version dates to 1962. Spains national anthem, the Marcha Real, written in 1761, was among the first to be adopted as such, in 1770. Denmark adopted the older of its two national anthems, Kong Christian stod ved højen mast, in 1780, and La Marseillaise, Serbia became the first Eastern European nation to have a national anthem – Rise up, Serbia. – in 1804. Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu, the anthem of Kenya, is one of the first national anthems to be specifically commissioned. It was written by the Kenyan Anthem Commission in 1963 to serve as the anthem after independence from the United Kingdom, National anthems are used in a wide array of contexts. Certain etiquette may be involved in the playing of a countrys anthem and these usually involve military honours, standing up/rising, removing headwear etc. In diplomatic situations the rules may be very formal, there may also be royal anthems, presidential anthems, state anthems etc. for special occasions
10.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
11.
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
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The Protocols of the Elders of Zion or The Protocols of the Meetings of the Learned Elders of Zion is an antisemitic fabricated text purporting to describe a Jewish plan for global domination. The forgery was first published in Russia in 1903, translated into multiple languages, Henry Ford funded printing of 500,000 copies that were distributed throughout the U. S. in the 1920s. It is still available today in numerous languages, in print and on the Internet. The Protocols is a document purporting to be factual. Textual evidence shows that it could not have been produced prior to 1901, many of the people whom De Michelis suspects of involvement in the forgery were directly responsible for inciting the pogroms. A major source for the Protocols was Der Judenstaat by Theodor Herzl, paradoxically, early Russian editions of the Protocols assert that they did not come from a Zionist organization. The text, which advocates for Zionism, resembles a parody of Herzls ideas. The Protocols is one of the best-known and most-discussed examples of literary forgery, with analysis, the forgery is an early example of conspiracy theory literature. Joly, a monarchist and legitimist, was imprisoned in France for 15 months as a result of his books publication. Scholars have noted the irony that Dialogue in Hell was itself a plagiarism, at least in part, of a novel by Eugène Sue, Les Mystères du Peuple. Identifiable phrases from Joly constitute 4% of the first half of the first edition, the Protocols 1–19 closely follow the order of Maurice Jolys Dialogues 1–17. For example, Philip Graves brought this plagiarism to light in a series of articles in The Times in 1921, Goedsche was a postal clerk and a spy for the Prussian Secret Police. He had been forced to leave the work due to his part in forging evidence in the prosecution against the Democratic leader Benedict Waldeck in 1849. Following his dismissal, Goedsche began a career as a conservative columnist and his 1868 novel Biarritz contains a chapter called The Jewish Cemetery in Prague and the Council of Representatives of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. In it, Goedsche depicts a clandestine meeting of members of a mysterious rabbinical cabal that is planning a diabolical Jewish conspiracy. At midnight, the Devil appears to contribute his opinions and insight, the chapter closely resembles a scene in Alexandre Dumas Giuseppe Balsamo, in which Joseph Balsamo a. k. a. Alessandro Cagliostro and company plot the Affair of the Diamond Necklace, in 1872 a Russian translation of The Jewish Cemetery in Prague appeared in Saint Petersburg as a separate pamphlet of purported non-fiction. Perpetuation of the myth of the authenticity of Goedsches story, in particular the Rabbis speech, Goedsches chapter may have been an outright plagiarism of Joly, Dumas père, or both
12.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
13.
Zionism
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Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the state in Palestine. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to threats to its continued existence. A variety of Zionism, called cultural Zionism, founded and represented most prominently by Ahad Haam, unlike Herzl, the founder of political Zionism, Ahad Haam strived for Israel to be a Jewish state and not merely a state of Jews. Advocates of Zionism view it as a liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people residing as minorities in a variety of nations to their ancestral homeland. The term Zionism is derived from the word Zion, referring to Jerusalem and these groups were collectively called the Lovers of Zion and were seen to encounter a growing Jewish movement toward assimilation. The first use of the term is attributed to the Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, founder of a nationalist Jewish students movement Kadimah, the common denominator among all Zionists is the claim to Eretz Israel as the national homeland of the Jews and as the legitimate focus for Jewish national self-determination. It is based on ties and religious traditions linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel. Zionism does not have an ideology, but has evolved in a dialogue among a plethora of ideologies, General Zionism, Religious Zionism, Labor Zionism, Revisionist Zionism, Green Zionism. The political movement was established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl in 1897 following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat. At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to Ottoman Palestine, although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe where these alternative movements were rooted, the alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine but the Zionists persisted. The movement was successful in establishing Israel on May 14,1948. The proportion of the worlds Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged, by the early 21st century, more than 40% of the worlds Jews live in Israel, more than in any other country. These two outcomes represent the success of Zionism, and are unmatched by any other Jewish political movement in the past 2,000 years. In some academic studies, Zionism has been analyzed both within the context of diaspora politics and as an example of modern national liberation movements
14.
The Holocaust
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The Holocaust, also referred to as the Shoah, was a genocide in which some six million European Jews were killed by Adolf Hitlers Nazi Germany, and the World War II collaborators with the Nazis. The victims included 1.5 million children, and represented about two-thirds of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe, killings took place throughout German-occupied Europe, as well as within Nazi Germany, and across all territories controlled by its allies. Other victims of Nazi crimes included ethnic Poles and other Slavs, Soviet citizens and Soviet POWs, communists, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovahs Witnesses, some 42,500 detention facilities were utilized in the concentration of victims for the purpose of gross violations of human rights. Over 200,000 people are estimated to have been Holocaust perpetrators, the persecution was carried out in stages, culminating in the policy of extermination of European Jews termed the Final Solution to the Jewish Question. Following Hitlers rise to power, the German government passed laws to exclude Jews from civil society, starting in 1933 the Nazis began to establish a network of concentration camps. After the outbreak of war in 1939 both German and foreign Jews were herded into wartime ghettos, in 1941, as Germany began to conquer new territory in the East, all anti-Jewish measures radicalized. Specialized paramilitary units called Einsatzgruppen murdered around two million Jews in mass shootings actions in less than a year, by mid-1942, victims were being regularly transported by freight trains to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, most were systematically killed in gas chambers. This continued until the end of World War II in Europe in April–May 1945, the most notable exception was the Warsaw Ghetto uprising of 1943, when thousands of poorly-armed Jewish fighters held the Waffen-SS at bay for four weeks. An estimated 20, 000–30,000 Jewish partisans actively fought against the Nazis, French Jews took part in the French Resistance, which conducted a guerilla campaign against the Nazis and Vichy French authorities. Over a hundred armed Jewish uprisings took place, the term holocaust comes from the Greek adjective holókaustos, a variant of holókautos, referring to an animal sacrifice offered to a god in which the whole animal is completely burnt. Often used substantively in apposition with the noun thysia, the term appears in a fragment of pseudo-Callisthenes, writing in Latin, Jerome Latinized the Greek word as a neuter noun holocaustum, using it to translate references to the Jewish burnt offering in his translations of Exodus and Leviticus. In his Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, Richard of Devizes, the English poet John Milton had used the word to denote a conflagration in his 1671 poem Samson Agonistes and the word gradually developed to mean a massacre thereon. The term was used in the 1950s by historians as a translation of the Jewish word shoah to refer specifically to the Nazi genocide of Jews, the television mini-series Holocaust is credited with introducing the term into common parlance after 1978. The biblical word shoah, meaning calamity became the standard Hebrew term for the Holocaust as early as the 1940s, especially in Europe and Israel. Shoah is preferred by some Jews for several reasons including the offensive nature of the word holocaust which they take to refer to the Greek pagan custom. The Nazis used the phrase Final Solution to the Jewish Question, all branches of Germanys bureaucracy were engaged in the logistics that led to the genocides, turning the Third Reich into what one Holocaust scholar, Michael Berenbaum, has called a genocidal state. Every arm of the countrys sophisticated bureaucracy was involved in the killing process, as prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property, which was catalogued and tagged before being sent to Germany to be reused or recycled. Berenbaum writes that the Final Solution of the Jewish question was in the eyes of the perpetrators, through a concealed account, the German National Bank helped launder valuables stolen from the victims
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Orthodox Judaism
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Orthodox Judaism includes movements such as Modern Orthodox Judaism and Ultra-Orthodox or Haredi Judaism. As of 2001, Orthodox Jews and Jews affiliated with an Orthodox synagogue accounted for approximately 50% of British Jews,26. 5% of Israeli Jews, among those affiliated to a synagogue body, Orthodox Jews represent 70% of British Jewry, and 27% of American Jewry. Orthodoxy is not one single movement or school of thought, there is no single rabbinical body to which all rabbis are expected to belong, or any one organization representing member congregations. In the 20th century, a segment of the Orthodox population disagreed with Modern Orthodoxy, such rabbis viewed innovations and modifications within Jewish law and customs with extreme care and caution. This form of Judaism may be referred to as Haredi Judaism or Ultra-Orthodox Judaism, several local Jewish papers, including New Yorks Jewish Week and Philadelphias Jewish Exponent have also dropped use of the term. According to Rabbi David Bar-Hayim, the term Orthodox Judaism was coined as a response to the rise of Reform Judaism in early 19th century Germany, some researchers attempted to argue that the importance of daily practice and punctilious adherence to Jewish Law relegated theoretical issues to an ancillary status. Others dismissed this view entirely, citing the many debates in ancient rabbinic sources which castigated various heresies without any reference to observance, however, while lacking a uniform doctrine, Orthodox Judaism is basically united in affirming several core beliefs, disavowal of which is considered major blasphemy. As in other aspects, Orthodox positions reflect the mainstream of traditional Rabbinic Judaism through the ages, attempts to codify these were undertaken by several medieval authorities, including Saadia Gaon and Joseph Albo. Yet the 13 Fundamentals expounded by Maimonides in his Commentary on the Mishnah, but in recent centuries the 13 Principles became standard, and are considered binding and cardinal by Orthodox authorities in a virtually universal manner. More specific doctrines refer to the times of Godly salvation and afterlife – in Judaism, Olam haBa and these include belief in divine reward for those who observe the Lords commandments and likewise, punishment meted unto the transgressors. Maimonides reserved one article for this tenet, oft mentioned in sources, stating merely that God rewards. This issue has been subject to debate and interpretation. Nahmanides offered a comprehensive system, with divine remuneration for better or worse both in this world, via natural means, and in a celestial heaven and hell. One of the most important teachings concerning afterlife in Judaism is the Resurrection of the Dead, the Talmud listed deniers of this faith as heretics who shall have no part in the World to Come. Maimoindes specified it apart as a separate article and this particular notion is closely linked with Reward and Punishment. They will live ordinary, corporeal life but will not die, then all mankind shall be resuscitated and be given each his just due. The eternal reward shall be preserved for their soul, as beforehand, preceding the miraculous events linked with afterlife is the Advent of the Messiah, also independently listed among Maimonides Thirteen as a tenet of faith. Orthodox Judaism maintains the historical understanding of Jewish identity, a Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition
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Reform Judaism
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It is characterized by a lesser stress on ritual and personal observance, regarding Jewish Law as of basically non-binding nature, and great openness to external influences and progressive values. The origins of Reform Judaism lay in 19th-century Germany, where its early principles were formulated by Rabbi Abraham Geiger and its greatest center today is in North America. They warrant and obligate further modification and reject any fixed, permanent set of beliefs, a clear description became particularly challenging since the turn toward a policy favouring inclusiveness over a coherent theology in the 1970s. This largely overlapped with what researchers termed as the transition from Classical to New Reform in America, the movement ceased stressing principles and core beliefs, focusing more on the personal spiritual experience. This shift was not accompanied by a new doctrine or by the abandonment of the former. The leadership allowed and encouraged a variety of positions, from selective adoption of halakhic observance to elements approaching religious humanism. The declining importance of the foundation, in favour of pluralism and equivocalness. It also diversified Reform to a degree which made it hard to formulate a definition of it. Early Reform thinkers in Germany clung to this precept, the 1885 Pittsburgh Platform described the One God, the God-Idea as taught in our sacred Scripture as consecrating the Jewish people to be its priests. It was grounded on a wholly theistic understanding, although the term God-idea was excoriated by outside critics, so was the 1937 Columbus Declaration of Principles, which spoke of a One, living God who rules the world. Even the 1976 San Francisco Centenary Perspective, drafted at a time of discord among Reform theologians. Challenges of modern culture have made steady belief difficult for some, nevertheless, we ground our lives, personally and communally, on Gods reality. The 1999 Pittsburgh Statement of Principles declared the reality and oneness of God, British Liberal Judaism affirms the Jewish conception of God, One and indivisible, transcendent and immanent, Creator and Sustainer. All the People Israel are a link in the chain of revelation, capable of reaching new insights. The chief promulgator of this concept was Abraham Geiger, generally considered founder of the movement, while also subject to change and new understanding, the basic premise of progressive revelation endures in Reform thought. This highly rationalistic view virtually identified human reason and intellect with divine action, in the decades around World War II, this rationalistic and optimistic theology was challenged and questioned. The senior representative of postwar Reform theology, Eugene Borowitz, regarded theophany in postmodern terms and closely linked it with human experience. He rejected the notion of revelation in the meaning of comparing human betterment with divine inspiration, stressing that past experiences were unique
17.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
18.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
19.
William Hechler
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William Henry Hechler was born on 10 January 1845 in the Hindu Holy city of Benares, India. His father was Dietrich Hechler born in Vogisheim, Germany, Dietrich moved to Islington, near London, becoming an Anglican priest, studying at an Anglican seminary in preparation for overseas missionary service. While in London, he married Catherine Cleeve Palmer and they were sent to India by the Church Missionary Society. After the death of his mother in 1850, Hechler attended boarding schools in London, Hechler was intelligent, energetic and demonstrated a perceptive ability in religious studies and remarkable skills in languages. His bi-national education cemented his German-English heritage, over his lifetime he demonstrated proficiency in English, German, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Arabic, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French and two African dialects. In 1854, Dietrich Hechler returned to London because of health reasons and his fathers Philo-Semitism deeply influenced William. The family relocated to Karlsruhe, Germany in 1866, williams interest in Jewish studies and Palestine evolved under the influence of developing European Evangelical Restorationist theology. He began studying and developing his own theories and timelines for the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. Completing his studies at Turbingen and Islington, in 1870, William, like his father, an Anglophile as well as a Germanophile, Hechler enlisted in the German army during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. He served as a clergyman and medical aide and he was wounded and was twice decorated with distinction. At the end of the war, Hechler accepted a missionary post in Lagos, after contracting malaria, Hechler returned to Germany where his father did missionary work with Jews in Karlsruhe. Hechler was sufficiently recovered by 1873 that he became the tutor to the children of Frederick I. Through Friedrichs son Ludwig, Hechler developed a relationship with the Grand Dukes nephew, the young Hohenzollern prince, while at the Grand Dukes court, Hechler expounded on his Restorationist views. Though more pragmatic, Hechlers Restorationist theology resonated with the Grand Duke, Prince Ludwig of Baden died prematurely in 1876. Hechler left the Grand Dukes court to accept a position in the Irish County of Cork and they were had four children, Hannah, Amy Victoria, Ludwig Ernest and Miriam Ada. Hechlers position in Cork was not successful and he returned to London in 1879 as an official minister of the Church of England. Two years later, he became Metropolitan Secretary of the Church Pastoral Aid Society In his new position, he had the opportunity to expand his interest in Jewish affairs and Restorationism. In 1882, in his capacity, he traveled to Germany, France
20.
Henry Dunant
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Henry Dunant, also known as Henri Dunant, was the founder of the Red Cross, and the first recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. The 1864 Geneva Convention was based on Dunants ideas, in 1901 he received the first Nobel Peace Prize together with Frédéric Passy, making Dunant the first Swiss Nobel laureate. Dunant was a Swiss businessman and social activist, during a business trip in 1859, he was witness to the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino in modern-day Italy. He recorded his memories and experiences in the book A Memory of Solferino which inspired the creation of the International Committee of the Red Cross in 1863, Dunant was born in Geneva, Switzerland, the first son of businessman Jean-Jacques Dunant and Antoinette Dunant-Colladon. His family was devoutly Calvinist and had significant influence in Geneva society and his parents stressed the value of social work, and his father was active helping orphans and parolees, while his mother worked with the sick and poor. His father worked in a prison and an orphanage, Dunant grew up during the period of religious awakening known as the Réveil, and at age 18 he joined the Geneva Society for Alms giving. On 30 November 1852, he founded the Geneva chapter of the YMCA, in 1849, at age 21, Dunant was forced to leave the Collège Calvin due to poor grades, and he began an apprenticeship with the money-changing firm Lullin et Sautter. After its successful conclusion, he remained as an employee of the bank, in 1853, Dunant visited Algeria, Tunisia, and Sicily, on assignment with a company devoted to the colonies of Setif. Despite little experience, he fulfilled the assignment. Inspired by the trip, he wrote his first book with the title An Account of the Regency in Tunis, however, the land and water rights were not clearly assigned, and the colonial authorities were not especially cooperative. As a result, Dunant decided to directly to French emperor Napoléon III. France was fighting on the side of Piedmont-Sardinia against Austria, who had occupied much of todays Italy, napoleons headquarters were located in the small city of Solferino. Dunant wrote a book full of praise for Napoleon III with the intention to present it to the emperor. Dunant arrived in Solferino on the evening of 24 June 1859, twenty-three thousand wounded, dying and dead remained on the battlefield, and there appeared to be little attempt to provide care. Shocked, Dunant himself took the initiative to organize the population, especially the women and girls, to provide assistance to the injured. They lacked sufficient materials and supplies, and Dunant himself organized the purchase of needed materials and he convinced the population to service the wounded without regard to their side in the conflict as per the slogan Tutti fratelli coined by the women of nearby city Castiglione delle Stiviere. He also succeeded in gaining the release of Austrian doctors captured by the French, after returning to Geneva early in July, Dunant decided to write a book about his experiences, which he titled Un Souvenir de Solferino. It was published in 1862 in an edition of 1,600 copies and was printed at Dunants own expense, within the book, he described the battle, its costs, and the chaotic circumstances afterwards
21.
Formal wear
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Formal wear and formal dress wear are general terms for clothing suitable for formal social events, such as a wedding, formal garden party or dinner, débutante cotillion, dance, or race. A dress code is a set of governing a certain combination of clothing, some examples are black tie. Formal dress is the grouping of all the codes which govern clothes worn to formal events. The dress code considered formal in the evening is white tie, in the UK, morning dress is standard formal day time clothing, but in the US/Canada morning dress is rare, having been replaced with the stroller and then the lounge, or business suit. Morning dress, however, does remain in certain settings in Europe, Australia, the continual relaxation of formal dress standards since the end of the Second World War is redefining what clothes constitute formal and semi-formal dress. The original term full dress was used in the 19th century and they indicated different clothes, but correspond somewhat to the 21st-century structure of formal, semi-formal, and informal. Moreover, modern advisers recommend black tie for events traditionally considered to require formal dress, particularly in America, but also around the Western world, there has also been a relaxation regarding the dress codes themselves, with full formal dress almost unheard of in many places. The dress codes counted as formal wear are the dress codes of white tie for evenings. Although some consider black tie for the evening and strollers for daytime, as formal, they are semi-formal attires, the clothes dictated by these dress codes for women are ball gowns. For many uniforms, the clothing is unisex. Examples of this are law court dress, academic and graduate dress, formal military uniforms, women wear a variety of dresses. See ball gowns, evening gowns, and wedding dresses, business attire for women has a developmental history of its own and generally looks different from formal dress for social occasions. Morning dress is the formal dress code, consisting chiefly for men of a morning coat, waistcoat, and striped trousers. In Western formal state ceremonies and social functions, diplomats, foreign dignitaries, many cultures have formal evening and day dress, for example, Daura-Suruwal — worn as formal dress by men in Nepal. Scottish kilt — worn as formal dress by men in Scotland or of Scottish descent Bunad — worn as formal dress by women and men in Norway, folkdräkt — worn as formal dress by women and men in Sweden. Hátíðarbúningur — worn by men in Iceland to formal events such as state dinners, dhoti — worn by men in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka. Sari — worn by women in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, shalwar kameez — worn by both men and women in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. Sherwani worn by men in India and Pakistan Dashiki — worn by men in West African countries, barong Tagalog — worn by men in the Philippines
22.
Tailcoat
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A tailcoat is a coat with the front of the skirt cut away, so as to leave only the rear section of the skirt, known as the tails. Although there are different types of tailcoat, the term tailcoat is popularly taken to be synonymous with the type of dress coat still worn today in the evening with white tie. This dress coat, one of the two main surviving tailcoats, is an evening coat with a squarely cut away front. The other one is the coat, which is cut away at the front in a gradual taper. It is commonly referred to as just a tailcoat, but amongst tailors, the modern dress coat is an evolution of the coat that was once both day and evening dress. It became increasingly popular from around the late 1790s and was widespread during the British Regency. The eighteenth century dress coat was supplanted in the 1850s as formal day wear by the frock coat, in the Regency period, the dress coat with gilt buttons was always worn with non-matching trousers, pantaloons or breeches. Since the Victorian era, the dress coat for evening wear has been worn with matching trousers of the same cloth with two stripes of braiding down the side. The resulting suit is referred to by tailors as a dress suit. A dress coat is waist length in the front and sides, sometimes there is a pocket on the inside to hold gloves. Since around the 1840s the dress coat has lacked outside side pockets, since the early twentieth century it has become acceptable to have a welted pocket on the outside of the chest to hold a pocket square, but prior to this dress coats lacked any outer pockets. The front of the skirt is squarely cut away, since around the 1830s the coat has been constructed with a waist seam that allows greater waist suppression. From the Victorian era, the revers has taken facings in silk on the lapels, although it is double-breasted, since the 1870s, the dress coat no longer fastens in the front. As a result, although there are two rows of buttons, these are all non-functional, serving only a decorative function, additionally, a top hat, silk dress scarf, and white dress gloves are also seen as acceptable. The lapels are usually pointed, not step, since the coat is now worn as formalwear. When it was first introduced, the step lapel was common, the coat can be grey or black as part of morning dress, and is usually worn with striped, or very occasionally checked, trousers. The morning coat may also be worn as part of a morning suit, the modern morning coat is a mans coat worn as the principal item in morning dress. The name derives from morning nineteenth century horseback riding exercise for gentlemen and it was regarded as an informal form of half dress
23.
White tie
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White tie, also called full evening dress, is the most formal evening dress code in Western high fashion. For men, it consists of a black tailcoat worn over a white starched shirt, marcella waistcoat, high-waisted black trousers and patent leather shoes complete the outfit, although decorations can be worn and a top hat and white scarf are acceptable as accessories. Women wear full evening or ball gown and, optionally, jewellery, tiaras. By the 1840s the minimalist black and white combination had become the standard evening wear for upper class men, despite the emergence of the dinner jacket as a less formal and more comfortable alternative in the 1880s, full evening dress remained the staple. From the 1920s onward black tie slowly replaced white tie as the default evening wear for important events, the Vienna Opera Ball and the Nobel Prize ceremony are white tie events, and some European universities retain it as the dress code for doctoral conferment ceremonies. Over this is worn a black single-breasted barathea wool or ultrafine herringbone tailcoat with silk peak lapels, the trousers have double-braiding down the outside of both legs, while the correct shoes are patent leather or highly polished black dress shoes. Although a white scarf remains popular in winter, the white gloves, top hats, canes. Women wear an evening dress, with the option of jewellery, a tiara, a pashmina, coat or wrap. The waistcoat should not be visible below the front of the tailcoat, as one style writer for GQ magazine summarises The simple rule of thumb is that you should only ever see black and white not black, white and black again. Decorations may also be worn and, unlike Debretts, Cambridge Universitys Varsity student newspaper suggests a top hat, opera cloak and silver-topped cane are acceptable accessories. As the 18th century drew to a close, high society began adopting more austere clothing which drew inspiration from the dark hues and simpler designs adopted by country gentlemen. From around 1815, a garment called the frock coat became increasingly popular and was eventually established, along with the morning coat. The dress coat, meanwhile, became reserved for wear in the evening, the dandy Beau Brummell adopted a minimalistic approach to evening wear—a white waistcoat, dark blue tailcoat, black pantaloons and striped stockings. Although Brummell felt black an ugly colour for evening dress coats, it was adopted by other dandies, like Charles Baudelaire, over the course of the 19th century, the monotone colour scheme became a codified standard for evening events after 6pm in upper class circles. The styles evolved and evening dress consisted of a dress coat and trousers, white or black waistcoat. Despite its growing popularity, the dinner jacket remained the reserve of family dinners, by the turn of the 20th century, full evening dress consisted of a black tailcoat made of heavy fabric weighing 16-18 oz per yard. According to The Delineator, the years after World War I saw white tie almost abandoned, White tie was worn with slim-cut trousers in the early 1920s, by 1926, wide-lapelled tailcoats and double-breasted waistcoats were in vogue. White tie is worn in the early 21st century
24.
First Zionist Congress
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The First Zionist Congress was the inaugural congress of the Zionist Organization held in Basel, Switzerland, from August 29 to August 31,1897. It was convened and chaired by Theodor Herzl, the founder of the modern Zionism movement, the Congress formulated a Zionist platform, known as the Basel program, and founded the Zionist Organization. It also adopted the Hatikvah as its anthem, the first Zionist Congress was convened by Theodor Herzl as a symbolic parliament for the small minority of Jewry in agreement with the implementation of Zionist goals. As a result of the opposition by both the Orthodox and Reform community leadership, the Congress, which was originally planned in Munich. The Congress took place in the hall of the Municipal Casino on August 29,1897. Ten non-Jews were also in attendance and were expected to abstain from voting, seventeen women attended the Congress, some of them in their own capacity, others accompanying representatives. While women participated in the First Zionist Congress, they did not have voting rights, they were accorded full rights at the Second Zionist Congress. Following a festive opening in which the representatives arrived in formal dress, tails and white tie, the principal items on the agenda were the presentation of Herzls plans, the establishment of the Zionist Organization and the declaration of Zionisms goals-the Basel program. At the Congress, Herzl was elected President of the Zionist Organization, with Max Nordau, also, an Inner Actions Committee and a Greater Actions Committee were elected to run the affairs of the movement between Congresses. This gave clear expression to Herzls political Zionist vision, in contrast with the settlement orientated activities of the loosely organized Hovevei Zion. The program, which came to be known as the Basel program and its establishment was suggested at the First Zionist Congress in 1897, the first definite steps toward its institution were taken at the Second Zionist Congress in Cologne, Germany in May,1898. The Zionist Commission was a group established by Chaim Weizmann. It carried out surveys of Palestine and aided the repatriation of Jews sent into exile by the Ottoman Turks during World War I. It expanded the ZOs Palestine office, which was established in 1907, into small departments for agriculture, settlement, education, land, finance, immigration, the Zionist Congress met every year between 1897 and 1901, then except for war years, every second year. In 1942, an Extraordinary Zionist Conference was held and announced a fundamental departure from traditional Zionist policy with its demand that Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth and it became the official Zionist stand on the ultimate aim of the movement. Since the Second World War, meetings have been held every four years and since the creation of the State of Israel. Types of Zionism World Zionist Congress Zionist Organization, renamed World Zionist Organization in 1960 Zionism The Jewish Encyclopedia, Basel Program
25.
Max Nordau
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Max Simon Nordau, was a Zionist leader, physician, author, and social critic. He was a co-founder of the World Zionist Organization together with Theodor Herzl, as a social critic, he wrote a number of controversial books, including The Conventional Lies of Our Civilisation, Degeneration, and Paradoxes. Although not his most popular or successful work whilst alive, Degeneration is the book most often remembered and cited today, Nordau was born Simon Maximilian, or Simcha Südfeld, on 29 July 1849 in Pest, then part of the Austrian Empire. His father was Gabriel Südfeld, a Hebrew poet and his family were religious Orthodox Jews and he attended a Jewish elementary school, then a Catholic grammar school, before receiving a medical degree from the University of Budapest in 1872. He then traveled for six years, visiting the countries of Europe. He changed his name before going to Berlin in 1873, in 1878, he began the practice of medicine in Budapest. In 1880 he went to Paris and he worked in Paris as a correspondent for Die Neue Freie Presse, and it was in Paris that he spent most of his life. Before entering the university, he had begun his career at Budapest as contributor. Subsequently, he was a writer and correspondent for several other newspapers. His newspaper writings were collected and furnished the material for his earlier books and he was a disciple of Cesare Lombroso. Nordau was an example of an assimilated and acculturated European Jew. Despite being raised religious, Nordau was an agnostic, judaism remained a mere memory and since then I have always felt as a German and as a German only. Max Nordau was the father of painter Maxa Nordau, Nordaus conversion to Zionism was eventually triggered by the Dreyfus Affair. Many Jews, amongst them Theodor Herzl, saw in the Dreyfus Affair evidence of the universality of antisemitism, Nordau went on to play a major role in the World Zionist Organisation, indeed Nordaus relative fame certainly helped bring attention to the Zionist movement. He can be credited with giving the organisation a democratic character, when World War I broke out he, a native of Hungary, was accused of German sympathies. He denied the charge and afterward went to reside in Madrid, an attempt to assassinate him was made in the latter part of 1903. In Réflexions sur la question gay, Didier Eribon refers to a section in Nordau’s book targeting Oscar Wilde in aggressive terms, Wilde loves immorality, sin. According to Eribon, the two volumes of Degeneration are centred around a description of the artistic and literary currents of an end-of-century that was leading society to ruin, Nordau attacks symbolists, mystics, Pre-Raphaelites, Wagnerism, Aestheticism, Decadentism
26.
Galata
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Galata was a neighbourhood opposite Constantinople, located at the northern shore of the Golden Horn, the inlet which separates it from the historic peninsula of old Constantinople. The Golden Horn is crossed by bridges, most notably the Galata Bridge. The medieval citadel of Galata was a colony of the Republic of Genoa between 1273 and 1453, the famous Galata Tower was built by the Genoese in 1348 at the northernmost and highest point of the citadel. At present, Galata is a quarter within the borough of Beyoğlu in Istanbul, there are several theories concerning the origin of the name Galata. In historic documents, Galata is often called Pera, which comes from the old Greek name for the place, Peran en Sykais, the quarter first appears in Late Antiquity as Sykai or Sycae. By the time the Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae was compiled in ca.425 AD, according to the Notitia, it featured public baths and a forum built by Emperor Honorius, a theatre, a porticoed street and 435 mansions. It is also probable that the settlement was enclosed by walls in the 5th century, Sykai received full city rights under Justinian I, who renamed it Iustinianopolis, but declined and was probably abandoned in the 7th century. Only the large tower, Megalos Pyrgos which controlled the northern end of the sea chain that blocked the entrance to the Golden Horn remained, in the 11th century, the quarter housed the citys Jewish community, which came to number some 2,500 people. In 1171, a new Genoese settlement in the area was attacked, the kastellion and the Jewish quarter were seized and destroyed in 1203 by the Catholic crusaders during the Fourth Crusade, shortly before the sack of Constantinople. In 1233, during the subsequent Latin Empire, a small Catholic chapel dedicated to St. Paul was built in place of a 6th-century Byzantine church in Galata. In 1407, Pope Gregory XII, in order to ensure the maintenance of the church, in 1261, the quarter was retaken by the Byzantines, but Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos granted it to the Genoese in 1267 in accordance with the Treaty of Nymphaeum. The precise limits of the Genoese colony were stipulated in 1303, the Genoese however disregarded this, and through subsequent expansions of the walls, enlarged the area of their settlement. At present, only a portion of the Genoese walls are still standing. Bankalar Caddesi has rows of Ottoman-era bank buildings, including the headquarters of the Ottoman Central Bank, several ornaments that were originally on the facade of the Genoese Palace were used to embellish these 19th-century bank buildings in the late Ottoman period. The seaside mansion of the Camondo family, popularly known as the Camondo Palace, was built between 1865 and 1869 and designed by architect Sarkis Balyan and it is located on the northern shore of the Golden Horn, within the nearby Kasımpaşa quarter to the west of Galata. It later became the headquarters of the Ministry of the Navy during the late Ottoman period, Galatasaray S. K. Galatasaray literally means Galata Palace. La Géographie Ecclésiastique de lEmpire Byzantin, part, Le Siège de Constantinople et le Patriarcat Oecuménique. 3rd Vol. Les Églises et les Monastères, petite Guide a travers les Monuments Byzantins et Turcs
27.
Bingen am Rhein
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Bingen am Rhein is a town in the Mainz-Bingen district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The settlements original name was Bingium, a Celtic word that may have meant hole in the rock, Bingen was the starting point for the Via Ausonia, a Roman military road that linked the town with Trier. Bingen is well known for, among other things, the story about the Mouse Tower, Bingen am Rhein was also the birthplace of the celebrated poet Stefan George, along with many other influential figures. Bingen is situated just southeast of the Rhine knee by the Bingen Forest, rising to the north on the other side of the Rhine is the Rheingau range, the Taunuss southwesternmost outcrop. In Bingen the river Nahe empties into the Rhine Gorge, Bingen forms the southern limit of the UNESCO Rhine Gorge World Heritage Site. The Rochusberg is nearly surrounded by the town site. Even before the Romans came, people lived here, because the location favoured transport, in the early first century AD, Roman troops were stationed in Bingen on the Rhine Valley Road. They changed the name to Bingium. There the Romans erected a bridge across the Nahe and constructed a bridgehead castrum. A Roman Mithraic monument, which included a sculpture representing the nativity of Mithra from a rock, was discovered in Bingen. The presbyter Aetherius of Bingen founded sometime between 335 and 360 a firmly Christian community, bearing witness to this time is Aetheriuss gravestone, which can still be seen in Saint Martins Basilica. After the fall of the Limes, the became a Frankish royal estate. Under Otto III the Binger Kammerforst came into being, under Willigis, some way up the river Nahe, the stone Drususbrücke was built. The inhabitants of Bingen strove time and again for independence, which led in 1165 through disputes between the Archbishop of Mainz and the Emperor to destruction, in the 13th century, Bingen was a member of the Rhenish League of Towns. The building of Klopp Castle in the mid 13th century could well be seen as being tied in with this development, a last attempt was the towns unsuccessful participation in the German Peasants War in 1525. From the Archbishop the Cathedral Chapter of Mainz acquired the town in two halves in 1424 and 1438, until the late 18th century Bingen remained under its administration. Like many towns in the valley, Bingen suffered several town fires, from 1792 to 1813, the town was, as part of the département of Mont-Tonnerre, French after French Revolutionary troops had occupied the Rhines left bank. On 7 June 1969, the formerly Prussian municipality of Bingerbrück was amalgamated, on 22 April 1972 came Dromersheims and Sponsheims amalgamation with Bingen
28.
Blaj
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Blaj is a city in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania. It has a population of 20,630 inhabitants, the landmark of the city is the fact that it was the principal religious and cultural center of the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church in Transylvania. Blaj is first mentioned in 1271 as Villa Herbordi, after the deed of a Count Herbod, in 1313, the domain passed to Herbods son Blasius Cserei. Started as a hamlet for the twenty families of servants of the nobles court, Blaj is the principal religious and cultural center of Greek Catholics in Transylvania. At 27 October 1687 begins the history of the Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic and it all started at the end of the treaty through which Transylvania was entering under the protection of Austria, renouncing the protection of the Turkish Empire. The first public school in Romanian was established in Blaj in 1754, Blaj was the first place to have Romanian written with Latin alphabet instead of Cyrillic in which it had traditionally been written. Blaj was also a center for the Romanian Age of Enlightenment, thus Blaj gained the nickname The Little Rome. In 1848, Câmpia Libertății in Blaj was where over 40,000 Romanians met to protest Transylvania becoming a part of Hungary, Blaj lies at the confluence of the two Târnava Rivers, in a wine-growing region. The city has a temperate climate, characteristic for the Transylvanian Plateau. The castle of the Bethlen dynasty is a popular tourist site near Blaj, other sights worth visiting include the Metropolitan Palace, the Holy Trinity Cathedral, the Buna Vestire Monastery, the Greeks Church, the Liberty Field, and Avram Iancus oak. Blaj is twinned with, Allschwil Morlanwelz Recanati Bethlen Castle Câmpia Libertății Blaj - Sunrise of Romanians
29.
Nathan Birnbaum
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Nathan Birnbaum is also the birth name of comedian George Burns. Nathan Birnbaum was an Austrian writer and journalist, Jewish thinker and he married Rosa Korngut and they had three sons, Solomon Birnbaum, Menachem Birnbaum, and Uriel Birnbaum. Birnbaum was born in Vienna into an Eastern European Jewish family with roots in Austrian Galicia, from 1882 to 1886, Birnbaum studied law, philosophy and Near Eastern studies at the University of Vienna. In 1883, at the age of 19, he founded Kadimah, while still a student, he founded and published the periodical Selbstemanzipation. Often written in part by Birnbaum himself. In it he coined the terms Zionistic, Zionist, Zionism, Birnbaum played a prominent part in the First Zionist Congress where he was elected Secretary-General of the Zionist Organization. He was associated with and was one of the most important representatives of the cultural, rather than political, however, he left the Zionist Organization not long after the Congress. He was unhappy with its view of Diaspora Jewry and the transformation of the Zionist ideals into a party machine. His next phase was to advocate Jewish cultural autonomy, or Golus nationalism and he advocated for the Jews to be recognized as a people among the other peoples of the empire, with Yiddish as their official language. He ran on behalf of the Jews as candidate for the Austrian parliament, although he had a majority of the votes, his election was thwarted by corruption of the electoral process by the local Polish faction. He was chief convener of the Conference for the Yiddish Language held in Czernowitz and it was the first Yiddish-language conference ever to take place. At the conference, he took the place of his colleague, from about 1912 onwards, Birnbaum became increasingly interested in Orthodox Judaism, and he bcame a fully observant Orthodox Jew in about 1916. He continued to act particularly as an advocate for the Jews of eastern Europe, from 1919 to 1922, he was General Secretary of the Agudas Yisroel, a widely-spread and influential Orthodox Jewish organization. He founded the society of the Olim, a society with a program of action dedicated to the spiritual ascent of the Jewish people. It is surely not necessary that we should, but there is no need first to create this world organization of religious Jews. The world knows its name, it is Agudas Yisroel and he continued to write and lecture. There, Birnbaum, van Leeuwen, and banker Daniel Wolfe published the anti-Zionist newspaper Der Ruf, at the same time, their son Solomon and his family fled from Hamburg to England. Their other son, Uriel, an artist and poet, van Leeuwen, also an Orthodox Jew, became a Dutch anti-Zionist leader and Bergen-Belsen survivor
30.
Max Bodenheimer
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Max Isidor Bodenheimer was a lawyer and one of the main figures in German Zionism. An associate of Theodor Herzl, he was the first president of the Zionist Federation of Germany, after his flight in 1933 from Nazi Germany, and a short sojourn in Holland, he settled in Palestine in 1935. Max Bodenheimer was born on 12 March 1865 in Stuttgart to an assimilated Jewish family and he studied at Tübingen, Strassburg, Berlin and Freiburg universities from 1884 to 1889. In 1890 he moved to Cologne to start a law practice, in 1891 he published his first Zionist article in the weekly Die Menorah. In Cologne he met David Wolffsohn and the two close friends. Bodenheimer and Wolffsohn participated in various Zionist groups and activities in Cologne, at that time Bodenheimer began correspondence with Theodor Herzl. When Bodenheimer died, the national institutions flew flags at half staff, Bodenheimer participated at the 1st Zionist Congress and was elected to be a member of the Inner Actions Committee. In 1898 he visited Palestine as a member of the delegation which accompanied Herzl to meet the German Emperor, when the First World War broke out, he moved the JNF offices from Cologne to The Hague. In August 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, he submitted an Exposé on the Synchronization of German and he set out his vision to Count Hutten-Czapski of the General Staff, chief of sabotage operations on the eastern front. With support from the General Staff and the Wilhelmstrasse, he established the German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews, together with 6 German Zionist colleagues and he resigned his chairmanship of the Jewish National Fund. It seems like he was the author of the conception of the establishment of the League of East European States - a German client state with autonomous Jewish cooperation. Like other veterans from the Herzl period, Bodenheimer’s status declined after the First World War, in August 1929, joins the Revisionist party led by Zeev Jabotinsky. Bodenheimer attended the 17th Zionist Congress as a representative of the Revisionist party, during the Congress, a sharp controversy arose between the majority and the Revisionist party concerning the ultimate goal of Zionism, and the Revisionists left the Congress. This was the last Zionist Congress in which Bodenheimer participated, in 1935 Bodenheimer immigrated to Palestine and settled in Jerusalem, where he began writing his memoirs. Edited by Henriette Hannah Bodenheimer, New York, London, Thomas Yoseloff,1963, Bodenheimer, Max I. and Bodenheimer, Henriette Hannah, Die Zionisten und das Kaiserliche Deutschland, Bensbert, Schaeube Verlag,1972. Bodenheimer, So wurde Israel, Aus der Geschichte der zionistischen Bewegung, Erinnerungen, syrien ein Zufluchtsort der russischen Juden. Hamburg, Verlag des Deutsch-Israelitischen Familienblattes Die Menorah,1891, the Society for the Commemoration of Max I. Bodenheimer and Hannah Henriette Bodenheimer The personal papers of Max Bodenheimer are kept at the Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem, the notation of the record group is A15
31.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
32.
Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
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From 1804 to 1918 it was a crownland of the Austrian Empire. After the reforms of 1867, it became an ethnic Pole-administered autonomous unit under the Austrian crown, the country was carved from the entire south-western part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Among the many titles of the princes of Hungary was ruler of Galicia and Lodomeria. The name Galicia is the Latinized form of Halych, a principality of the medieval Ruthenia, Lodomeria, is also a Latinized form of Volodymyr-Volynsky that was founded in the 10th century by the Vladimir the Great and until the partitions of Poland was known simply as Volodymyr. King of Galicia and Lodomeria was a title that King of Hungary adopted during his conquest of the region back in the 12th century. This historical region in Eastern Europe is divided today between Poland and Ukraine, the nucleus of historic Galicia consists of the modern Lviv, Ternopil, and Ivano-Frankivsk regions of western Ukraine. In 1772, Galicia was the largest part of the area annexed by the Habsburg Monarchy in the First Partition of Poland. As such, the Austrian region of Poland and what was later to become Ukraine was known as the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria to underline the Hungarian claims to the country. However, after the Third Partition of Poland, a portion of the ethnically Polish lands to the west was also added to the province. During the first decades of Austrian rule, Galicia was firmly governed from Vienna, the aristocracy was guaranteed its rights, but these rights were considerably circumscribed. The former serfs were no longer mere chattel, but became subjects of law and were granted personal freedoms. Their labour obligations were defined and limited, and they could bypass the lords, at the same time, however, the Austrian Empire extracted from Galicia considerable wealth and conscripted large numbers of the peasant population into its armed services. The 1820s and 1830s were a period of bureaucratic rule overseen from Vienna, most administrative positions were filled by German-speakers, including German-speaking Czechs, although some of their children were already becoming Polonized. After the failure of the November insurrection in Russian Poland in 1830–31, in which a few thousand Galician volunteers participated, the insurrection occurred in the western, Polish-populated part of Galicia. In the same period, a sense of national awakening began to develop among the Ruthenians in the part of Galicia. In 1837, the so-called Ruthenian Triad led by Markiian Shashkevych, published The Nymph of the Dniester, alarmed by such democratism, the Austrian authorities and the Greek Catholic Metropolitan banned the book. In 1848, revolutionary actions broke out in Vienna and other parts of the Austrian Empire, in Lemberg, a Polish National Council, and then later, a Ukrainian, or Ruthenian Supreme Council were formed. Even before Vienna had acted, the remnants of serfdom were abolished by the Governor, Franz Stadion, eventually, Lemberg was bombarded by imperial troops and the revolution put down completely
33.
Duchy of Bukovina
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The Duchy of Bukovina was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire from 1849 and a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria–Hungary from 1867 until 1918. Another German name for the region, das Buchenland, is used in poetry. In Romanian, in literary or poetic contexts, the name Țara Fagilor is sometimes used, in English, an alternative form is The Bukovina, increasingly an archaism, which, however, is found in older literature. After the Mongol invasion of Europe, the Bukovina lands since the 14th century had been part of the Principality of Moldavia, in the 16th century, Moldavia came under Ottoman influence, but still retaining its autonomy. During the early 18th century, Moldavia became the target of the Russian Empires southwards expansion, in 1769, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74, Moldavia was occupied by Russian troops. Following the First Partition of Poland in 1772, the Habsburg Monarchy had aimed at a connection from the Principality of Transylvania to the newly acquired Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. On 2 July 1776, at Palamutka, Austrians and Ottomans signed a convention, Austria giving back 59 of the previously occupied villages. For opposing and protesting the annexation of the part of Moldavia by the Habsburg Empire. So far, the Moldavian nobility had traditionally formed the class in that territory. In the mid 19th century the town of Sadhora became the centre of the Hasidic Sadigura dynasty, the immigration process promoted the further economic development of the multi-ethnic country, though it remained a remote eastern outpost of the Danube Monarchy. In 1804, the became part of the newly established Austrian Empire. After the political turmoil of the 1848 revolutions, the estates urged the Vienna government to elevate the Bukovina to a separate Austrian Kronland. With effect of 4 March 1849, the former Kreis was declared the Herzogtum Bukowina and it was governed by a k. k. Statthalter appointed by the emperor, with his residence at Czernowitz from 1850. In 1860 the Bukovina was again amalgamated with Galicia, but reinstated as a province once again according to the 1861 February Patent issued by Emperor Franz Joseph I. The reinstated crown land received its own Landtag diet including a Landesausschuss executive authority, in 1867, with the re-organisation of the Austrian Empire as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, it became part of the Cisleithanian territories. Nine delegates represented the Bukovina in the Austrian House of Deputies, the main military force in the region during peace time was the 22nd Infantry Regiment at Czernowitz, at that time the only k. k. Landwehr regiment with a Romanian majority, as soon as hostilities began, however, new units were formed from the locally-recruited population
34.
Samuel Mohilever
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Samuel Mohilever, also Shmuel Mohilever, was a rabbi, pioneer of Religious Zionism and one of the founders of the Hovevei Zion movement. Mohilever was born in Głębokie and studied in the Volozhin yeshiva, after the pogroms following the May Laws, he helped found the Hovevei Zion in Warsaw, and convinced Baron Edmond James de Rothschild to financially support a settlement called Ekron. Mohilever was made the Rabbi of Białystok in 1883 and he dedicated himself to promote Zionism by convincing Białystoks Jews to move to Petah Tikva, then a struggling settlement. In 1884, Mohilever was elected to the presidency of the Hovevei Zion conference, Mohilever served as chairman in the 1887 and 1889 conferences. Many of his contributions were of a religious nature - Mohilever insured that Jewish farming in Palestine complied with Jewish laws and tradition by setting up a rabbinical committee to oversee it. In 1893 there were a series of differences between Rabbi Mohilever and the offices of Chovevei LTzion in Odessa, which was largely secularist. This led to a decision for Chovevei LTzion to make another Centre under Mohilevers leadership and this new branch, was named Mizrachi. Their task was to educate orthodox Jews about the concept of Zionism, but despite the religious differences, Rabbi Mohilever made the wise decision to remain part of the Chovevei LTzion movement. Nonetheless, Mohilever put constant pressure on the movement to meet with the requirements of the Orthodox Jews. Rabbi Mohilever and his colleagues continued their work, especially among Orthodox Jews, in 1902, four years after Rabbi Shmuel’s death, Mizrachi officially joined the Zionist Organization. When in 1901 Rabbi Yitzchak Yaacov Reines and other of Mohilevers disciples re-established the organization, they did so with the stance, spirit. Mohilever had successfully inspired the amalgamation of traditional Jewish orthodoxy with practical Zionism. ”The kibbutz Gan Shmuel was named after Mohilever, Mohilever was active in the propagandist and organizational affairs as well as labors on behalf of colonization in Palestine. As early as 1882, he went to Paris to meet a young Baron Edmond de Rothschild, with the help of Rabbi Mohilever, Rothschild stayed and was the single greatest benefactor of Zionist work there. Isidor Schalit, obituary of Shmuel Mohilever, Die Welt II/24, June 17,1898, pp. 2–3 David Bridger, Samuel Wolk, The New Jewish Encyclopedia. Behrman House, New York 1976, ISBN 0-87441-120-3, p.326 Yoel Yarden, Rabbi Shmuel Mohlivers Educational Philosophy 1873-1874, Studies in Education, University of Haifa,33, March 1982 The personal papers of Samuel Mohilever are kept at the Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem. The notation of the group is A9\62-63
35.
Bernard Lazare
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Bernard Lazare was a French Jewish literary critic, political journalist, polemicist, and anarchist. He was also among the first Dreyfusards and he was born Lazare Marcus Manassé Bernard in Nîmes on 15 June 1865, the eldest of four sons of Jonas Bernard and Douce Noémie Rouget. This bourgeois family had introduced the Jacquard loom to Toulouse, and founded one of the first textile mills, the family was Jewish, and although not very religious, still celebrated the traditional holidays. Lazare received his baccalauréat in science, but his passion lay in literature, a passion which he shared with his friend and it was Mikhaël who, while studying in Paris at the École des Chartes encouraged Bernard to join him and conquer the literary world. Lazare arrived in Paris in 1886, the year in which Édouard Drumonts antisemitic pamphlet Jewish France was published, Lazare signed up at the École pratique des hautes études. He attended lectures by the abbot Louis Duchesne, for whom the Catholic Institute of Paris created a chair of History of the Church. In 1888, together with Ephraïm Mikhaël, Lazare wrote La Fiancée de Corinthe, two years later Ephraïm Mikhaël died of tuberculosis. It was around this time that Lazare became actively engaged in anarchism, although he never took direct action, he always continued to support its ideals and his comrades, whose publications and legal defences he financed. It was as an anarchist that he became a literary critic, during the Trial of the thirty in 1894, he defended the anarchists Jean Grave and Félix Fénéon. He then covered the 1895 miners’ revolt in Carmaux for the Écho de Paris, in 1896 he attended the Socialist Congress in London, where he denounced Karl Marx as a jealous authoritarian, unfaithful to his own ideas, driving the Internationale away from its goals. From 1892 onwards he was in contact with Achad Haam, one of the founders of the Lovers of Zion movement, in the spring of 1894 he published Anti-semitism, its History and Causes, an in-depth study and critique of the origins of anti-semitism. It was published within a few months of the arrest of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, having a reputation for combativeness and courage, Bernard Lazare was contacted by Mathieu Dreyfus to help prove his brothers innocence. Lazare devoted his time exclusively to the case and this tactic conformed more to the wishes of the Dreyfus family, as the first version of the text was a savage attack on the accusers, ending with the phrase J’accuse, later made famous by Émile Zola. Due to this experience with anti-Semitism, Lazare became engaged in the struggle for the emancipation of Jews, lazares Zionism was not nationalist, nor advocated the creation of a state, but was rather an ideal of emancipation and of collective organization of the Jewish proletarians. He visited Romania in 1900 and 1902, after which he denounced the terrible fate of Romanian Jews in L’Aurore, written in July and August 1900. He also visited Russia where he reported on the dangers facing Jews, but did not have a chance to publish due to illness, soon Dreyfusardes censored him and he could no longer write for l’Aurore after the Rennes trial. He covered the trial anyway and sent his vitriolic accounts to two American journals, The Chicago Record and The North American Review, at the end of his life, he became close to Charles Péguy, and wrote in the Cahiers de la quinzaine. He died on 1 September 1903, aged 38, following an operation for colon cancer, anarchism in France Lantisémitisme son histoire et ses causes Text in English Le nationalisme juif Laffaire Dreyfus – Une erreur judiciaire – Edition établie par Ph. Oriol, – Ed
36.
Palestine (region)
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Palestine is a geographic region in Western Asia between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. It is sometimes considered to include adjoining territories, the name was used by Ancient Greek writers, and was later used for the Roman province Syria Palaestina, the Byzantine Palaestina Prima, and the Islamic provincial district of Jund Filastin. The region comprises most of the claimed for the biblical regions known as the Land of Israel. Historically, it has known as the southern portion of wider regional designations such as Canaan, Syria, ash-Sham. The boundaries of the region have changed throughout history, today, the region comprises the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories in which the State of Palestine was declared. Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of Hebrew Pelesheth, the term Peleset is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from c.1150 BCE during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term, approximately a century later, Aristotle used a similar definition for the region in Meteorology, in which he included the Dead Sea. The term is accepted to be a translation of the Biblical name Peleshet. The term is used in the Septuagint, who used a transliteration Land of Phylistieim different from the contemporary Greek place name Palaistínē. Following the Muslim conquest, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic, Modern archaeologists and historians of the region refer to their field of study as Levantine archaeology. The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities, during the Bronze Age, independent Canaanite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Between 1550–1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c.740 BCE, in 539 BCE, the Babylonian empire was replaced by the Achaemenid Empire. In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the region and it ultimately fell to the Seleucid Empire between 219–200 BCE. In 116 BCE, a Seleucid civil war resulted in the independence of certain regions including the Hasmonean principality in the Judaean Mountains, from 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, creating a Judaean–Samaritan–Idumaean–Ituraean–Galilean alliance. The Judaean control over the region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea. Between 73–63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War, conquering Judea in 63 BCE, and splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. The three-year Ministry of Jesus, culminating in his crucifixion, is estimated to have occurred from 28–30 CE, in 70 CE, Titus sacked Jerusalem, resulting in the dispersal of the citys Jews and Christians to Yavne and Pella
37.
Leo Motzkin
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Leo Motzkin was a Russian Zionist leader. Leo Motzkin was born in the town of Brovary, near the city of Kiev in Ukraine and he was raised and educated according to the culture and traditions of the Jewish community. Motzkin had witnessed the 1881 anti-Jewish pogrom in Kiev but escaped to Berlin and he was accepted into the University of Berlin at the age of 16, after graduating from high school. Studying Sociology and Mathematics, Motzkin continued on to doctoral studies. At the university, Motzkin helped found the Russian Jewish Academic Association in 1887, Motzkin represented the Democratic Fraction at the Fifth Congress in 1901. In 1902, together with Martin Buber and Berthold Feiwel, Motzkin founded Berlins Jüdischer Verlag, in 1905, Motzkin published The Russian Correspondence anonymously. Most of his attention was devoted to the Jewish problem and Anti-Semitism and he organized an information service and a campaign against blood libels. During World War I, Motzkin presided over the Copenhagen office of the Zionist organization, Leo Motzkin also traveled to the United States to collect funds for Jewish refugees and lobby for the protection of Russian Jews. In August 1914, Motzkin joined Franz Oppenheimer and Adolf Friedemann to create a German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews, throughout his life, Motzkin was active in leading numerous Zionist committees as well as the International Congress of National Minorities. Motzkin endorsed the February Revolution in Russia, which he saw as aiding the liberation of the Jews of Russia. Motzkin was an early and leading opponent of the Nazi Party, organizing opposition to it, Motzkin died in 1933 in Paris while working for the cause of German Jews. He was re-interred in the Mount of Olives Cemetery in Jerusalem in 1934, in 1939, the Motzkin Book, a selection of his writings and speeches, was published posthumously. He was the father of the noted mathematician Theodore Motzkin, kiryat Motzkin is named after Leo Motzkin. Alex Bein, The Mozkin Book, Jerusalem 1939 The personal papers of Leo Motzkin are kept at the Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem, the notation of the record group is A126
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