1.
Fishing
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Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild, techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. Fishing may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, the term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. According to United Nations FAO statistics, the number of commercial fishermen. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries, in 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational pastime, Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The British dogger was a type of sailing trawler from the 17th century. The Brixham trawler that evolved there was of a build and had a tall gaff rig. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water, the great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham, earned the village the title of Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries. The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century, an Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in the 1846, with the expansion in the fishing industry. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849, the dock covered 25 acres and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first modern fishing port. The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere, by the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishermen around Europe, including from the Netherlands, twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of the German fishing fleet
2.
Fishing industry
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The fishing industry includes any industry or activity concerned with taking, culturing, processing, preserving, storing, transporting, marketing or selling fish or fish products. It is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization as including recreational, subsistence and commercial fishing, and the harvesting, processing, the commercial activity is aimed at the delivery of fish and other seafood products for human consumption or as input factors in other industrial processes. Directly or indirectly, the livelihood of over 500 million people in developing countries depends on fisheries and it is also referred to as the seafood industry, although non-food items such as pearls are included among its products. The traditional sector, comprises enterprises and individuals associated with fisheries resources from which aboriginal people derive products in accordance with their traditions, in addition,1.3 million tons of aquatic plants were captured in wild fisheries and 14.8 million tons were produced by aquaculture. The number of fish caught in the wild has been estimated at 0. 97-2.7 trillion per year. Following is a table of the 2011 world fishing industry harvest in tonnes by capture and by aquaculture. The top producing countries were, in order, the Peoples Republic of China, Peru, Japan and those countries accounted for more than half of the worlds production, China alone accounted for a third of the worlds production. Aquaculture is the cultivation of aquatic organisms, unlike fishing, aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled conditions. Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments, particular kinds of aquaculture include algaculture, fish farming, shrimp farming, shellfish farming, and the growing of cultured pearls. Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosed pools, fish species raised by fish farms include carp, salmon, tilapia, catfish and cod. Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing operations have caused widespread overfishing, fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish and fish protein. Fish processing is the processing of fish delivered by commercial fisheries, the larger fish processing companies have their own fishing fleets and independent fisheries. The products of the industry are usually sold wholesale to grocery chains or to intermediaries, fish processing can be subdivided into two categories, fish handling and fish products manufacturing. Aspects of fish processing occur on fishing vessels, fish processing vessels, fisheries are estimated to currently provide 16% of the world populations protein. The flesh of fish are primarily valued as a source of food. Other marine life taken as food includes shellfish, crustaceans, sea cucumber, jellyfish, fish and other marine life can also be used for many other uses, pearls and mother-of-pearl, sharkskin and rayskin. Sea horses, star fish, sea urchins and sea cucumber are used in traditional Chinese medicine, tyrian purple is a pigment made from marine snails, sepia is a pigment made from the inky secretions of cuttlefish. Fish glue has long valued for its use in all manner of products
3.
Becharof Wilderness
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Becharof Wilderness is a wilderness area in the U. S. state of Alaska. Located within the Becharof National Wildlife Refuge, it comprises approximately 500,000 acres and is bordered by the Katmai Wilderness on the north and it was designated Wilderness in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act. The region is home to an array of wildlife, including brown bears, salmon, caribou. Wilderness Areas Wilderness Act Becharof National Wildlife Refuge Becharof Wilderness - Wilderness. net
4.
Southwest Alaska
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Southwest Alaska is a region of the U. S. state of Alaska. The area is not exactly defined by any governmental administrative region, Southwest Alaska includes a huge, complex, and relatively unknown swath of terrain. It is over 500 miles from the western Bering Sea coast to Cook Inlet, the Kodiak Archipelago, in the Pacific east of the Alaska Peninsula, is the most eastern part of Southwest Alaska. These areas have an area of 170,732 square miles. Volcanic eruptions and mountain-building are active along the Ring of Fire, in between lie an incomplete record of rocks from as old as 2.07 Ga years to the Holocene. Southwest Alaska had a population of 53,349 as of the 2000 census, the population is in large part Alaska Native, with 58. 1% identifying as entirely or partly Native American in the 2000 census. About 121 towns and villages, generally far apart and with populations in the hundreds, the Calista Corporation region is in the Yukon/Kuskokwim delta, the lower and middle reaches of the Kuskokwim River drainage, and the Bering Sea coast from the Yukon to Cape Newenham. It contains 56 villages with a population of about 23,000 people. The Calista region is outlined by the combined Kusilvak and Bethel Census Areas, Calista owns 4,997,263 acres of the 41,713,612 acres in the region, almost all the rest is owned by the state or federal government. In the Bristol Bay Native Corporation region Dillingham, is the largest town, the BBNC region has 29 villages and a total population of about 8000. The Corporation region includes part of the Alaska Peninsula, the Bering Sea coast west to Cape Newenham, the combined areas of the Dillingham Census Area, the Bristol Bay Borough, and the Lake and Peninsula Borough are almost coincident with the BBNC area. Koniag, Incorporated has a region which covers the Kodiak Archipelago, Kodiak on Kodiak Island is the largest town and the commercial hub of the area. The Corporation region is similar to, but not exactly the same area as the Kodiak Island Borough. Aleut Corporations lands are on the Aleutian Islands and the end of the Alaska Peninsula. The Corporation area is exactly the same as the Aleutians East Borough, unalaska/Dutch Harbor, is the largest town. About 8000 people live in the region, in about a dozen towns, there is little private land, other than that owned by the Native Corporations. The economy rests on resource extraction, subsistence, and government spending, fishing, both commercial and recreational, is the mainstay of the economy. Much of the fishing is conducted by non-residents
5.
Fish
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A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
6.
Fisherman
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A fisherman or fisher is someone who captures fish and other animals from a body of water, or gathers shellfish. Worldwide, there are about 38 million commercial and subsistence fishermen, the term can also be applied to recreational fishermen and may be used to describe both men and women. Fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period, fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period. During the time of the Ancient Egyptians, fishermen provided the majority of food for Egyptians, fishing had become a major means of survival as well as a business venture. Fishing and the fisherman have also influenced Ancient Egyptian religion, mullets were worshiped as a sign of the flood season. Bastet was often manifested in the form of a catfish, in ancient Egyptian literature, the method that Amun used to create the world is associated with the tilapias method of mouth-brooding. According to the FAO, there were about 39 million fishers in countries producing more than 200,000 tonnes in 2012, the total fishery production of 66 million tonnes equated to an average productivity of 3.5 tonnes per person. Most of this took place in Asian countries, where four-fifths of world fishers. Most fishermen are men involved in offshore and deep-sea fisheries, women fish in some regions inshore from small boats or collect shellfish and seaweed. In many artisanal fishing communities, women are responsible for making and repairing nets, recreational fishing is fishing for pleasure or competition. It can be contrasted with fishing, which is fishing for economic profit, or subsistence fishing. The most common form of fishing is done with a rod, reel, line, hooks. Lures are frequently used in place of bait, some people make handmade lures, including plastic lures and artificial flies. The practice of catching or attempting to catch fish with a hook is called angling, when angling, it is sometimes expected or required that the fish be caught and released. Big-game fishing is fishing from boats to catch large species such as tuna, sharks. Noodling and trout tickling are also recreational activities, for some communities, fishing provides not only a source of food and work but also community and cultural identity. The fishing industry is hazardous for fishermen, between 1992 and 1999, US commercial fishing vessels averaged 78 deaths per year. The main contributors to fatalities are, inadequate preparation for emergencies poor vessel maintenance, many fishermen, while accepting that fishing is dangerous, staunchly defend their independence
7.
Wild fisheries
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A fishery is an area with an associated fish or aquatic population which is harvested for its commercial value. Fisheries can be marine or freshwater and they can also be wild or farmed. Wild fisheries are sometimes called capture fisheries, the aquatic life they support is not controlled in any meaningful way and needs to be captured or fished. Wild fisheries exist primarily in the oceans, and particularly around coasts and they also exist in lakes and rivers. Issues with wild fisheries are overfishing and pollution, significant wild fisheries have collapsed or are in danger of collapsing, due to overfishing and pollution. Overall, production from the wild fisheries has levelled out. As a contrast to wild fisheries, farmed fisheries can operate in sheltered waters, in rivers, lakes and ponds. Farmed fisheries are technological in nature, and revolve around developments in aquaculture, farmed fisheries are expanding, and Chinese aquaculture in particular is making many advances. Nevertheless, the majority of fish consumed by humans continues to be sourced from wild fisheries, as of the early 21st century, fish is humanitys only significant wild food source. This can be contrasted with 59.9 million tonnes produced in fish farms, worldwide, freshwater lakes have an area of 1.5 million square kilometres. Saline inland seas add another 1.0 million square kilometres, there are 28 freshwater lakes with an area greater than 5,000 square kilometres, totalling 1.18 million square kilometres or 79 percent of the total. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment, land run-off and industrial, agricultural, and domestic waste enter rivers and are discharged into the sea. Pollution from ships is also a problem, Marine debris is human-created waste that ends up floating in the sea. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of gyres and coastlines, eighty percent of all known marine debris is plastic - a component that has been rapidly accumulating since the end of World War II. Discarded plastic bags, six rings and other forms of plastic waste which finish up in the ocean present dangers to wildlife. Aquatic life can be threatened through entanglement, suffocation, and ingestion, nurdles, also known as mermaids tears, are plastic pellets typically under five millimetres in diameter, and are a major contributor to marine debris. They are used as a raw material in manufacturing, and are thought to enter the natural environment after accidental spillages. Nurdles are also created through the weathering of larger plastic debris
8.
Fish farm
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Fish farming or pisciculture involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. It is the form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species used in farming are carp, tilapia, salmon. Demand is increasing for fish and fish protein, which has resulted in widespread overfishing in wild fisheries, china provides 62% of the worlds farmed fish. As of 2016, more than 50% of seafood was produced by aquaculture, Farming carnivorous fish, such as salmon, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries, since carnivorous farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. The 2008 global returns for fish farming recorded by the FAO totaled 33.8 million tonnes worth about $US60 billion, Aquaculture makes use of local photosynthetic production or fish that are fed with external food supply. Growth is limited by food, commonly zooplankton feeding on pelagic algae or benthic animals, such as crustaceans. Tilapia filter feed directly on phytoplankton, which makes higher production possible, photosynthetic production can be increased by fertilizing pond water with artificial fertilizer mixtures, such as potash, phosphorus, nitrogen, and microelements. Another issue is the risk of algal blooms, when temperatures, nutrient supply, and available sunlight are optimal for algal growth, algae multiply at an exponential rate, eventually exhausting nutrients and causing a subsequent die-off. The decaying algal biomass depletes the oxygen in the water because it blocks out the sun and pollutes it with organic and inorganic solutes. An alternate option is to use a system such as that of Veta la Palma in Spain. Despite these limitations, significant fish farming industries use these methods, in the Czech Republic, thousands of natural and seminatural ponds are harvested each year for trout and carp. The large ponds around Trebon built from around 1650 are still in use, in these kinds of systems fish production per unit of surface can be increased at will, as long as sufficient oxygen, fresh water and food are provided. Because of the requirement of sufficient fresh water, a water purification system must be integrated in the fish farm. One way to achieve this is to combine hydroponic horticulture and water treatment, the exception to this rule are cages which are placed in a river or sea, which supplements the fish crop with sufficient oxygenated water. Some environmentalists object to this practice, however, these higher protein level requirements are a consequence of the higher feed efficiency of aquatic animals. Fish such as salmon have an FCR around 1.1 kg of feed per kg of salmon whereas chickens are in the 2.5 kg of feed per kg of chicken range
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Aquaculture
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Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats. According to the FAO, aquaculture Farming implies some form of intervention in the process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated, further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several pounds of wild fish are used to produce one pound of a piscivorous fish like salmon. Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, algaculture, particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and plant farming. The indigenous Gunditjmara people in Victoria, Australia, may have raised eels as early as 6000 BC, Aquaculture was operating in China circa 2500 BC. When the waters subsided after river floods, some fish, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes, early aquaculturists fed their brood using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate them. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the emergence of goldfish during the Tang dynasty, japanese cultivated seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores. Romans bred fish in ponds and farmed oysters in coastal lagoons before 100 CE, in central Europe, early Christian monasteries adopted Roman aquacultural practices. Aquaculture spread in Europe during the Middle Ages since away from the seacoasts, improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fresh fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, making aquaculture less popular. The 15th-century fishponds of the Trebon Basin in the Czech Republic are maintained as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a remarkable example is a fish pond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. Legend says that it was constructed by the mythical Menehune dwarf people, in first half of 18th century, German Stephan Ludwig Jacobi experimented with external fertilization of brown trouts and salmon. He wrote an article Von der künstlichen Erzeugung der Forellen und Lachse, by the latter decades of the 18th century, oyster farming had begun in estuaries along the Atlantic Coast of North America. The word aquaculture appeared in an 1855 newspaper article in reference to the harvesting of ice, in 1859, Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, New York, began experiments with brook trout. By 1864, Seth Green had established a commercial fish-hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester, by 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord, Massachusetts, artificial fish hatcheries were under way in both Canada and the United States. When the Dildo Island fish hatchery opened in Newfoundland in 1889, the word aquaculture was used in descriptions of the hatcheries experiments with cod and lobster in 1890. By the 1920s, the American Fish Culture Company of Carolina, Rhode Island, during the 1940s, they had perfected the method of manipulating the day and night cycle of fish so that they could be artificially spawned year around. Californians harvested wild kelp and attempted to supply around 1900
10.
Overfishing
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Overfishing is a form of overexploitation where fish stocks are reduced to below acceptable levels. Overfishing can occur in bodies of any sizes, such as ponds, rivers, lakes or oceans. Sustained overfishing can lead to critical depensation, where the population is no longer able to sustain itself. Some forms of overfishing, for example the overfishing of sharks, has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems, the ability of a fishery to recover from overfishing depends on whether the ecosystems conditions are suitable for the recovery. For example, once trout have been overfished, carp might take over in a way makes it impossible for the trout to re-establish a breeding population. Overfishing occurs when fish are caught than the population can replace through natural reproduction. Gathering as many fish as possible may seem like a profitable practice, the results not only affect the balance of life in the oceans, but also the social and economic well-being of the coastal communities who depend on fish for their way of life. Overfishing has significantly affected many fisheries around the world, as much as 85% of the worlds fisheries may be over-exploited, depleted, fully exploited or in recovery from exploitation. Significant overfishing has been observed in pre-industrial times, in particular, the overfishing of the western Atlantic Ocean from the earliest days of European colonisation of the Americas has been well documented. Following World War Two, industrial fishing rapidly expanded with rapid increases in worldwide fishing catches, however, many fisheries have either collapsed or degraded to a point where increased catches are no longer possible. Daniel Pauly, a fisheries scientist known for pioneering work on the impacts on global fisheries, has commented. We are gradually winning this war to exterminate them, and to see this destruction happen, for nothing really – for no reason – that is a bit frustrating. Examples of overfishing exist in such as the North Sea, the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. In these locations, overfishing has not only proved disastrous to fish stocks, the Peruvian coastal anchovy fisheries crashed in the 1970s after overfishing and an El Niño season largely depleted anchovies from its waters. Anchovies were a natural resource in Peru, indeed,1971 alone yielded 10.2 million metric tons of anchovies. However, the five years saw the Peruvian fleets catch amount to only about 4 million tons. This was a loss to Perus economy. The collapse of the cod fishery off Newfoundland, and the 1992 decision by Canada to impose a moratorium on the Grand Banks, is a dramatic example of the consequences of overfishing
11.
Sustainable fishing
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A conventional idea of a sustainable fishery is that it is one that is harvested at a sustainable rate, where the fish population does not decline over time because of fishing practices. Global wild fisheries are believed to have peaked and begun a decline, with valuable habitats, such as estuaries and coral reefs, in critical condition. Current aquaculture or farming of fish, such as salmon, does not solve the problem because farmed piscivores are fed products from wild fish. Salmon farming also has negative impacts on wild salmon. Fish that occupy the higher levels are less efficient sources of food energy. Fishery ecosystems are an important subset of the marine environment. This article documents the views of scientists and marine conservationists about innovative approaches towards sustainable fisheries. In reality, by 1883 marine fisheries were already collapsing, the United States Fish Commission was established 12 years earlier for the purpose of finding why fisheries in New England were declining. At the time of Huxleys address, the Atlantic halibut fishery had already collapsed, historically, stock assessment scientists usually worked in government laboratories and considered their work to be providing services to the fishing industry. These scientists dismissed conservation issues and distanced themselves from the scientists and this happened even as commercial fish stocks deteriorated, and even though many governments were signatories to binding conservation agreements. The notion of development is sometimes regarded as an unattainable. Properly done, fishing at up to maximum sustainable yield allows nature to adjust to a new steady state, however, this view is naive, because constancy is not an attribute of marine ecosystems, which dooms this approach. Stock abundance fluctuates naturally, changing the potential yield over short, providing rebuilding takes only one generation, overfishing may be economically foolish, but it is not unsustainable. Maintaining a biological, social and economic system considers the health of the ecosystem as well as the marine ecosystem. A fishery which rotates among multiple species can deplete individual stocks, such a definition might consider as sustainable fishing practices that lead to the reduction and possible extinction of some species. Fisheries and aquaculture are, directly or indirectly, a source of livelihood for over 500 million people, social sustainability can conflict with biodiversity. A fishery is socially sustainable if the fishery ecosystem maintains the ability to deliver products the society can use, major species shifts within the ecosystem could be acceptable as long as the flow of such products continues. Humans have been operating such regimes for thousands of years, transforming many ecosystems, according to Hilborn, the loss of some species, and indeed transformation of the ecosystem is not incompatible with sustainable harvests
12.
Fish stock
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All species have geographic limits to their distribution, which are determined by their tolerance to environmental conditions, and their ability to compete successfully with other species. For fish, it is rare for an individual to reproduce randomly with all individuals of that species within its biological range. There is a tendency to form a series of discrete populations which have a degree of reproductive isolation from each other in space, in time. This isolation is reflected in the development between sub-populations of genetic differences, morphological variations and exposure to different chemical regimes and parasitic species. Sub-populations also respond to fishing in such a way that fishing on one population appears to have no effect on the dynamics of a neighbouring population. Stock identification is a field of science which aims to identify these subpopulations. The United Nations defines straddling stocks as stocks of such as pollock. Sovereign responsibility must be worked out in collaboration with neighbouring coastal states, usually this is done through the medium of an intergovernmental regional organisation set up for the purpose of coordinating the management of that stock. Straddling stocks are usually pelagic, rather than demersal, demersal species move less than pelagic species, since they tend to relate to bottom topography. Pelagic species are mobile, their movements influenced by ocean temperatures. Straddling stock can be compared with transboundary stock, Straddling stock range both within an EEZ as well as in the high seas. Transboundary stock range in the EEZs of at least two countries, a stock can be both transboundary and straddling. In fisheries science and ecology, stock assessment is an important tool in fisheries management, the stocks for individual marine species can boom and bust in linked and compensatory ways. For example, in billfish longline fisheries, the Atlantic catch of blue marlin declined in the 1960s and this was accompanied by an increase in sailfish catch. The sailfish catch then declined from the end of the 1970s to the end of the 1980s, as a result, the overall billfish catch remained fairly stable. At Georges Bank, a decline in cod during the 1960s was accompanied by a rise in flatfish, booke HE The stock concept revisited, perspectives on its history in fisheries Fisheries Research,43, 9–11. Doi,10. 1016/S0165-783600063-6 Cadrin SX, Friedland KD and Waldman JR Stock Identification Methods, ISBN 0-12-154351-X Pintassilgo, P and Lindroos, M Management of Straddling Fish Stocks, A Bioeconomic Approach In, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems – Volume 5, UNESCO. Identification of stocks of horse macekerel, Trachurus trachurus Identification of stocks of herring, Clupea harengus FAO Fisheries Department and its SOFIA report addressing fish stocks
13.
Charles, Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
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Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
15.
Vertebral column
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The vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton. The vertebral column houses the spinal canal, a cavity that encloses, there are about 50,000 species of animals that have a vertebral column. The human vertebral column is one of the most-studied examples, the articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. There are ligaments extending the length of the column at the front and the back, the vertebrae in the human vertebral column are divided into different regions, which correspond to the curves of the spinal column. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine, vertebrae in these regions are essentially alike, with minor variation. These regions are called the spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. The vertebrae of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spines are independent bones, the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are usually fused and unable to move independently. Two special vertebrae are the atlas and axis, on which the head rests, a typical vertebra consists of two parts, the vertebral body and the vertebral arch. The vertebral arch is posterior, meaning it faces the back of a person, together, these enclose the vertebral foramen, which contains the spinal cord. Because the spinal cord ends in the spine, and the sacrum and coccyx are fused. Two transverse processes and one process are posterior to the vertebral body. The spinous process comes out the back, one transverse process comes out the left, the spinous processes of the cervical and lumbar regions can be felt through the skin. Above and below each vertebra are joints called facet joints and these restrict the range of movement possible, and are joined by a thin portion of the neural arch called the pars interarticularis. In between each pair of vertebrae are two small holes called intervertebral foramina, the spinal nerves leave the spinal cord through these holes
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Gill
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A gill is a respiratory organ found in many aquatic organisms that extracts dissolved oxygen from water and excretes carbon dioxide. The gills of species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are kept moist. The microscopic structure of a gill presents a surface area to the external environment. Many microscopic aquatic animals, and some larger but inactive ones, can absorb oxygen through the entire surface of their bodies. However, more complex or more active aquatic organisms usually require a gill or gills, Gills usually consist of thin filaments of tissue, branches, or slender, tufted processes that have a highly folded surface to increase surface area. A high surface area is crucial to the gas exchange of aquatic organisms, a cubic meter of air contains about 250 grams of oxygen at STP. The concentration of oxygen in water is lower than in air, in fresh water, the dissolved oxygen content is approximately 8 cm3/L compared to that of air which is 210 cm3/L. Water is 777 times more dense than air and is 100 times more viscous, oxygen has a diffusion rate in air 10,000 times greater than in water. The use of sac-like lungs to remove oxygen from water would not be efficient enough to sustain life, rather than using lungs, aseous exchange takes place across the surface of highly vascularised gills over which a one-way current of water is kept flowing by a specialised pumping mechanism. The density of the water prevents the gills from collapsing and lying on top of each other, with the exception of some aquatic insects, the filaments and lamellae contain blood or coelomic fluid, from which gases are exchanged through the thin walls. The blood carries oxygen to other parts of the body, carbon dioxide passes from the blood through the thin gill tissue into the water. Gills or gill-like organs, located in different parts of the body, are found in groups of aquatic animals, including mollusks, crustaceans, insects, fish. The gills of vertebrates typically develop in the walls of the pharynx, most species employ a countercurrent exchange system to enhance the diffusion of substances in and out of the gill, with blood and water flowing in opposite directions to each other. The gills are composed of filaments, the gill lamellae. When a fish breathes, it draws in a mouthful of water at regular intervals, then it draws the sides of its throat together, forcing the water through the gill openings, so it passes over the gills to the outside. Fish gill slits may be the ancestors of the tonsils, thymus glands. Adjacent slits are separated by a gill arch from which projects a cartilaginous gill ray. This gill ray is the support for the sheet-like interbranchial septum, the base of the arch may also support gill rakers, projections into the pharyngeal cavity that help to prevent large pieces of debris from damaging the delicate gills
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Limb (anatomy)
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A limb, or extremity, is a jointed, or prehensile, appendage of the human or other animal body. In the human body, the upper and lower limbs are called the arms. Most animals use limbs for locomotion, such as walking, running, some animals can use their front limbs to carry and manipulate objects. Some animals can also use hind limbs for manipulation, human legs and feet are specialized for two-legged locomotion – most other mammals walk and run on all four limbs. Human arms are weaker, but very mobile allowing us to reach at a range of distances and angles
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Fin
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A fin is a thin component or appendage attached to a larger body or structure. Fins typically function as foils that produce lift or thrust, or provide the ability to steer or stabilize motion while traveling in water, air, fins are also used to increase surface areas for heat transfer purposes, or simply as ornamentation. Fins first evolved on fish as a means of locomotion, Fish fins are used to generate thrust and control the subsequent motion. Fish, and other animals such as cetaceans, actively propel and steer themselves with pectoral. As they swim, they use other fins, such as dorsal and anal fins to achieve stability, foil shaped fins generate thrust when moved, the lift of the fin sets water or air in motion and pushes the fin in the opposite direction. Aquatic animals get significant thrust by moving back and forth in water. Often the tail fin is used, but some aquatic animals generate thrust from pectoral fins, fins can also generate thrust if they are rotated in air or water. Turbines and propellers use a number of rotating fins, also called foils, wings, propellers use the fins to translate torquing force to lateral thrust, thus propelling an aircraft or ship. Turbines work in reverse, using the lift of the blades to generate torque, cavitation can be a problem with high power applications, resulting in damage to propellers or turbines, as well as noise and loss of power. Cavitation occurs when negative pressure causes bubbles to form in a liquid and it can cause significant damage and wear. Cavitation damage can occur to the tail fins of powerful swimming marine animals, such as dolphins. Cavitation is more likely to occur near the surface of the ocean, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful. Cavitation also slows tuna, but for a different reason, unlike dolphins, these fish do not feel the bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve endings. Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create a film around their fins that limits their speed. Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage, scombrid fishes are particularly high-performance swimmers. Along the margin at the rear of their bodies is a line of small rayless, non-retractable fins, there has been much speculation about the function of these finlets. Fish use multiple fins, so it is possible that a given fin can have an interaction with another fin. In particular, the fins immediately upstream of the fin may be proximate fins that can directly affect the flow dynamics at the caudal fin
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Aquatic animal
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An aquatic animal is an animal, either vertebrate or invertebrate, which lives in water for most or all of its life. It may breathe air or extract its oxygen from that dissolved in water through specialised organs called gills, natural environments and the animals that live in them can be categorized as aquatic or terrestrial. The term aquatic can in theory be applied to animals that live in fresh water or salt water. However, the marine is most commonly used for animals that live in saltwater, i. e. in oceans, seas. Aquatic animals are often of concern to conservationists because of the fragility of their environments. Aquatic animals are subject to pressure from overfishing, destructive fishing, marine pollution, the term aquatic mammal is also applied to four-footed mammals like the river otter and beavers, although these are technically amphibious. Amphibians, like frogs, while requiring water, are separated into their own environmental classification, the majority of amphibians have an aquatic larval stage, like a tadpole, but then live as terrestrial adults, and may return to the water to mate. Certain fish also evolved to breathe air to survive oxygen-deprived water, such as arapaima, Aquatic mammal Aquatic plant Freshwater snail List of semiaquatic tetrapods Marine biology Marine invertebrates Marine mammal Annelids
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Shellfish
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Shellfish is a culinary and fisheries term for exoskeleton-bearing aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Although most kinds of shellfish are harvested from saltwater environments, some kinds are found in freshwater, in addition, a few species of land crabs are eaten, for example Cardisoma guanhumi in the Caribbean. Despite the name, shellfish are not a kind of fish, many varieties of shellfish are actually closely related to insects and arachnids, making up one of the main classes of the phylum Arthropoda. Cephalopods and bivalves are molluscs, as are snails and slugs, familiar marine molluscs used as a food source by humans include many species of clams, mussels, oysters, winkles, and scallops. Some crustaceans commonly eaten are shrimp, lobsters, crayfish, echinoderms are not as frequently harvested for food as molluscs and crustaceans, however, sea urchin roe is quite popular in many parts of the world. Most shellfish eat a diet composed primarily of phytoplankton and zooplankton, Shellfish are among the most common food allergens. The term shellfish is used broadly and specifically. In common parlance, as in having shellfish for dinner, it can refer to anything from clams and oysters to lobster, for regulatory purposes it is often narrowly defined as filter-feeding molluscs such as clams, mussels, and oyster to the exclusion of crustaceans and all else. Although the term is applied to marine species, edible freshwater invertebrates such as crayfish. Although their shells may differ, all shellfish are invertebrates, the word shellfish is both singular and plural, the rarely used shellfishes is sometimes employed to distinguish among various types of shellfish. Archaeological finds have shown that humans have been making use of shellfish as an item for hundreds of thousands of years. In the Japanese cuisine, chefs often use shellfish and their roe in different dishes, sushi features both raw and cooked shellfish. Sashimi primarily consists of fresh raw seafood, sliced into thin pieces. Both sushi and sashimi are served with soy sauce and wasabi paste, thinly sliced pickled ginger root, and a simple garnish such as shiso or finely shredded daikon radish, or both. Lobster in particular is a delicacy in the United States. Lobsters are eaten on much of the East Coast, the American lobster ranges from Newfoundland down to about the Carolinas, a typical meal involves boiling the lobster with some slight seasoning and then serving it with drawn butter, baked potato, and corn on the cob. Clamming is done both commercially and recreationally along the Northeast coastline of the US, various type of clams are incorporated into the cuisine of New England. The soft-shelled clam is eaten fried or steamed
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Cuttlefish
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Cuttlefish are marine animals of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda, which also includes squid, octopuses, cuttlefish have a unique internal shell, the cuttlebone. Despite their name, cuttlefish are not fish but molluscs, cuttlefish have large, W-shaped pupils, eight arms, and two tentacles furnished with denticulated suckers, with which they secure their prey. They generally range in size from 15 to 25 cm, with the largest species, Sepia apama, reaching 50 cm in mantle length, cuttlefish eat small molluscs, crabs, shrimp, fish, octopus, worms, and other cuttlefish. Their predators include dolphins, sharks, fish, seals, seabirds, the average life expectancy of a cuttlefish is about one to two years. Recent studies indicate cuttlefish are among the most intelligent invertebrates, cuttlefish also have one of the largest brain-to-body size ratios of all invertebrates. The cuttle in cuttlefish comes from the Old English name for the species, cudele, which may be cognate with the Old Norse koddi, the Greco-Roman world valued the cuttlefish as a source of the unique brown pigment the creature releases from its siphon when it is alarmed. The word for it in both Greek and Latin, sepia, now refers to a pigment in English. The family Sepiidae, which contains all cuttlefish, inhabit tropical/temperate ocean waters and they are mostly shallow-water animals, although they are known to go to depths of about 600 m. By the time the family evolved, ostensibly in the Old World, the common cuttlefish, is found in the Mediterranean, and North and Baltic Seas, although it has been suggested populations occur as far south as South Africa. They are found in sublittoral depths, between the low line and the edge of the continental shelf, to about 180 m. The cuttlefish is listed under the Red List category of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, ocean acidification, however, caused largely by higher levels of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere, is cited as a potential threat. Cuttlefish possess a structure called the cuttlebone, which is porous and is made of aragonite. The pores provide it with buoyancy, which the cuttlefish regulates by changing the ratio in the chambered cuttlebone via the ventral siphuncle. Each species cuttlebone has a shape, size, and pattern of ridges or texture. The cuttlebone is unique to cuttlefish, and is one of the features that distinguish them from their squid relatives, cuttlefish, like other cephalopods, have sophisticated eyes. The organogenesis and the structure of the cephalopod eye fundamentally differ from those of vertebrates such as humans. Superficial similarities between cephalopod and vertebrate eyes are thought to be examples of convergent evolution, the cuttlefish pupil is a smoothly curving W-shape
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Starfish
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Starfish or sea stars are star-shaped echinoderms belonging to the class Asteroidea. Common usage frequently finds these names being applied to ophiuroids. About 1,500 species of starfish occur on the seabed in all the worlds oceans and they are found from the intertidal zone down to abyssal depths,6,000 m below the surface. They typically have a disc and five arms, though some species have a larger number of arms. The aboral or upper surface may be smooth, granular or spiny, many species are brightly coloured in various shades of red or orange, while others are blue, grey or brown. Starfish have tube feet operated by a system and a mouth at the centre of the oral or lower surface. They are opportunistic feeders and are predators on benthic invertebrates. Several species have specialized feeding behaviours including eversion of their stomachs and they have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most can regenerate damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defence, the Asteroidea occupy several significant ecological roles. Starfish, such as the sea star and the reef sea star, have become widely known as examples of the keystone species concept in ecology. The fossil record for starfish is ancient, dating back to the Ordovician around 450 million years ago, only the ossicles and spines of the animal are likely to be preserved, making remains hard to locate. With their appealing symmetrical shape, starfish have played a part in literature, legend, design and they are sometimes collected as curios, used in design or as logos, and in some cultures, despite possible toxicity, they are eaten. The scientific name Asteroidea was given to starfish by the French zoologist de Blainville in 1830 and it is derived from the Greek aster, ἀστήρ and the Greek eidos, εἶδος. The class Asteroidea belongs to the phylum Echinodermata, as well as the starfish, the echinoderms include sea urchins, sand dollars, brittle and basket stars, sea cucumbers and crinoids. The larvae of echinoderms have bilateral symmetry, but during metamorphosis this is replaced with radial symmetry, adult echinoderms are characterized by having a water vascular system with external tube feet and a calcareous endoskeleton consisting of ossicles connected by a mesh of collagen fibres. Starfish are included in the subphylum Asterozoa, the characteristics of which include a flattened, star-shaped body as adults consisting of a central disc, the subphylum includes the two classes of Asteroidea, the starfish, and Ophiuroidea, the brittle stars and basket stars. The starfish are a large and diverse class with about 1,500 living species, there are seven extant orders, Brisingida, Forcipulatida, Notomyotida, Paxillosida, Spinulosida, Valvatida and Velatida and two extinct ones, Calliasterellidae and Trichasteropsida. Most starfish have five arms that radiate from a central disc, Luidia ciliaris has seven arms, members of the Solasteridae have ten to fifteen while the Antarctic Labidiaster annulatus can have up to fifty
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Crayfish
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Some species are found in brooks and streams where there is running fresh water, while others thrive in swamps, ditches, and rice paddies. Most crayfish cannot tolerate polluted water, although species such as Procambarus clarkii are hardier. Crayfish feed on living and dead animals and plants, the name crayfish comes from the Old French word escrevisse. The word has been modified to crayfish by association with fish, the largely American variant crawfish is similarly derived. Some kinds of crayfish are known locally as lobsters, crawdads, mudbugs, the study of crayfish is called astacology. Exceptions include western rock lobster found on the west coast of Australia, the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish found only in Tasmania, in Singapore, the term crayfish typically refers to Thenus orientalis, a seawater crustacean from the slipper lobster family. True crayfish are not native to Singapore, but are found as pets, or as an invasive species in the many water catchment areas. The body of a crustacean, such as a crab, lobster. Each segment may possess one pair of appendages, although in various groups these may be reduced or missing, on average, crayfish grow to 17.5 centimetres in length, but some grow larger. Walking legs have a claw at the end. There are three families of crayfish, two in the Northern Hemisphere and one in the Southern Hemisphere, the Southern Hemisphere family Parastacidae lives in South America, Madagascar and Australasia, and is distinguished by the lack of the first pair of pleopods. Of the other two families, members of the Astacidae live in western Eurasia and western North America and members of the family Cambaridae live in eastern Asia, Madagascar has an endemic genus, Astacoides, containing seven species. Europe is home to seven species of crayfish in the genera Astacus and Austropotamobius, cambaroides is native to Japan and eastern mainland Asia. The greatest diversity of species is found in southeastern North America, with over 330 species in nine genera. A further genus of crayfish is found in the Pacific Northwest. Many crayfish are found in lowland areas where the water is abundant in calcium. Crayfish were introduced purposely into a few Arizona reservoirs and other bodies of water decades ago and they have since dispersed beyond those original sites. Australia has over 100 species in a dozen genera, in Australia, many of the better-known crayfish are of the genus Cherax, and include the marron from Western Australia, red-claw crayfish, common yabby and western yabby
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Jellyfish
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Jellyfish or jellies are softbodied, free-swimming aquatic animals with a gelatinous umbrella-shaped bell and trailing tentacles. The bell can pulsate to acquire propulsion and locomotion, the tentacles may be utilized to capture prey or defend against predators by emitting toxins in a painful sting. Jellyfish species are classified in the subphylum Medusozoa which makes up a part of the phylum Cnidaria. Jellyfish are found in ocean, from the surface to the deep sea. Scyphozoans are exclusively marine, but some live in freshwater. Large, often colorful, jellyfish are common in coastal zones worldwide, Jellyfish have roamed the seas for at least 500 million years, and possibly 700 million years or more, making them the oldest multi-organ animal. The popular English name jellyfish has been in use since 1796 and it has traditionally also been applied to other animals sharing a superficial resemblance, for example ctenophores were included as jellyfishes. Even some scientists include the phylum ctenophora when they are referring to jellyfish, other scientists prefer to use the more all-encompassing term gelatinous zooplankton, when referring to these, together with other soft-bodied animals in the water column. As jellyfish are not true fish, which are vertebrates, the jellyfish is considered by some to be a misnomer. Public aquaria often use the terms jellies or sea jellies instead, the term jellies may have become more popular than jellyfish. In scientific literature, jelly and jellyfish are often used interchangeably, some sources may use the term jelly to refer to organisms in this taxon, as jellyfish may be considered inappropriate. Many textbooks and sources refer to only scyphozoans as true jellyfish, a group of jellyfish is sometimes called a bloom or a swarm. Bloom is usually used for a group of jellyfish that gather in a small area. Another collective name for a group of jellyfish is a smack, using swarm usually implies some kind of active ability to stay together, which a few species such as Aurelia, the moon jelly, demonstrate. Medusa jellyfish may be classified as scyphomedusae, stauromedusae, cubomedusae, or hydromedusae, the term medusa was coined by Linnaeus in 1752, alluding to the tentacled head of Medusa in Greek mythology. This term refers exclusively to the non-polyp life-stage which occurs in many cnidarians, all medusa-producing species belong to the sub-phylum Medusozoa. In biology, a medusa is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shaped like an umbrella, medusae vary from bell-shaped to the shape of a thin disk, scarcely convex above and only slightly concave below. The digestive cavity consists of the cavity and radiating canals which extend toward the margin, these canals may be simple or branching
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Biologist
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A biologist, is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology, the scientific study of life. Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter. Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding, in such as medicine, industry. While biologist can apply to any scientist studying biology, most biologists research, in this way, biologists investigate large-scale organism interactions, whole multicellular organisms, organs, tissues, cells, and small-scale cellular and molecular processes. Other biologists study less direct aspects of life, such as phylogeny, Biologists conduct research based on the scientific method, to test the validity of a theory, with hypothesis formation, experimentation and documentation of methods and data. There are many types of biologists, some work on microorganisms, while others study multicellular organisms. Many jobs in biology as a field require an academic degree, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally required to direct independent research, and involves a specialization in a specific area of biology. Many biological scientists work in research and development, some conduct fundamental research to advance our knowledge of living organisms, including bacteria and other pathogens. This research enhances understanding and adds to the database of literature. Furthermore, it aids the development of solutions to problems in areas such as human health. These biological scientists work in government, university, and private industry laboratories. Many expand on specialized research that started in post-graduate qualifications. Biological scientists who work in applied research or product development often use knowledge gained by research to further knowledge in particular fields or applications. For example, this research may be used to develop new pharmaceutical drugs, treatments, and medical diagnostic tests, increase crop yields. These scientists must consider the effects of their work. Some biologists conduct laboratory experiments involving animals, plants or microorganisms, however, some biological research also occurs outside the laboratory and may involve natural observation rather than experimentation. For example, a botanist may investigate the plant species present in a particular environment, swift advances in knowledge of genetics and organic molecules spurred growth in the field of biotechnology, transforming the industries in which biological scientists work. Biological scientists can now manipulate the genetic material of animals and plants, basic and applied research on biotechnological processes, such as recombining DNA, has led to the production of important substances, including human insulin and growth hormone
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Natural history
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Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene
27.
Pinniped
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Pinnipeds, commonly known as seals, are a widely distributed and diverse clade of carnivorous, fin-footed, semiaquatic marine mammals. They comprise the extant families Odobenidae, Otariidae, and Phocidae, there are 33 extant species of pinnipeds, and more than 50 extinct species have been described from fossils. While seals were historically thought to have descended from two lines, molecular evidence supports them as a monophyletic lineage. Pinnipeds belong to the order Carnivora and their closest living relatives are bears and musteloids, Seals range in size from the 1 m and 45 kg Baikal seal to the 5 m and 3,200 kg southern elephant seal, which is also the largest carnivoran. They have streamlined bodies and four limbs that are modified into flippers, though not as fast in the water as dolphins, seals are more flexible and agile. Otariids use their front limbs primarily to themselves through the water, while phocids. Otariids and walruses have hind limbs that can be pulled under the body, by comparison, terrestrial locomotion by phocids is more cumbersome. Otariids have visible ears, while phocids and walruses lack these. Pinnipeds have well-developed senses—their eyesight and hearing are adapted for both air and water, and they have a tactile system in their whiskers or vibrissae. Some species are adapted for diving to great depths. They have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin to keep warm in the cold water, although pinnipeds are widespread, most species prefer the colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. They spend most of their lives in the water, but come ashore to mate, give birth, molt or escape predators, like sharks. They feed largely on fish and marine invertebrates, but a few, like the seal, feed on large vertebrates, such as penguins. Walruses are specialized for feeding on bottom-dwelling mollusks, male pinnipeds typically mate with more than one female, although the degree of polygyny varies with the species. The males of land-breeding species tend to mate with a number of females than those of ice- or water-breeding species. Male pinniped strategies for reproductive success vary between defending females, defending territories that attract females and performing ritual displays or lek mating, pups are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear almost all the responsibility for raising them. Mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for a short period of time while others take foraging trips at sea between nursing bouts. Walruses are known to nurse their young while at sea, Seals produce a number of vocalizations, notably the barks of California sea lions, the gong-like calls of walruses and the complex songs of Weddell seals
28.
Whale
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Whales are a widely distributed and diverse group of fully aquatic placental marine mammals. They are a grouping within the infraorder Cetacea, usually excluding dolphins. Whales, dolphins and porpoises belong to the order Cetartiodactyla with even-toed ungulates and their closest living relatives are the hippopotamuses, the two parvorders of whales, baleen whales and toothed whales, are thought to have split apart around 34 million years ago. The whales comprise eight extant families, Balaenopteridae, Balaenidae, Cetotheriidae, Eschrichtiidae, Monodontidae, Physeteridae, Kogiidae, Whales are creatures of the open ocean, they feed, mate, give birth, suckle and raise their young at sea. So extreme is their adaptation to life underwater that they are unable to survive on land. Whales range in size from the 2.6 metres and 135 kilograms dwarf sperm whale to the 29.9 metres and 190 metric tons blue whale, the sperm whale is the largest toothed predator on earth. Several species exhibit sexual dimorphism, in that the females are larger than males, baleen whales have no teeth, instead they have plates of baleen, a fringe-like structure used to expel water while retaining the krill and plankton which they feed on. They use their throat pleats to expand the mouth to take in huge gulps of water, balaenids have heads that can make up 40% of their body mass to take in water. Toothed whales, on the hand, have conical teeth designed for catching fish or squid. Some species, such as whales, are well adapted for diving to great depths to catch squid. Whales have evolved from land-living mammals, as such they must breathe air regularly, though they can remain submerged for long periods. They have blowholes located on top of their heads, through air is taken in. They are warm-blooded, and have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin, with streamlined fusiform bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers, whales can travel at up to 20 knots, though they are not as flexible or agile as seals. Whales produce a variety of vocalizations, notably the extended songs of the humpback whale. Although whales are widespread, most species prefer the waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Species such as humpbacks and blue whales are capable of travelling thousands of miles without feeding, males typically mate with multiple females every year, but females only mate every two to three years. Calves are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear all the responsibility for raising them, mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for one to two years. Once relentlessly hunted for their products, whales are now protected by international law, the North Atlantic right whales nearly became extinct in the twentieth century, with a population low of 450, and the North Pacific gray whale population is ranked Critically Endangered by the IUCN
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Amphibian
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Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia. They inhabit a variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water, the young generally undergo metamorphosis from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with lungs. Amphibians use their skin as a respiratory surface and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs. They are superficially similar to lizards but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are amniotes, the earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia. The three modern orders of amphibians are Anura, Urodela, and Apoda, the number of known amphibian species is approximately 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian in the world is a frog from New Guinea with a length of just 7.7 mm. The largest living amphibian is the 1.8 m Chinese giant salamander, the study of amphibians is called batrachology, while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology. The word amphibian is derived from the Ancient Greek term ἀμφίβιος, the term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes, the numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species is over 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. With the phylogenetic classification, the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics. Classification varies according to the phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem-based or a node-based classification. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within groups, like the Temnospondyli or the Lepospondyli. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, all modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a clade, a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura, Caudata, and Gymnophiona, although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest true frog is Prosalirus bitis, from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona. It is anatomically similar to modern frogs. The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, Eocaecilia micropodia, the earliest salamander is Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis from the Late Jurassic of northeastern China
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Crocodile
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Crocodiles or true crocodiles are large aquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. Crocodylinae, all of whose members are considered true crocodiles, is classified as a biological subfamily, a broader sense of the term crocodile, Crocodylidae that includes Tomistoma, is not used in this article. The term crocodile here applies only to the species within the subfamily of Crocodylinae, although they appear to be similar to the untrained eye, crocodiles, alligators and the gharial belong to separate biological families. The gharial having a narrow snout is easier to distinguish, while morphological differences are more difficult to spot in crocodiles and alligators. The most obvious differences are visible in the head with crocodiles having narrower and longer heads, with a more V-shaped than a U-shaped snout compared to alligators. Also, when the mouth is closed, the large fourth tooth in the lower jaw fits into a constriction in the upper jaw. For hard-to-distinguish specimens, the tooth is the most reliable feature to define the family that the species belongs to. Crocodiles have more webbing on the toes of the feet and can better tolerate saltwater due to specialized salt glands for filtering out salt. Another trait that separates crocodiles from other crocodilians is their higher levels of aggression. Crocodile size, morphology, behaviour and ecology somewhat differs between species, however, they have many similarities in these areas as well. All crocodiles are semiaquatic and tend to congregate in freshwater such as rivers, lakes, wetlands. They are carnivorous animals, feeding mostly on such as fish, reptiles, birds and mammals. All crocodiles are tropical species that, unlike alligators, are sensitive to cold. They separated from other crocodilians during the Eocene epoch, about 55 million years ago, many species are at the risk of extinction, some being classified as critically endangered. The word crocodile comes from the Ancient Greek κροκόδιλος, lizard, used in the phrase ho krokódilos tou potamoú, there are several variant Greek forms of the word attested, including the later form κροκόδειλος found cited in many English reference works. In the Koine Greek of Roman times, crocodilos and crocodeilos would have been pronounced identically, crocodilos or crocodeilos is a compound of krokè, and drilos/dreilos, although drilos is only attested as a colloquial term for penis. It is ascribed to Herodotus, and supposedly describes the habits of the Egyptian crocodile. The form crocodrillus is attested in Medieval Latin and it is not clear whether this is a medieval corruption or derives from alternative Greco-Latin forms
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Hippopotamus
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The common hippopotamus, or hippo, is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae, the other being the pygmy hippopotamus. The name comes from the ancient Greek for river horse, after the elephant and rhinoceros, the common hippopotamus is the third-largest type of land mammal and the heaviest extant artiodactyl. The common ancestor of whales and hippos split from other even-toed ungulates around 60 million years ago, the earliest known hippopotamus fossils, belonging to the genus Kenyapotamus in Africa, date to around 16 million years ago. Despite its stocky shape and short legs, it is capable of running 30 km/h over short distances, the hippopotamus is a highly aggressive and unpredictable animal and is ranked among the most dangerous animals in Africa. Nevertheless, they are threatened by habitat loss and poaching for their meat. The common hippopotamus is semiaquatic, inhabiting rivers, lakes and mangrove swamps, during the day, they remain cool by staying in the water or mud, reproduction and childbirth both occur in water. They emerge at dusk to graze on grasses, while hippopotamuses rest near each other in the water, grazing is a solitary activity and hippos are not territorial on land. The Latin word hippopotamus is derived from the ancient Greek ἱπποπόταμος, hippopotamos, from ἵππος, hippos, horse, in English, the plural is hippopotamuses, but hippopotami is also used, hippos can be used as a short plural. Hippopotamuses are gregarious, living in groups of up to thirty animals, a group is called a pod, herd, dale, or bloat. The hippopotamus is the genus of the family Hippopotamidae. The pygmy hippopotamus belongs to a different genus in Hippopotamidae, either Choeropsis or Hexaprotodon, Hippopotamidae are sometimes known as hippopotamids. Sometimes, the subfamily Hippopotaminae is used, further, some taxonomists group hippopotamuses and anthracotheres in the superfamily Anthracotheroidea. Hippopotamidae are classified along with other even-toed ungulates in the order Artiodactyla, other artiodactyls include camels, cattle, deer and pigs, although hippopotamuses are not closely related to these groups. Genetic analyses have tested the existence of three of these putative subspecies, a study examining mitochondrial DNA from skin biopsies taken from 13 sampling locations, considered genetic diversity and structure among hippo populations across the continent. The authors found low, but significant, genetic differentiation among H. a. amphibius, H. a. capensis, neither H. a. tschadensis nor H. a. constrictus has been tested. Until 1909, naturalists grouped hippos with pigs, based on molar patterns, the common ancestor of hippos and whales branched off from Ruminantia and the rest of the even-toed ungulates, the cetacean and hippo lineages split soon afterwards. The most recent theory of the origins of Hippopotamidae suggests that hippos and this hypothesized ancestral group likely split into two branches around 54 million years ago. All branches of the anthracotheres, except that which evolved into Hippopotamidae, merycopotamus, Libycosaurus and all hippopotamids can be considered to form a clade, with Libycosaurus being more closely related to hippos
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Marine invertebrates
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Marine invertebrates are the invertebrates that live in marine habitats. Invertebrate is a term that includes all animals apart from the vertebrate members of the chordate phylum. Invertebrates lack a vertebral column, and some have evolved a shell or a hard exoskeleton, as on land and in the air, marine invertebrates have a large variety of body plans, and have been categorised into over 30 phyla. They make up most of the life in the oceans. The earliest animals were marine invertebrates, that is, vertebrates came later, animals are multicellular eukaryotes, and are distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. Marine invertebrates are animals that inhabit a marine environment apart from the members of the chordate phylum. Some have evolved a shell or a hard exoskeleton, many were flat and had a quilted appearance, and seemed so strange that there was a proposal to classify them as a separate kingdom, Vendozoa. Others, however, have interpreted as early molluscs, echinoderms. However, there seems little doubt that Kimberella was at least a triploblastic bilaterian animal, in other words, the small shelly fauna are a very mixed collection of fossils found between the Late Ediacaran and Middle Cambrian periods. The earliest, Cloudina, shows signs of successful defense against predation, in the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was explosive or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils. A re-analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as Opabinia, which did not fit into any known phylum. Nevertheless, there is much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened. Invertebrates are grouped into different phyla, informally phyla can be thought of as a way of grouping organisms according to their body plan. A body plan refers to a blueprint which describes the shape or morphology of an organism, such as its symmetry, segmentation, the idea of body plans originated with vertebrates, which were grouped into one phylum. But the vertebrate body plan is one of many. The history of the discovery of body plans can be seen as a movement from a worldview centred on vertebrates, for comparison, the number of phyla recognised by modern zoologists has risen to 35. Arthropods total about 1,113,000 described extant species, molluscs about 85,000, sponges are animals of the phylum Porifera. They are multicellular organisms that have full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them
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Mollusca
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The molluscs compose the large phylum Mollusca of invertebrate animals. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized, molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms. Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats and they are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. The phylum is divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes. The gastropods are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, the three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Other than these things, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many textbooks base their descriptions on an ancestral mollusc. This has a single, limpet-like shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate, the underside of the animal consists of a single muscular foot. Although molluscs are coelomates, the coelom tends to be small, the main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates, their circulatory systems are mainly open. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords, or three in bivalves, the brain, in species that have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes, and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, the simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485.4 million years ago. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye and their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies. Mollusc species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities, the bite of the blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill, schistosomiasis is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems. The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque, which originated from the Latin molluscus, from mollis, molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotles τα μαλακά, the soft things, which he applied to cuttlefish. The scientific study of molluscs is accordingly called malacology, as it is now known these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been abandoned. The most universal features of the structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion
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Crustacean
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Crustaceans form a large, diverse arthropod taxon which includes such familiar animals as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, woodlice and barnacles. In other words, some crustaceans are more related to insects. The 67,000 described species range in size from Stygotantulus stocki at 0.1 mm, to the Japanese spider crab with a leg span of up to 3.8 m, like other arthropods, crustaceans have an exoskeleton, which they moult to grow. Most crustaceans are free-living aquatic animals, but some are terrestrial, some are parasitic, the group has an extensive fossil record, reaching back to the Cambrian, and includes living fossils such as Triops cancriformis, which has existed apparently unchanged since the Triassic period. More than 10 million tons of crustaceans are produced by fishery or farming for human consumption, krill and copepods are not as widely fished, but may be the animals with the greatest biomass on the planet, and form a vital part of the food chain. The scientific study of crustaceans is known as carcinology, and a scientist who works in carcinology is a carcinologist, the body of a crustacean is composed of segments, which are grouped into three regions, the cephalon or head, the thorax, and the pleon or abdomen. The head and thorax may be fused together to form a cephalothorax, the crustacean body is protected by the hard exoskeleton, which must be moulted for the animal to grow. The shell around each somite can be divided into a dorsal tergum, ventral sternum, various parts of the exoskeleton may be fused together. The abdomen bears pleopods, and ends in a telson, which bears the anus, the number and variety of appendages in different crustaceans may be partly responsible for the groups success. It is unclear whether the condition is a derived state which evolved in crustaceans. Trilobites, for instance, also possessed biramous appendages, the main body cavity is an open circulatory system, where blood is pumped into the haemocoel by a heart located near the dorsum. Malacostraca have haemocyanin as the pigment, while copepods, ostracods, barnacles. The alimentary canal consists of a tube that often has a gizzard-like gastric mill for grinding food and a pair of digestive glands that absorb food. Structures that function as kidneys are located near the antennae, a brain exists in the form of ganglia close to the antennae, and a collection of major ganglia is found below the gut. In many decapods, the first pair of pleopods are specialised in the male for sperm transfer, many terrestrial crustaceans mate seasonally and return to the sea to release the eggs. Others, such as woodlice, lay their eggs on land, in most decapods, the females retain the eggs until they hatch into free-swimming larvae. Marine crustaceans are as ubiquitous in the oceans as insects are on land, some branchiurans are able to withstand rapid changes of salinity and will also switch hosts from marine to non-marine species. Krill are the layer and the most important part of the food chain in Antarctic animal communities
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Aquatic ecosystem
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An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water. Communities of organisms that are dependent on other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two main types of ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems. Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71% of the Earths surface and contain approximately 97% of the planets water and they generate 32% of the worlds net primary production. They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially salts, approximately 85% of the dissolved materials in seawater are sodium and chlorine. Seawater has a salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems, marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, the benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides, in this figure it is termed the littoral zone, other near-shore zones can include estuaries, salt marshes, coral reefs, lagoons and mangrove swamps. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web, classes of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown algae, dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks. Fishes caught in marine ecosystems are the biggest source of commercial foods obtained from wild populations, environmental problems concerning marine ecosystems include unsustainable exploitation of marine resources, marine pollution, climate change, and building on coastal areas. Freshwater ecosystems cover 0. 78% of the Earths surface and inhabit 0. 009% of its total water and they generate nearly 3% of its net primary production. Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the known fish species. There are three types of freshwater ecosystems, Lentic, slow moving water, including pools, ponds. Lotic, faster moving water, for example streams and rivers, wetlands, areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time. Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones, one common system divides lakes into three zones. The first, the zone, is the shallow zone near the shore. This is where rooted wetland plants occur, the offshore is divided into two further zones, an open water zone and a deep water zone
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Sesimbra
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Sesimbra is a municipality of Portugal, in the Setúbal District, lying at the foothills of the Serra da Arrábida, a mountain range between Setúbal and Sesimbra. Due to its position at the Setúbal Bay, near the mouth of the Sado River and its natural harbour. The population in 2011 was 49,500, in an area of 195.47 km², the present Mayor is Augusto Pólvora. Besides professional fishing and sport fishing, the most significant revenues in Sesimbra come from tourism, the town is famous for its beaches, fish restaurants and nightlife. The original name of Celtic origin was Cempsibriga, meaning the Burg of the Celtic tribe the Sesim, close by, on a mountaintop,240 m above sea level, lies strategically the Moorish castle. It was taken from the Moors, during the Portuguese Reconquista in the year 1165 by king Afonso Henriques with the help of Frank Crusaders, the battlements afford a beautiful panorama over Sesimbra, its harbour and the surrounding countryside. During the Age of Discoveries, Sesimbra became an important seaport, even king Manuel I lived here for a while. In the 17th century the fort Fortaleza de Santiago was built along the beach, on 3 June 1602 an English fleet defeated a Spanish galley fleet and in addition captured a large Portuguese carrack and severely damaged the fort. It was even used in the 18th century by Portuguese kings as a seaside retreat, a tourist travelling to Sesimbra can appreciate its beaches, traditional fish restaurants and the Arrábida National Park. Sesimbra is a diving location close to Lisbon and the most famous dive site is the wreck of the River Gurara, a Nigerian cargo ship. Close to the Moorish castle is the church Nossa Senhora do Castelo and it stands on the spot where king Sancho I built a Romanesque chapel in the early 13th century, leading to the creation in 1388 of the parish of Nossa Senhora do Castelo de Sesimbra. The present church was built in 1721, when a new church was built in the village, this church passed into disuse and fell into ruins. It was restored between 1965 and 2001, the walls of the church are inlaid with beautiful azulejos. The 17th century-pulpit was made from pink marble. The gilded triumphal arch of the 18th century-choir is decorated with Manueline motives, on the left side of the choir stands in a niche the gilded and polychromed statue of the Madonna of the Castle on a giant shell. There is a radio station in the municipality, Sesimbra FM. This active town twinning began in 1991 and there are events, such as a produce market from each of the other countries. Discussions regarding membership are also in hand with three further towns
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Commercial fishing
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Commercial fishing is the activity of catching fish and other seafood for commercial profit, mostly from wild fisheries. It provides a large quantity of food to many countries around the earth, large-scale commercial fishing is also known as industrial fishing. This profession has gained in popularity with the development of such as Deadliest Catch, Swords. The major fishing industries are not only owned by major corporations, the industry has had to adapt through the years in order to keep earning a profit. A study taken on some small family-owned commercial fishing companies showed that they adapted to continue to earn a living but not necessarily make a large profit. Commercial fishermen harvest a variety of animals, ranging from tuna, cod, carp, and salmon to shrimp, krill, lobster, clams, squid. There are large and important fisheries worldwide for species of fish, mollusks, crustaceans. However, a small number of species support the majority of the worlds fisheries. Some of these species are herring, cod, anchovy, tuna, flounder, mullet, squid, shrimp, salmon, crab, lobster, oyster and scallops. All except these last four provided a catch of well over a million tonnes in 1999, with herring. Many other species are fished in smaller numbers, commercial fishing may offer an abundance of jobs, but the pay varies from boat to boat, season to season. That may be true, but there are also the boats who dont do well, a 2009 paper in Science estimates, for the first time, the total world fish biomass as somewhere between 0.8 and 2.0 billion tonnes. Sustainability of fisheries is improved by using equipment that eliminates or minimizes catching non-targeted species. Fishing methods vary according to the region, the species being fished for, a commercial fishing enterprise may vary from one man with a small boat with hand-casting nets or a few pot traps, to a huge fleet of trawlers processing tons of fish every day. Billions of dollars are spent each year in researching/developing new techniques to reduce the injury, in fact, there was a study taken in 2000 on different deterrents and how effective they are at deterring the target species. The study showed that most auditory deterrents helped prevent whales from being caught while more physical barriers helped prevent birds from getting tangled within the net. During 2000–2006, commercial fishing was one of the most dangerous occupations in the United States, falling overboard specifically killed 182 fishermen in the period between 2000 and 2010. This fatality rate is 3 times that of the next most dangerous job in the U. S. also, between the years of 1919 and 2005,4111 fishermen died in fishing related accidents in the United Kingdom industry alone
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Recreational fishing
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Recreational fishing, also called sport fishing, is fishing for pleasure or competition. It can be contrasted with fishing, which is fishing for profit, or subsistence fishing. The most common form of fishing is done with a rod, reel, line, hooks. Other devices, commonly referred to as terminal tackle, are used to affect or complement the presentation of the bait to the targeted fish. Some examples of terminal tackle include weights, floats, and swivels, lures are frequently used in place of bait. Some hobbyists make handmade tackle themselves, including plastic lures and artificial flies, the practice of catching or attempting to catch fish with a hook is known as angling. Big-game fishing is conducted from boats to catch large species such as tuna, sharks. Noodling and trout tickling are also recreational activities, the early evolution of fishing as recreation is not clear. For example, there is evidence for fly fishing in Japan as early as the ninth century BCE. But for the early Japanese and Macedonians, fly fishing was likely to have been a means of survival and it is possible that antecedents of recreational fly fishing arrived in England with the Norman conquest of 1066. Although the point in history where fishing could first be said to be recreational is not clear, the earliest English essay on recreational fishing was published in 1496, shortly after the invention of the printing press. The authorship of this was attributed to Dame Juliana Berners, the prioress of the Benedictine Sopwell Nunnery, the essay was titled Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle, and was published in the second Boke of Saint Albans, a treatise on hawking, hunting, and heraldry. During the 16th century the work was read, and was reprinted many times. Treatyse includes detailed information on fishing waters, the construction of rods and lines, and it also includes modern concerns about conservation and angler etiquette. Another Civil War veteran to enthusiastically take up fishing, was Richard Franck and he was the first to describe salmon fishing in Scotland, and both in that and trout-fishing with artificial fly he was a practical angler. He was the first angler to name the burbot, and commended the salmon of the River Thames, Compleat Angler was written by Izaak Walton in 1653 and described the fishing in the Derbyshire Wye. It was a celebration of the art and spirit of fishing in prose and verse,6 verses were quoted from John Dennyss earlier work, a second part to the book was added by Waltons friend Charles Cotton. More than 300 editions of The Compleat Angler have been published, the pastoral discourse was enriched with country fishing folklore, songs and poems, recipes and anecdotes, moral meditations, and quotes from classic literature
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Artisanal fishing
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Artisanal fishing are various small-scale, low-technology, low-capital, fishing practices undertaken by individual fishing households. Many of these households are of coastal or island ethnic groups and these households make short fishing trips close to the shore. Their produce is not processed and is mainly for local consumption. Artisan fishing uses traditional fishing techniques such as rod and tackle, fishing arrows and harpoons, cast nets, artisan fishing may be undertaken for both commercial and subsistence reasons. It contrasts with modern commercial fishing practices in that it is often less wasteful. ISBN 978-92-5-105664-6 Diegues, Antonio Carlos Sea Tenure, traditional knowledge, pauly, D Major trends in small-scale marine fisheries, with emphasis on developing countries, and some implications for the social sciences Maritime Studies 4, 7-22. Tietze, U, Siar, S, Upare, Suchitra M and Upare, M A Livelihood, naar presenting the story of the smallest Bolivian fishing community of Uru-Muratos, Puñaca Tintamaria. See a 12 minutes fragment from the film on YouTube
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Seawater
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Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the oceans has a salinity of about 3. 5% This means that every kilogram of seawater has approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts. Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/l, seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases, at typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C. The coldest seawater ever recorded was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater, although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g/kg and 38 g/kg, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts precipitation, the most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still, historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the Practical Salinity Scale where salinity was measured in practical salinity units, the current standard for salinity is the Reference Salinity scale with the salinity expressed in units of g/kg. The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature, at a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3. Deep in the ocean, under pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity, brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C, seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s, and varies with temperature, salinity. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C, the thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature. Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater, however, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. Bicarbonate ions also constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0. 14% of all seawater ions, differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes, sodium and chlorine have very long residence times, while calcium tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/l
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Fresh water
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Fresh water is generally characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water although it does include mineral-rich waters such as chalybeate springs, the term sweet water has been used to describe fresh water in contrast to salt water. The term fresh water does not have the meaning as potable water. Much of the fresh water and ground water is unsuitable for drinking without some form of purification because of the presence of chemical or biological contaminants. It may also be in contact with the underlying underground water. The majority of water on Earth is in ice caps. The source of almost all water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea, in some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers. In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium, significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa. Water is an issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants. Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 20% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes. Swamps have most of the balance only a small amount in rivers. In areas with no water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density. Most of the fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of water, such as deserts
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Wildlife
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Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species, but has come to include all plants, fungi, and other organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems, humans have historically tended to separate civilization from wildlife in a number of ways including the legal, social, and moral sense. Some animals, however, have adapted to suburban environments and this includes such animals as domesticated cats, dogs, mice, and gerbils. The global wildlife population has decreased by 52 percent between 1970 and 2014, according to a report by the World Wildlife Fund, anthropologists believe that the Stone Age people and hunter-gatherers relied on wildlife, both plants and animals, for their food. In fact, some species may have been hunted to extinction by human hunters. Today, hunting, fishing, and gathering wildlife is still a significant food source in parts of the world. In other areas, hunting and non-commercial fishing are seen as a sport or recreation. Meat sourced from wildlife that is not traditionally regarded as game is known as bush meat, in November 2008, almost 900 plucked and oven-ready owls and other protected wildlife species were confiscated by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Malaysia, according to TRAFFIC. The animals were believed to be bound for China, to be sold in wild meat restaurants, most are listed in CITES which prohibits or restricts such trade.60. Many Amazon species, including peccaries, agoutis, turtles, turtle eggs, anacondas, armadillos, others in these informal markets, such as monkeys and parrots, are destined for the pet trade, often smuggled into the United States. Still other Amazon species are popular ingredients in traditional medicines sold in local markets, the medicinal value of animal parts is based largely on superstition. Many animal species have spiritual significance in different cultures around the world, for example, eagles, hawks and their feathers have great cultural and spiritual value to Native Americans as religious objects. In Hinduism the cow is regarded sacred, muslims conduct sacrifices on Eid-ul-Adha to commemorate the sacrificial spirit of Ibrahim in love of God. Camels, sheep, goats, and cows may be offered as sacrifice during the three days of Eid, many nations have established their tourism sector around their natural wildlife. South Africa has, for example, many opportunities for tourists to see the wildlife in its national parks. In South India the Periar Wildlife Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park and Mudamalai Wildlife Sanctuary are situated around, India is home to many national parks and wildlife sanctuaries showing the diversity of its wildlife, much of its unique fauna, and excels in the range. This subsection focuses on forms of wildlife destruction. Exploitation of wild populations has been a characteristic of man since our exodus from Africa 130,000 –70,000 years ago
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Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
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Salmon
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Salmon /ˈsæmən/ is the common name for several species of ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. Other fish in the family include trout, char, grayling. Salmon are native to tributaries of the North Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, many species of salmon have been introduced into non-native environments such as the Great Lakes of North America and Patagonia in South America. Salmon are intensively farmed in parts of the world. Typically, salmon are anadromous, they are born in water, migrate to the ocean. However, populations of species are restricted to fresh water through their lives. Various species of salmon display anadromous life strategies while others display freshwater resident life strategies, folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they were born to spawn, tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true. A portion of a salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems. The percent of straying depends on the species of salmon, homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory. The term salmon comes from the Latin salmo, which in turn may have originated from salire, the nine commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon, found in the north Atlantic, the genus Oncorhynchus contains eight species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific. As a group, these are known as Pacific salmon, Chinook salmon have been introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia. Coho, freshwater sockeye, and Atlantic salmon have established in Patagonia. † Both the Salmo and Oncorhynchus genera also contain a number of species referred to as trout, within Salmo, additional minor taxa have been called salmon in English, i. e. the Adriatic salmon and Black Sea salmon. The steelhead anadromous form of the rainbow trout migrates to sea, also a number of other species have common names which refer to them as being salmon. The British Columbia salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago, Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred by 10 to 20 million years ago. This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record rejects the theory of salmon divergence. Atlantic salmon reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, landlocked salmon live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe, for instance in lakes Sebago, Onega, Ladoga, Saimaa, Vänern, and Winnipesaukee
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Alaska
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Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
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Atlantic cod
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The Atlantic cod is a benthopelagic fish of the family Gadidae, widely consumed by humans. It is also known as cod or codling. Dry cod may be prepared as unsalted stockfish or as cured salt cod or clipfish, the largest individual on record was 6 feet long and weighed 211 lb, however usually the cod is between 24 inches and 4 feet long, and weighs 88 lb. There is generally no difference in weight or size between sexes of Atlantic Cod, Atlantic Cod can live for 25 years, and usually attains sexual maturity between ages two and four, although cod in the northeast Arctic can take as long as eight years to fully mature. Colouring is brown or green, with spots on the dorsal side, a stripe along its lateral line is clearly visible. Its habitat ranges from the shoreline down to the continental shelf, several cod stocks collapsed in the 1990s and have failed to recover even with the cessation of fishing. This absence of the predator has led to a trophic cascade in many areas. Many other cod stocks remain at risk, the Atlantic cod is labelled vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Adult cod form squirting aggregations from late winter to spring, females release their eggs in batches, and males compete to fertilize them. Fertilized eggs drift with currents and develop into larvae. Age of maturation varies between cod stocks, from two to four in the west Atlantic, but as late as eight years in the northeast Arctic. Cod can live for 13 years or more, the Atlantic cod is one of three cod species in the genus Gadus along with Pacific cod and Greenland cod. A variety of species are colloquially known as cod, but they are not strictly classified within the Gadus genus, though some are in the Atlantic cod family. Atlantic cod are a species and move in large, size-structured aggregations. Larger fish act as scouts and lead the shoals direction, particularly during post spawning migrations inshore for feeding, Cod actively feed during migration and changes in shoal structure occur when food is encountered. Shoals are generally thought to be leaderless, with all fish having equal status. However, some studies suggest that leading fish gain certain feeding benefits, one study of a migrating Atlantic cod shoal showed significant variability in feeding habits based on size and position in the shoal. Larger scouts consumed a more variable, higher quantity of food, while trailing fish had less variable diets, Atlantic cod are apex predators in the Baltic and adults are generally free from the concerns of predation
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Lofoten
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Lofoten is an archipelago and a traditional district in the county of Nordland, Norway. Lofoten is known for a distinctive scenery with mountains and peaks, open sea and sheltered bays, beaches. Though lying within the Arctic Circle, the archipelago experiences one of the worlds largest elevated temperature anomalies relative to its high latitude, Lofoten was originally the old name of the island Vestvågøya. The first element is ló and the last element is derived from Norse fótr, there is evidence of human settlement extending back at least 11,000 yrs in Lofoten, and the earliest archaeological sites. Are only about 5,500 yrs old, at the transition from the early to late Stone Age, Iron Age agriculture, livestock, and significant human habitation can be traced back to ~250 BCE. The town of Vågan is the first known town formation in northern Norway and it existed in the early Viking Age, maybe earlier, and was located on the southern coast on eastern Lofoten, near todays village Kabelvåg in Vågan municipality. However, the Lofotr Viking Museum with the reconstructed 83-meter-long longhouse is located near Borg on Vestvågøy, which has many archeological finds from the Iron Age and Viking Age. The islands have for more than 1,000 years been the centre of great cod fisheries, especially in winter, when the cod migrates south from the Barents Sea and gathers in Lofoten to spawn. Bergen in southwestern Norway was for a time the hub for further export south to different parts of Europe. In the lowland areas, particularly Vestvågøy, agriculture plays a significant role, Lofotr was originally the name of the island of Vestvågøy only. Later it became the name of the chain of islands, the chain of islands with its pointed peaks looks like a lynx foot from the mainland. In Norwegian, it is always a singular, another name one might come across, is Lofotveggen or the Lofoten wall. The archipelago looks like a wall when seen from elevated points around Bodø or when arriving from the sea, some 100 kilometres long. In 1941, the islands were raided by British Commandos during Operation Claymore in March, Lofoten is located at the 68th and 69th parallels north of the Arctic Circle in North Norway. It is well known for its natural beauty within Norway, Lofoten encompasses the municipalities of Vågan, Vestvågøy, Flakstad, Moskenes, Værøy, and Røst. The principal islands, running north to south are, Southern tip of Hinnøya. Southern 60% of Austvågøy Gimsøy Vestvågøy Flakstadøya Moskenesøya Further to the south are the small and isolated islands of Værøy, the total land area amounts to 1,227 square kilometres, and the population totals 24,500. Many will argue that Hinnøya, the part of Austvågøy and several hundred smaller islands, skerries
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Tuna
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A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, the bluefin averages 2 m, and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Tuna and mackerel sharks are the species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially, and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of tuna species such as the southern bluefin tuna have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction. The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of the Ancient Greek, θύννος tunny-fish – which is in turn derived from θύνω, rush, the following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. The true tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus, until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera, Thunnus, and Thunnus, the Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are, The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish and it has two closely spaced dorsal fins on its back, The first is depressible – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back. Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the fins to the tail. The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, the tunas dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue, while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage. Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical, all tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a body temperature of 25–33 °C. However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, the oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful
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Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
Hawes, J. W. (1879). "Fisheries". The American Cyclopædia.
Hawes, J. W. (1879). "
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