1.
List of Chilean flags
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It was adopted on October 18,1817. The Chilean flag is known in Spanish as. It has a 3,2 ratio between length and width, it is divided horizontally into two bands of equal size. The upper area is divided once, in a square, with a centered white star. According to the epic poem La Araucana, the colors were derived from those from the flag flown by the Mapuche during the Arauco War, Flag Day is held each year on the ninth of July to commemorate the 77 soldiers who died in the 1882 Battle of La Concepción. The first records on the use of flags by indigenous peoples date back to the War of Arauco. In Canto XXI, Alonso de Ercilla described Talcahuano, warrior and chief of the Mapuche who work the lands near the city that bears his name, bearing emblems of blue, white. Another important piece of information is that the colors of the flag were chosen from the ancient chile that they made which was treasured worldwide, two flags have been documented as used by Mapuche troops. However, these descriptions were made late in the century without certainty about the age of them. The latter flag appears to be waved by the chief Lautaro in the artistic representation of it. The main symbol of this flag is the star of Arauco, called guñelve, representing the flower of the canelo, in the independence of Chile, Bernardo OHiggins said that guñelve was direct inspiration for create the Chilean flag with the Lone Star. In the case of the troops, they used several Spanish flags. Each battalion had its own flag, which could incorporate different elements including the coat of arms of the King of Spain. One of the symbols most commonly used was the Cross of Burgundy, in 1785, Carlos III established a uniform flag for all ships of the Spanish Armada, similar to the current flag of Spain. The use of this flag would be extended in 1793 to maritime towns, castles. Despite the establishment of new flag, the cross of Burgundy would still often used by colonial entities. At the onset of the Chilean War of Independence, the First Government Junta was proclaimed on 18 September 1810 and it would be during the government of Jose Miguel Carrera in which the desire for emancipation would gain more strength. Nevertheless, the junta was established as a way of controlling the government during the absence of King Fernando VII, so that the symbols of government remained Hispanic
List of Chilean flags
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During the
Declaration of Independence, today's flag was raised for the first time.
List of Chilean flags
List of Chilean flags
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Time of Flags by the artist Ricardo Meza, located on the wall of the stairway access to the second floor of
La Moneda Palace.
List of Chilean flags
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Chilean flags waving in
Puerto Montt.
2.
Glossary of vexillology
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Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
Glossary of vexillology
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Contents
3.
National flag
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A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country, historically, flags originate as military standards, used as field signs. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the flag, introduced during the age of sail. Most countries of Europe adopted a flag in the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The specifications of the flag of Denmark were codified in 1748, the flag of Switzerland was introduced in 1889, also based on medieval war flags. The Netherlands introduced two national flags in 1813, the Ottoman flag was adopted in 1844. Other non-European powers followed the trend in the late 19th century, the flag of Japan being introduced in 1870, the Flag of the United States is not defined in the constitution but rather in a separate Flag Resolution passed in 1777. Minor design changes of national flags are passed on a legislative or executive level. A change in national flag is due to a change of regime. In such cases, the origins of the national flag. In such cases national flags acquire the status of a political symbol, the flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation. The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour, nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration. There are three types of national flag for use on land, and three for use at sea, though many countries use identical designs for several of these types of flag. On land, there is a distinction between civil flags, state flags, and war or military flags, state flags are those used officially by government agencies, whereas civil flags may be flown by anyone regardless of whether they are linked to government. War flags are used by organisations such as Armies, Marine Corps. In practice, many countries have identical flags for these three purposes, national flag is used as a vexillological term to refer to such a three-purpose flag
National flag
National flag
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The world's third tallest
flagpole flying a 270 kg (595 lb)
Flag of North Korea. It is 160 m (525 ft) in height, over
Kijŏng-dong ("Peace village") near
Panmunjom, the border of
North Korea and
South Korea.
National flag
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Distribution of colours in national flags
4.
National ensign
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Ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship, the naval ensign, used on warships, may be different from the civil ensign or the yacht ensign. Large versions of naval ensigns called battle ensigns are used when a warship goes into battle, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. In its widest sense, an ensign is just a flag or other standard, the European military rank of ensign, once responsible for bearing a units standard derives from it. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, liwa, derives from the command of a unit or units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is a general officer. In Arab armies, ensign is a title equivalent to a Western brigade. In nautical use, the ensign is flown on a ship or boat to indicate its appartenance, while this includes its nationality, it may well indicate more information rather than being the national flag itself. This is particularly common for commonwealth and European countries, ensigns are usually at the stern flagstaff when in port, and may be shifted to a gaff or mast amidships when the ship is under way, becoming known as a steaming ensign. Vexillologists distinguish three varieties of a national flag used as an ensign, A civil ensign is worn by merchant. In some countries the yacht ensign, used on boats or ships instead of merchant vessels. A state ensign or government ensign is worn by government vessels, a naval ensign is used by a countrys navy. Such ensigns are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, several Commonwealth countries national flags had their origin in the ensigns of their original colonising power, the United Kingdom. Most notable of these flags are those of Australia, New Zealand. It is also likely that the original design from which the flag of the United States developed was strongly influenced by the British Red Ensign or the flag of the East India Company. With the creation of independent air forces and the growth in aviation in the first half of the 20th century. These may be divided into air force ensigns and civil air ensigns, in heraldry, an ensign is the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet, or mitre, borne above the charge or arms. Distinguishing mark Maritime flag Znamierowski, Alfred, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
National ensign
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National civil ensign of New Zealand flown from the stern of
Hikitia
National ensign
National ensign
5.
President of Chile
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The President of the Republic of Chile is the head of state and the head of government of the Republic of Chile. The President is responsible for government and state administration. It is also considered as one of the institutions that make up the Historic Constitution of Chile, under the current Constitution, the President is elected to serve for a period of four years, with immediate re-election being prohibited. The shorter period allows for parliamentary and presidential elections to be synchronized, the official seat of the President of Chile is the La Moneda Palace in the capital Santiago. The Constitution of 1980 and its amendments, establishes the requirements for becoming President. Originally the President must be a citizen of the country. The President must also be at least 35 years old, in addition, all the requirements for becoming a Senator apply. The president must meet all the requirements to qualify as a fully Chilean citizen with the right to vote and those are who have reached the age of eighteen years and who have never been sentenced to afflicting punishment. The loss of the right to vote is the main disqualification for the applicant, in the 2005 constitutional reform, some of these requirements were changed, The President now must have the Chilean nationality. The President must also be at least 35 years old, article 26 detail the electoral requirements. The President shall be elected by ballot, with an absolute majority of the votes validly cast. In order to win the election in the first round, the candidates party must receive more than 50 percent of the valid votes leaving out of the count blank. The election shall be held the third Sunday of November of the year immediately before the end of the administration of the President then holding office. Should there be more than two candidates in the election, none of them obtaining more than half of the votes validly cast. The second election, in the manner determined by law, shall be held the fourth Sunday after the first election, then, the candidate with the majority of valid votes in that round is elected president. Under the 1828 constitution, the President served for four years, in 1833, the presidential period was changed to five years, with a possibility of immediate reelection for one more term, limited to two consecutive terms. Then by a reform in 1878, possibility for reelection became disallowed. Under the 1925 constitution, the President served for a six-year term, in the original text of the 1980 constitution, the President served for an eight-year term without the possibility of immediate reelection
President of Chile
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Incumbent
Michelle Bachelet since 11 March 2014
President of Chile
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Presidential Standard
President of Chile
President of Chile
6.
Coat of arms of Chile
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The coat of arms of Chile dates from 1834 and was designed by the English artist Charles Wood Taylor. It is made up by a background divided in two equal parts, the top one is blue and the bottom, red. A five pointed star is in the centre of the shield. This background is supported in one side by a condor, the most significant bird of prey from the Andes, and in the other, by a huemul, both animals wear golden naval crowns symbolising the heroic deeds of the Chilean Navy in the Pacific Ocean. The coat of arms is crowned by a three-feathered crest, each bearing one colour, blue, white. This crest was a symbol of distinction that former Presidents of the Republic used to wear on their hats, underneath the coat of arms and on the elaborated pedestal, there is a white band with the motto, Por la Razón o la Fuerza. This emblem is the last of a series of variations due to diverse circumstances, the first coat of arms was established during the office of President José Miguel Carrera, in 1812. It was designed over an oval in which center was depicted a column representing the Tree of Freedom, on top of this column was a terrestrial globe, over the globe, a lance and a palm leaf crossed and over these two, a star. Standing, on sides of the fixture, was the figure of an indigenous woman and a man. On top of everything was written, in Latin, Post Tenebras Lux and at the bottom, in 1817, two new coats of arms emerged, both variations of this last one, but did not last long. Two years later, on 23 September 1819, a new project for a coat of arms was approved in the Senate and it was a dark blue field, with a column standing on a white marble pedestal in the middle. On top of column, the new American world with the word Libertad over it. Above this sign, a five pointed star, representing the Province of Santiago, two similar stars, representing Concepción and Coquimbo, were at each side of the column. This combination of elements was surrounded by two branches of laurel with their buds tied with a tricolor ribbon. Around this ribbon, the armory of the country was depicted in strict order, cavalry, infantry, dragoons, artillery. To complete the coat of arms, a man held it with his hands over his head. The cayman had, in its jaws, the Lion of Castile, sobre los verdaderos simbolos patrios de Chile simbolospatrios. cl Gallery of Chilean coats of arms
Coat of arms of Chile
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Coat of arms of Chile
7.
Five-pointed star
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A five-pointed star is a common ideogram used throughout the world. If the colinear edges are joined together a pentagram is produced and it has also become a symbol of fame or stardom in Western culture. Five-pointed stars are found on flags, generally in solid form, although some. The pentagram appears on two national flags, those of Ethiopia and Morocco. Five-pointed stars appear on the flag and in the symbolism of the United States. In the U. S. context, the stars allegedly symbolize the heavens, the five-pointed star is known as a symbol of fame or stardom. The Red Star is a star, coloured solidly in red. It is used to symbolize socialism and in particular communism and they live mainly in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. The five-pointed star is part of the symbol of the Ottoman Empire, in the Baháí Faith a five-pointed star referred to as a haykal represents the Manifestation of God, as described in the Súriy-i-Haykal. Strictly speaking the 5-pointed star is the symbol of our Faith, as used by the Báb, the five pointed star is a Serer religious, and symbolizes the Serer people of West Africa. In the Serer language, it is called Yoonir and it is regarded as symbol of the universe in the Serer creation myth, the Five pointed star has been a Muslim symbol for multiple Muslim works, most notably on flags. This might be a feature as part of the star and crescent to represent the caliphate, Five pointed stars are also used on various elevators to indicate the ground level or lobby of a building. Five pointed stars are used on various police, fire. The five pointed star may also be used to symbolize the human body as well as the five senses of human perception, the symbol of the Italian Marxist-Leninist terrorist group Brigate Rosse is a slightly modified five-pointed star. The Order of the Eastern Star, an organization associated with Freemasonry, employs a downward-pointing star as its symbol, with the five points colored blue, yellow, white, green. This emblem sometimes appears in the form of a pentagram, the Star and Crescent are the official symbols of Kappa Sigma comprising the fraternity badge. A green five-pointed star is a symbol of Esperanto
Five-pointed star
Five-pointed star
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A five-pointed star
8.
Andes
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The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
Andes
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Aerial photo of a portion of the Andes between
Argentina and
Chile
Andes
Andes
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"
Cono de Arita " in the
Puna de Atacama,
Salta (
Argentina).
Andes
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Aerial view of Aconcagua.
9.
La Araucana
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La Araucana is a 16th-century epic poem in Spanish about the Spanish Conquest of Chile by Alonso de Ercilla. It was considered the national epic of the Kingdom of Chile, la Araucana consists of 37 cantos that are distributed across the poem’s three parts. The first part was published in 1569, the second appeared in 1578, and it was published along with the first part. The poem shows Ercilla to be a master of the octava real, a difficult eight-line unit of 11-syllable verses that are linked by a tight rhyme scheme abababcc, the octava real was a challenge few poets met. It had been adapted from Italian only in the 16th century, the work describes the initial phase of the Arauco War which evolved from the Spanish conquest attempt of southern Chile. The war would come to shape the economics, politics and social life of Chile for centuries. Ercilla placed the lesser conquests of the Spanish in Chile at the core of his poem, because the author was a participant in the conquest and the story is based on his experiences there. On scraps of paper in the lulls of fighting, Ercilla jotted down versified octaves about the events of the war and these stanzas he later gathered together and augmented in number to form his epic. Thus we see Ercilla appealing to the concept of the noble savage, montaignes essay Des Canibales, and was destined to have wide literary currency in European literature two centuries later. He had, in fact, created a poem of the war in Chile which immediately inspired many imitations. La Araucana is deliberately literary and includes elements reminiscent of medieval stories of chivalry. The narrator is a participant in the story, at the time a new development for Spanish literature, influences include Orlando furioso by Ludovico Ariosto. Also features extended description of the natural landscape, for Ercilla, the Araucanians were noble and brave—only lacking, as their Classical counterparts did, the Christian faith. Caupolicán, the Indian warrior and chieftain who is the protagonist of Ercilla’s poem, has a panoply of Classical heroes behind him. Ercilla, the poet-soldier, eventually emerges as the hero of his own poem. La Araucana’s more dramatic moments also became a source of plays, la Araucana makes Chile the only American country that was founded under the lights of an epic poem. Alonso de Ercilla was born into a family in Madrid. He distinguished himself in the campaign, but, having quarrelled with a comrade, he was condemned to death in 1558 by his general
La Araucana
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La Araucana, 1st part,
editio princeps, Madrid, 1569.
10.
Mapuche
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The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of present-day Patagonia. Their influence once extended from the Aconcagua River to the Chiloé Archipelago, today the collective group makes up over 80% of the indigenous peoples in Chile, and about 9% of the total Chilean population. They are particularly concentrated in Araucanía, many have migrated to the Santiago area for economic opportunities. The Mapuchen is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche, Huilliche and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía, or at other times, the Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture, their traditional social organisation consists of extended families, under the direction of a lonko or chief. In times of war, they would unite in larger groupings and they are known for the textiles woven by women, which have been goods for trade for centuries, since before European encounter. The Araucanian Mapuche inhabited at the time of Spanish arrival the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers, South of it, the Huilliche and the Cunco lived as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and pampas, fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche. At about the time, ethnic groups of the pampa regions. The Tehuelche adopted the Mapuche language and some of their culture, historically the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to the Mapuche people as Araucanians. However, this term is now considered pejorative by some people, the name was likely derived from the placename rag ko, meaning clayey water. The Quechua word awqa, meaning rebel, enemy, is not the root of araucano. Some Mapuche mingled with Spanish during colonial times, and their descendants make up the group of mestizos in Chile. But, Mapuche society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until the Chilean Occupation of Araucanía, since then Mapuches have become subjects, and then nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many Mapuche and Mapuche communities are engaged in the so-called Mapuche conflict over land, archaeological finds have shown the existence of a Mapuche culture in Chile and Argentina as early as 600 to 500 BC. Genetically Mapuches differ from the adjacent indigenous peoples of Patagonia and this suggests a different origin or long lasting separation of Mapuche and Patagonian populations. Troops of the Inca Empire are reported to have reached the Maule River and had a battle with the Mapuches between the Maule River and the Itata River there. The southern border of the Inca Empire is believed by most modern scholars to have been situated between Santiago and the Maipo River or somewhere between Santiago and the Maule River, thus the bulk of the Mapuche escaped Inca rule. Through their contact with Incan invaders Mapuches would have for the first time met people with state organization and their contact with the Incas gave them a collective awareness distinguishing between them and the invaders and uniting them into loose geo-political units despite their lack of state organization
Mapuche
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Lautaro •
Rayén Quitral • Mapuche woman from Chile •
Ceferino Namuncurá
Mapuche
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Huamán Poma de Ayala's picture of the confrontation between the Mapuches (left) and the
Incas (right)
Mapuche
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Caupolican by Nicanor Plaza
Mapuche
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Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez in meeting with the main lonkos of Araucania in 1869
11.
Arauco War
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The Arauco War was a long-running conflict between colonial Spaniards and the Mapuche people, mostly fought in the Araucanía. The Chilean War of Independence brought new hostilities to the frontier, with different factions of Spaniards, Chileans and Mapuches fighting for independence, Mapuche independence finally ended with the Chilean occupation of Araucanía between 1861 and 1883. The modern Mapuche conflict is partially inspired in the Arauco War, Valdivia hoped to enlarge the territory under his jurisdiction and, despite injuries from a fall from his horse, resolved to take personal command of a land expedition into Araucanía. The expedition set sail from Valparaíso, entered the bay of San Pedro, and made landings at what is now known as Concepción and at Valdivia, encountering severe storms further south, he then returned to Valparaiso. Valdivia himself set out in 1546, with sixty horsemen plus guides and porters, in 1550, a new expedition was launched, consisting of a naval force under Pastene, and a land force of two hundred Spaniards mounted and foot and a number of Mapocho auxiliaries under Valdivia. They planned to reunite on the shores of the Bay of Concepción, the expedition advanced beyond the Itata River and Laja River, to the shores of the Bío-Bío River. Along the way they had several battles with groups of Mapuches as they explored the region killing many with little loss to themselves. After spending over a week in the area and encountering increasing opposition, the night attack was defeated in a furious battle, the Spaniards suffered one killed and many wounds to men and especially their mounts. After a day treating their wounds they continued towards their rendezvous at the Bay of Concepción, there Valdivia began building a fort at what is now Penco. On February 23, Pastenes fleet anchored in the bay, brought supplies, reinforcements, on March 1 Valdivia founded here the city of Concepción del Nuevo Extremo. On March 3 of that year, the fort was completed and was attacked nine days later by the largest force of Mapuches yet seen in the Battle of Penco and this force was broken and routed despite the small size of the Spanish forces. After reinforcement at Concepción in 1551, he organized another expedition to establish the fort La Imperial on the banks of the Imperial River and he then returned to Concepción to prepare another expedition and await the reinforcements the Viceroy had promised to send by sea. Leaving orders that the new troops should disembark on the Tierras de Valdivia that Pastene had discovered earlier, once he had passed it on his way south, he ordered Jerónimo de Alderete to drive inland and establish a fort, with the goal of securing his eastern flank. To this end, Alderente reached Lake Villarrica and established a fort there, Meanwhile, Valdivias column advanced southwards and joined the reinforcements sent from Peru, under the command of Francisco de Villagra. There, the city of Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia was established, after garrisoning these new places, Valdivia returned to his base at Concepción in 1552 where rich placer gold mines were found in the Quilacoya River valley. With the goal of securing the lines of communication with the forts, Valdivia launched a third expedition which established forts at Tucapel, Purén, Confines. The Araucanians didnt offer any resistance to the conquistadors in their fort-building, in October 1553, the Quilacoya gold mine was opened and large numbers of Mapuche were forced to work in it. In 1553, the Mapuches held a council at which, because of the growth of Spanish forces in their territory, with six thousand warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked the fort at Tucapel
Arauco War
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Illustration of the Arauco War in
Jerónimo de Vivar 's book Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reynos de Chile (1558).
Arauco War
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Pedro de Valdivia
Arauco War
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Doña
Inés de Suárez in defending the city of Santiago
Arauco War
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Caupolican by Nicanor Plaza
12.
War of Arauco
–
The Arauco War was a long-running conflict between colonial Spaniards and the Mapuche people, mostly fought in the Araucanía. The Chilean War of Independence brought new hostilities to the frontier, with different factions of Spaniards, Chileans and Mapuches fighting for independence, Mapuche independence finally ended with the Chilean occupation of Araucanía between 1861 and 1883. The modern Mapuche conflict is partially inspired in the Arauco War, Valdivia hoped to enlarge the territory under his jurisdiction and, despite injuries from a fall from his horse, resolved to take personal command of a land expedition into Araucanía. The expedition set sail from Valparaíso, entered the bay of San Pedro, and made landings at what is now known as Concepción and at Valdivia, encountering severe storms further south, he then returned to Valparaiso. Valdivia himself set out in 1546, with sixty horsemen plus guides and porters, in 1550, a new expedition was launched, consisting of a naval force under Pastene, and a land force of two hundred Spaniards mounted and foot and a number of Mapocho auxiliaries under Valdivia. They planned to reunite on the shores of the Bay of Concepción, the expedition advanced beyond the Itata River and Laja River, to the shores of the Bío-Bío River. Along the way they had several battles with groups of Mapuches as they explored the region killing many with little loss to themselves. After spending over a week in the area and encountering increasing opposition, the night attack was defeated in a furious battle, the Spaniards suffered one killed and many wounds to men and especially their mounts. After a day treating their wounds they continued towards their rendezvous at the Bay of Concepción, there Valdivia began building a fort at what is now Penco. On February 23, Pastenes fleet anchored in the bay, brought supplies, reinforcements, on March 1 Valdivia founded here the city of Concepción del Nuevo Extremo. On March 3 of that year, the fort was completed and was attacked nine days later by the largest force of Mapuches yet seen in the Battle of Penco and this force was broken and routed despite the small size of the Spanish forces. After reinforcement at Concepción in 1551, he organized another expedition to establish the fort La Imperial on the banks of the Imperial River and he then returned to Concepción to prepare another expedition and await the reinforcements the Viceroy had promised to send by sea. Leaving orders that the new troops should disembark on the Tierras de Valdivia that Pastene had discovered earlier, once he had passed it on his way south, he ordered Jerónimo de Alderete to drive inland and establish a fort, with the goal of securing his eastern flank. To this end, Alderente reached Lake Villarrica and established a fort there, Meanwhile, Valdivias column advanced southwards and joined the reinforcements sent from Peru, under the command of Francisco de Villagra. There, the city of Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia was established, after garrisoning these new places, Valdivia returned to his base at Concepción in 1552 where rich placer gold mines were found in the Quilacoya River valley. With the goal of securing the lines of communication with the forts, Valdivia launched a third expedition which established forts at Tucapel, Purén, Confines. The Araucanians didnt offer any resistance to the conquistadors in their fort-building, in October 1553, the Quilacoya gold mine was opened and large numbers of Mapuche were forced to work in it. In 1553, the Mapuches held a council at which, because of the growth of Spanish forces in their territory, with six thousand warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked the fort at Tucapel
War of Arauco
–
Illustration of the Arauco War in
Jerónimo de Vivar 's book Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reynos de Chile (1558).
War of Arauco
–
Pedro de Valdivia
War of Arauco
–
Doña
Inés de Suárez in defending the city of Santiago
War of Arauco
–
Caupolican by Nicanor Plaza
13.
Alonso de Ercilla
–
Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga was a Spanish nobleman, soldier and epic poet, born in Madrid. While in Chile he fought against the Araucanians, and there he began the epic poem La Araucana and this heroic work in 37 cantos is divided into three parts, published in 1569,1578, and 1589. It tells of the insurrection of the Araucanians and also relates the history of Chile. Ercilla was born into a Basque noble family and his father was Fortuño García de Ercilla, and his mother Doña Leonor de Zúñiga, both from Bermeo. In 1548, after his fathers death, his mother became lady-in-waiting to the Infanta María and made young Alonso a page to the heir-apparent, when he was only fifteen he accompanied Philip through Italy and Germany, and their travels lasted three years. Later, Ercilla accompanied his mother to Bohemia where he left her and then visited Austria, Hungary, returning to Spain, he soon started out again with Philip. In this capacity Ercilla visited Italy, Germany and the Netherlands and he therefore obtained leave from Philip, and they set sail for America,15 October 1555. Soon after their arrival, however, Alderete died, in 1556 Ercilla continued on his way to Peru and accompanied García Hurtado de Mendoza, recently named Governor and Commander-in-chief of Chile, where the Araucanians had revolted. He distinguished himself in the ensuing campaign, apparently he remained in Chile seventeen months, between 1557 and 1559. He participated in the battles of Lagunillas, Quiapo and Millarapue and they were confronted by Juan de Pineda, an old enemy of Alonso de Ercilla, and there was a fight. García was warned of the situation, Alonso de Ercilla ran to a church and looked for asylum. The governor imprisoned both duelists and condemned them to be executed on the following day, however, many people considered the sentence unjust and tried to persuade García to reprieve them. The preparations for the continued and all hope of saving them was lost. Then two women, one Spanish and another Native American, approached the house of García, entering by the window, Ercilla was imprisoned for three months and soon afterwards was exiled to Peru. In 1570, he married Doña María de Bazán, a woman of illustrious family and of intellectual attainments and, after other diplomatic missions, settled permanently in Spain in 1577. In 1571 he was made a knight of the Order of Santiago and he complained of living in poverty but left a modest fortune, and was obviously disappointed at not being offered the post of secretary of state. Ercillas later years were saddened by the loss of his only son, the epic partakes of the character of history, and the author adheres with such strict fidelity to the truth, that subsequent historians characterize his work as thoroughly trustworthy. In it the art of story-telling is carried to perfection
Alonso de Ercilla
–
Don Alonso de Ercilla
Caballero de Santiago
14.
Talcahuano
–
Talcahuano is a port city and commune in the Biobío Region of Chile. It is part of the Greater Concepción conurbation, Talcahuano is located in the south of the Central Zone of Chile. Together with ten other municipalities, it part of the Concepción Province. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Talcahuano spans an area of 145.8 km2 and has 250,348 inhabitants, of these,248,964 lived in urban areas and 1,384 in rural areas. The population grew by 59. 9% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, with a population density of 1,873 inhabitants per square kilometre, it is the seventh most populated city of the country. The official foundation date of Talcahuano is November 5,1764 when Antonio Guill y Gonzaga declared an official port, in 1601 Alonso de Ribera built Fort Talcahueno to defend remaining Spanish settlements near Concepción. The city is named after an Araucanian chief, Talcahueñu, who inhabited the region at the arrival of the Spanish, in Mapudungun, the language of the indigenous Mapuches, Talcahuano means “Thundering Sky”. The port was known to American whaleships of the 19th century. They often put in for water, food, and various forms of entertainment for the crews. On February 27,2010 Talcahuano was devastated by the 8.8 magnitude 2010 Chile earthquake and these back-to-back disasters left 80% of the citys residents homeless. The tsunami is estimated to have more than 7.5 feet high. After a week, there are only 20 reported deaths, and 18 missing, the city government estimates that it will take 10 years to recover from the quake and tsunami. The local government has been turning away tent aid, as they want to make permanent shelters rather than have permanent tent camps. Talcahuano contains Chiles main naval base which is home of the relic, the Huáscar, a Peruvian ironclad ship. It is also the base of the Chilean submarine fleet and the ASMAR shipyard, as a commune, Talcahuano is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is Gastón Saavedra Chandía, the commune of Talcahuano has seventeen districts, the three most populous being Carriel, San Vicente and San Miguel, which together account for about 46% of the population of the commune. Only two of the districts contain any rural population, Tumbes with 5% rural and Carrie with ½%, within the electoral divisions of Chile, Talcahuano is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Jorge Ulloa and Cristián Campos as part of the 43rd electoral district. The commune is represented in the Senate by Alejandro Navarro Brain and Hosain Sabag Castillo as part of the 12th senatorial constituency, Talcahuano entered football history when Ramón Unzaga Asla, a player for the local club Estrella del Mar, invented the famous bicycle kick there in 1914
Talcahuano
–
Talcahuano viewed from Michimalonco
Talcahuano
–
Map of Talcahuano in Biobío Region
Talcahuano
–
The 2010 tsunami carried this pleasure boat ashore.
Talcahuano
15.
Lautaro
–
Lautaro was a young Mapuche toqui who achieved notoriety for leading the indigenous resistance against Spanish conquest in Chile. Lautaro begun his career as a captive of Pedro de Valdivia, the outbreak of a typhus plague, a drought and a famine prevented the Mapuches from taking further actions to expel the Spanish in 1554 and 1555. Between 1556 and 1557 a small group of Mapuches commanded by Lautaro attempted to reach Santiago to liberate the whole of Central Chile from Spanish rule, Lautaros attempts ended in 1557 when he was killed in an ambush by the Spanish. Today Lautaro is revered among Mapuches and non-Mapuche Chileans for his resistance against foreign conquest, servitude, Lautaro was the son of a Mapuche lonko called, Curiñancu and was born in 1533. He lived a life until in 1550, when he was about 17 years old, he was captured by the Spanish and forced into servitude by Don Pedro de Valdivia. Since it was difficult for the Spaniards to pronounce Lautaro’s original name, Leftraru, Don Pedro de Valdivia was a Spanish conqueror of Chile and then became the captain general of Chile. Lautaro learned the ways and skills of the Spaniards army by observation. He was witness to atrocities committed by the Spanish on captive Mapuche warriors and it is said that because of Valdivia’s command to cut off the toes of the Mapuche warriors, the Spanish soldiers named the place “El Valle de La Mocha”, whose name has been maintained over time. A great hatred of the Spanish and particularly of Pedro de Valdivia was born in the young Lautaro because of this incident, after his capture they made him a Yanakuna, meaning a “black slave” in Quechua. He remained a prisoner of the Spanish for three years, because he kept his personal hatred of Valdivia hidden, Lautaro soon became his personal page. Among his daily tasks as a page, he was in charge of taking care of Valdivia’s horses and always accompanying them into battle and this is how he learned not to fear horses and even become a good rider himself. This was a typical practice because as a yanakuna Lautaro was responsible to serve as an assistant during battles. In any case, he fled twice, first in 1550, in 1553, the Mapuches convened to decide how to respond to the Spanish invasion. The toqui Caupolicán chose Lautaro as vice toqui because he had served as a page in the Spanish cavalry, Lautaro introduced use of horses to the Mapuche and designed better combat tactics. He organized a large, cohesive army—a military formation unfamiliar to the Mapuche, with 6,000 warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked Fort Tucapel. The Spanish garrison couldnt withstand the assault and retreated to Purén, Lautaro seized the fort, sure that the Spaniards would attempt to retake it. That is exactly what Governor Valdivia tried to do with a reduced force, the Battle of Tucapel would be Pedro de Valdivias last, as he was captured and then killed. However, Mapuche tradition dictated a lengthy victory celebration, which kept Lautaro from realizing his desire to pursue the military advantage he had just gained
Lautaro
–
Bust of Lautaro
16.
Pedro Subercaseaux
–
Pedro León Maximiano María Subercaseaux Errázuriz was a Chilean painter, son of the painter and diplomat Ramón Subercaseaux Vicuña. He painted many portraits about events from the history of Chile and he painted portraits of the history of Argentina requested during the Argentina Centennial. He married Elvira Lyon Otaégui in 1907, but the Pope later annulled their marriage so that they could both get into religious orders
Pedro Subercaseaux
–
Pedro Subercaseaux.
17.
Drimys winteri
–
Drimys winteri is a slender tree, growing up to 20 m tall. It is native to the Magellanic and Valdivian temperate rain forests of Chile and Argentina and it is found below 1,200 m between latitude 32° south and Cape Horn at latitude 56°. In its southernmost natural range it can tolerate temperatures down to −20 °C, the leaves are lanceolate, glossy green above, whitish below and can measure up to 20 cm. The flowers are white with a center, and consist of a great number of petals. The fruit is a bluish berry, presumably he had sickness on board, for he sent a boat ashore to search out medicinal herbs. Drimys winteri is grown in cool moist climates as a plant for its red-brown bark, bright green fragrant leaves. The species grows well in southern Britain, flourishing as far north as Anglesey, specimens brought from the southern forests of Tierra del Fuego and planted in the Faroe Islands have proven to be especially hardy. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit and it has been planted in the North Pacific Coast of the United States. Canelo wood is reddish in color and heavy, with a very beautiful grain and it is used for furniture and music instruments. The wood is not durable outdoors because continuous rainfalls damage it, the wood is not good for making bonfires because it gives off a spicy smoke. The bark is gray, thick and soft and is used as a replacement in Argentina. The peppery compound in canelo is polygodial, hoffmann, Adriana, Flora silvestre de Chile zona araucana, Una guía ilustrada para la identificación de las especies de plantas leñosas del sur de Chile. Hanburgy, Daniel and Friedrich August Flückiger, pharmacographia, a History of the Principal Drugs of Vegetable Origin. London, Macmillan and Co. pp 17–20, drimys winteri in Crarae Gardens, Scotland
Drimys winteri
–
Drimys winteri
Drimys winteri
–
A
rewe and canelo tree in the
Austral University of Chile.
Drimys winteri
–
Drimys Winteri Young adult specimen
18.
Spanish flag
–
The flag of Spain, as it is defined in the Spanish Constitution of 1978, consists of three horizontal stripes, red, yellow and red, the yellow stripe being twice the size of each red stripe. Traditionally, the stripe was defined by the more archaic term of gualda. The origin of the current flag of Spain is the ensign of 1785. It was chosen by Charles III himself among 12 different flags designed by Antonio Valdés y Bazán, the flag remained marine for much of the next 50 years, flying over coastal fortresses, marine barracks and other naval property. During the Peninsular War the flag could also be found on marine regiments fighting inland, not until 1820 was the first Spanish land unit provided with one and it was not until 1843 that Queen Isabella II of Spain would make the flag official. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the scheme of the flag remained intact, with the exception of the Second Republic period. The flag used by the Spanish Armed Forces is the one that is used as the state flag. Military units, however, use an oblong, more square version charged with the name of the unit. The Spanish naval jack is hoisted at the prow of all Navy ships when docked or anchored in foreign waters. In national waters it is hoisted on Sundays, festivities and in presence of a warship as soon as it moors at the dock. The national flag is hoisted at the stern, when sailing, and from sunrise to sunset. The King of Spain uses a flag known as the Royal Standard, the Royal Standard of Spain consists of a crimson square with the Coat of arms of the King in the center. It is usually flown at the Kings official residence, the Palacio de la Zarzuela, other Spanish royal sites, displayed on his official car as small flags. It is regulated by Rule 2 of Royal Decree 527/2014,20 June, the Royal Guidon, the monarchs military personal ensign, is described by Rule 1 of Royal Decree 527/2014, an amendment to Title II, Rule 1 of Spanish Royal Decree 1511/1977. It is nearly identical to the Royal Standard except that the Royal Guidon has a Gold fringe and it is made of silks taffeta. The size of the guidon is 80 x 80 cm and it is the personal command ensign or positional flag of the monarch, and is carried nearby him. The heiress of the crown, the Princess of Asturias, has her own standard, the Standard of the Princess of Asturias is regulated by Royal Decree 284/2001 that modified the Title II of Spanish Royal Decree 1511/1977. The Standard of the Princess of Asturias consists of a blue square flag with the coat of arms of the Princess of Asturias in the center
Spanish flag
–
Flag of Spain in
Plaza de Colón (Madrid),
Madrid. The biggest flag in Spain
Spanish flag
–
Spain
Spanish flag
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Flags in front of the Spanish Senate (Madrid)
Spanish flag
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The flag of Spain on the south façade of the
Royal Palace of Madrid
19.
Heraldic
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The beauty and pageantry of heraldic designs allowed them to survive the gradual abandonment of armour on the battlefield during the seventeenth century. Heraldry has been described poetically as the handmaid of history, the shorthand of history, in modern times, heraldry is used by individuals, public and private organizations, corporations, cities, towns, and regions to symbolize their heritage, achievements, and aspirations. Various symbols have been used to represent individuals or groups for thousands of years, similar emblems and devices are found in ancient Mesopotamian art of the same period, and the precursors of heraldic beasts such as the griffin can also be found. In the Bible, the Book of Numbers refers to the standards and ensigns of the children of Israel, the Greek and Latin writers frequently describe the shields and symbols of various heroes, and units of the Roman army were sometimes identified by distinctive markings on their shields. The Book of Saint Albans, compiled in 1486, declares that Christ himself was a gentleman of coat armour, the medieval heralds also devised arms for various knights and lords from history and literature. Notable examples include the toads attributed to Pharamond, the cross and martlets of Edward the Confessor, and the arms attributed to the Nine Worthies. These too are now regarded as an invention, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry. The development of the modern heraldic language cannot be attributed to an individual, time. Yet no individual is depicted twice bearing the arms, nor are any of the descendants of the various persons depicted known to have borne devices resembling those in the tapestry. A Spanish manuscript from 1109 describes both plain and decorated shields, none of which appears to have been heraldic, in England, from the time of the Norman conquest, official documents had to be sealed. A notable example of an armorial seal is attached to a charter granted by Philip I, Count of Flanders. Seals from the part of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries show no evidence of heraldic symbolism. One of the earliest known examples of armory as it came to be practiced can be seen on the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. An enamel, probably commissioned by Geoffreys widow between 1155 and 1160, depicts him carrying a shield decorated with six golden lions rampant. He wears a helmet adorned with another lion, and his cloak is lined in vair. A medieval chronicle states that Geoffrey was given a shield of this description when he was knighted by his father-in-law, Henry I, in 1128, but this account probably dates to about 1175. Since Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, it seems reasonable to suppose that the adoption of lions as an emblem by Henry or his sons might have been inspired by Geoffreys shield. Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant and it is from this garment that the phrase coat of arms is derived
Heraldic
–
The German
Hyghalmen Roll was made in the late 15th century and illustrates the German practice of repeating themes from the arms in the crest. (See
Roll of arms).
Heraldic
–
Shields of Magister Militum Praesentalis II. Page from the
Notitia Dignitatum, a medieval copy of a Late Roman register of military commands
Heraldic
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An extravagant example of marshalling: the 719 quarterings of the
Grenville Armorial at
Stowe.
Heraldic
–
The
Zechariah Seal coat of arms.
20.
Cross of Burgundy
–
The Duchy of Burgundy was inherited by the House of Habsburg on the extinction of the Valois ducal line. The Spanish monarchs continued to use it in their own arms even after they lost their Burgundian lands. From 1506 to 1701 it was used by Spain as an ensign, and up to 1843 as the land battle flag. The emblem also continues to be used in a variety of contexts in a number of European countries and in the Americas, reflecting both the extent of Valois Burgundy and the former Habsburg territories. The banner strictly speaking dates back to the early 15th century and it represents the cross on which Andrew the Apostle was crucified. The design is a red saltire resembling two crossed, roughly-pruned branches, on a white field, in heraldic language, it may be blazoned argent, a saltire ragulée gules. Pedro de Ayala, writing in the 1490s, claims it was first adopted by a previous Duke of Burgundy to honour his Scottish soldiers. This must be a reference to the Scottish soldiers recruited by John the Fearless in the first years of the century, led by the Earl of Mar. Andrew was the saint of the dukes of Burgundy The year 1506 should be considered its theoretical earliest use in Spain. Philip, after his marriage to Joanna of Castile, became the first Habsburg King of Spain and used the Cross of Burgundy as an emblem as it was the symbol of the house of his mother, Mary of Burgundy. From the time of Philip and Joannas son, Emperor Charles V, nevertheless, the official field was still white. The Spanish monarchs – the Habsburgs and their successors the House of Bourbon – continued to use the Cross of Burgundy in various forms and it also remained in use in Spains overseas empire. In the First Carlist War the Burgundian banner, however, was a banner of the Regent Queens standing Army rather than Carlist. After 1843 the red Burgundian saltire kept on appearing on the new brand red-yellow army flag under a four-quartered Castilian, eventually, under the leadership of Manuel Fal Condé, the Cross of Burgundy became the Carlist badge in 1934. Users mostly have some direct or indirect relation to the historical Burgundy, though such connection can be very vague, the flying of this flag reminds people today of the impact Spain and its military had on world history for over 400 years. It was also used by Spanish military forces, in present-day Bolivia the Cross of Burgundy is the official flag of the department of Chuquisaca. The Flag of Alabama uses a modified representation of the Spanish Cross of Burgundy, an unmodified version of the cross was used in most of Alabama until the 19th century. The colors of the Flag of New Mexico are those of the yellow, Burgundy Flag of New Mexico Saint Patricks Flag Vexillology Flags of the World GeorgiaInfo
Cross of Burgundy
–
Jeton of the Chamber of Accounts in
Lille, 1545. Struck under Emperor
Charles V, showing a Burgundian steel superimposed on Burgundian Cross.
Cross of Burgundy
–
Cross of Burgundy
Cross of Burgundy
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Cross of Burgundy alongside Puerto Rico and U.S. flags at Fort San Cristóbal
21.
Saltire
–
A saltire, also called Saint Andrews Cross, is a heraldic symbol in the form of a diagonal cross, like the shape of the letter X in Roman type. The word comes from the Middle French sautoir, possibly owing to the shape of the areas in the design. It appears in flags, including those of Scotland and Jamaica. A variant, also appearing on many past and present flags, a warning sign in the shape of a saltire is also used to indicate the point at which a railway line intersects a road at a level crossing. In Unicode, the cross is encoded at U+2613 ☓ saltire, see X mark#Unicode for similar symbols that might be more accessible. The saltire appears on vexilla that are represented consistently on coinage of Christian emperors of Rome, in the ninth and tenth century the saltire was revived in Constantinople as a symbol of Christian-imperial power. Anne Roes detected the symbol, which appears with balls in the quadrants formed by the arms of the chi-cross. She suggested that early Christians endorsed its solar symbolism as appropriate to Christ and she also wrote, although it cannot be proved. In the white saltire of St. Andrew we still have a reminiscence of the old standard of the Persepolitan kingdom, when two or more saltires appear, they are usually blazoned as cut off. A saltorel is a saltire, the term is usually defined as one-half the width of the saltire. A field per saltire is divided into four areas by a saltire-shaped cut, otherwise, each of the four divisions may be blazoned separately. Examples include, Suffolk County Council, England, The Corporation of the Municipality of Brighton, when five or more compact charges are in saltire, one is in the center and one or more lie on each arm of an invisible saltire. The Saint Andrews Cross was worn as a badge on hats in Scotland, the Cross of Burgundy, a form of the Saint Andrews Cross, is used in numerous flags across Europe and the Americas. It was first used in the 15th century as an emblem by the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, the Duchy of Burgundy, forming a large part of eastern France and the Low Countries, was inherited by the House of Habsburg on the extinction of the Valois ducal line. As a result, the Cross of Burgundy has appeared in a variety of flags connected with territories formerly part of the Burgundian or Habsburg inheritance. Examples of such diversity include the Spanish naval ensign, the flag of Carlism, the flag of the Dutch municipality of Eijsden, the naval ensign of the Imperial Russian and Russian navies is a blue saltire on a white field. Prior to the Union the Royal Scots Navy used a red ensign incorporating the St Andrews Cross, with its colours exchanged, the same design forms part of the arms and flag of Nova Scotia. The Brazilian cities of Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza also use a blue saltire on a white field, the flags of the Spanish island of Tenerife and the remote Colombian islands of San Andrés and Providencia also use a white saltire on a blue field
Saltire
–
St Andrew crucified crucified on a diagonal cross
Saltire
Saltire
–
Timber framing Saltire in Duderstadt, Germany
Saltire
–
A blue-and-white saltire used on a road sign to represent the
Flag of Scotland.
22.
Spanish colonization of the Americas
–
The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions and it is estimated that during the colonial period, a total of 18.6 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era. Spains loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas, the Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, the Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile, in the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy. Columbus made four voyages to the West Indiesas the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories and he founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola, in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, in 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops, the first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, the Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién, the Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs, but not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés, the victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the political hierarchy. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico. When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22,1519, Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization, in the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region
Spanish colonization of the Americas
–
Spanish Conquest of Mexico, meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma II
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Spanish colonization of the Americas
–
Vasco Núñez de Balboa claiming possession of the South Sea (
Pacific Ocean)
Spanish colonization of the Americas
–
Map depicting the route of Pizarro from Panama to Cuzco
23.
Charles III of Spain
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Charles III was the King of Spain and the Spanish Indies from 1759 to 1788. While he was the son of Philip V of Spain, he was the eldest son of Philips second wife. In 1731, the 15-year-old Charles became the Duke of Parma and Piacenza, as Charles I, following the death of his childless granduncle Antonio Farnese. In 1734, as Duke of Parma, he conquered the kingdoms of Naples and of Sicily, and was crowned king on 3 July 1735, reigning as Charles VII of Naples and Charles V of Sicily until 1759. In 1738 he married Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony, daughter of Polish king Augustus III, Charles and Maria Amalia resided in Naples for 19 years. Charles succeeded to the Spanish throne on 10 August 1759, after the death of his half-brother King Ferdinand VI of Spain who left no heirs. As King of Spain Charles III made far-reaching reforms such as promoting science and university research, facilitating trade and commerce and he also tried to reduce the influence of the Church and avoided costly wars. His previous experience as King of Naples and Sicily proved valuable as King of Spain and he did not achieve complete control over the States finances, and was sometimes obliged to borrow to meet expenses. Most of his reforms proved to be successful and his important legacy lives on to this day, historian Stanley Payne wrote that Charles III was probably the most successful European ruler of his generation. He had provided firm, consistent, intelligent leadership, personal life had won the respect of the people. In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht concluded the War of the Spanish Succession and reduced the political and military power of Spain, which the House of Bourbon had ruled since 1700. Moreover, the House of Savoy gained the Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Great Britain gained the island of Minorca, in 1700, Charles father, originally a French prince, became King of Spain as Philip V. For the remainder of his reign, he attempted to regain the ceded territories. Elisabeth and Philip married on 24 December 1714, she proved a domineering consort. On 20 January 1716, Elisabeth gave birth to the Infante Charles of Spain at the Real Alcázar of Madrid and he was fourth in line to the Spanish throne, after three elder half-brothers, the Infante Luis, Prince of Asturias, the Infante Felipe, and Ferdinand. Because the Duke Francesco of Parma and his heir were childless, Elisabeth sought the duchies of Parma and she also sought for him the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, because Gian Gastone de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany was also childless. He was a distant cousin of hers, related via her great-grandmother Margherita de Medici, the birth of Charles encouraged the Prime Minister Alberoni to start laying out grand plans for Europe. In 1717 he ordered the Spanish invasion of Sardinia, in 1718, Alberoni also ordered the invasion of Sicily, which was also ruled by the House of Savoy
Charles III of Spain
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Charles III
Charles III of Spain
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Portrait of
Elisabeth Farnese.
Charles III of Spain
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Portrait of Charles, 9 years old.
Charles III of Spain
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Charles, 11 years old.
24.
Spanish Armada
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The Armada finally dropped anchor off Calais. While awaiting communications from the Duke of Parmas army the Armada was scattered by an English fireship attack, in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines the Spanish fleet was damaged and forced to abandon its rendezvous with Parmas army, who were blockaded in harbour by Dutch flyboats. The Armada managed to regroup and, driven by southwest winds, the commander ordered a return to Spain, but the Armada was disrupted during severe storms in the North Atlantic and a large number of the vessels were wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Of the initial 130 ships over a third failed to return, the expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The word armada is from the Spanish armada, which is a cognate with English army, originally from the Latin armāta, the past participle of armāre to arm, used in Romance languages as a noun, for armed force, army, navy, fleet. Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy, Armada was also the Portuguese traditional term of the Portuguese Navy. Henry VIII began the English Reformation as a political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, a devout Catholic, Mary began to reassert Roman influence over church affairs. Her attempts led to over 260 people being burned at the stake, marys death in 1558 led to her half-sister, Elizabeth I, taking the throne. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp, Philip, no longer co-monarch, deemed Elizabeth a heretic and illegitimate ruler of England. Under Roman law, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate, Elizabeth retaliated against Philip by supporting the Dutch revolt against Spain, as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic. In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England in order to overthrow Elizabeth, the King was supported by Pope Sixtus V, who treated the invasion as a crusade, with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land. A raid on Cadiz, led by Francis Drake in April 1587, had captured or destroyed some thirty ships and great quantities of supplies, the Duke of Parma would then follow with a large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel. Parma was uneasy about mounting such an invasion without any possibility of surprise and he was also alarmed by the costs that would be incurred, and advised Philip to postpone or abandon it. The Armadas appointed commander was the highly experienced Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz, but he died in February 1588, and the Duke of Medina Sidonia, while a competent soldier and distinguished administrator, Medina Sidonia had no naval experience. He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about the planned campaign, prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip II of Spain to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences. The blessing of the Armadas banner on 25 April 1588, was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, on 28 May 1588, the Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel. The fleet was composed of 130 ships,8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers, the full body of the fleet took two days to leave port. It included twenty eight purpose-built warships, of twenty were galleons, four galleys
Spanish Armada
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The Spanish Armada and English ships in August 1588, by unknown painter (English School, 16th century)
Spanish Armada
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Philip II of Spain c. 1580,
National Portrait Gallery, London
Spanish Armada
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Signal station built in 1588, above the Devon village of Culmstock, to warn when the Armada was sighted
Spanish Armada
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Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham
25.
Patria Vieja
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Patria Vieja refers to a time period in the History of Chile occurring between the First Junta of the Government and the Disaster of Rancagua. In this period measures were taken for the imprisonment of Fernando VII by Napoleon and this period was characterized by the transformation from a movement of temporary autonomy to one of total independence. Two things that stood out during this period were the political prominence of the Carrera brothers, especially José Miguel Carrera, during this time a Government Junta of Chile as well as a National Congress were organized to administer the country during the imprisonment of the king. The Congress passed a law decreeing Liberty of the Womb, which stated that all children of slaves born on Chilean soil from that point onwards would be free. In 1812, the first constitutional decree was passed, which agreed to recognize the king if he accepted certain constitutional regulations
Patria Vieja
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La Casa Colorada, residence of Governor
Mateo de Toro y Zambrano (Currently the Museo de Santiago)
Patria Vieja
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The first flag of Chile was adopted from 1812 until 1814
26.
Chilean War of Independence
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Traditionally, the beginning of the war is dated as September 18,1810. A declaration of independence was issued by Chile on February 12,1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1844. The Chilean War of Independence was part of the more aroused Spanish American wars of independence, Independence did not have unanimous support among Chileans, who were divided between independentists and royalists. What started as a movement among elites against the colonial power. Traditionally, the process is divided into three stages, the Patria Vieja, 1810–1814, the Reconquista, 1814–1817, and the Patria Nueva, 1817–1823. In May 1808 the overthrow of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, their replacement by Joseph Bonaparte, in the meantime, Chile was facing its own internal political problems. Governor Guzmán had suddenly died in February of that year and the crown had not been able to appoint a new governor before the invasion, since her father and brother were being held prisoners in France, she regarded herself as the heiress of her captured family. Allegedly among her plan was to send armies to occupy Buenos Aires and northern Argentina, brigadier García Carrasco was a man of crude and authoritarian manners, who managed in a very short time to alienate the criollo elites under his command. Already in Chile, as in most of Latin America, there had some independence agitation but minimal. In 1809, Governor García Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption that managed to destroy remnants of moral authority he or his office had left. From that moment on the pressure for his removal began to build, in June 1810 news arrived from Buenos Aires that Napoleon Bonapartes forces had conquered Andalusia and laid siege to Cádiz, the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the Supreme Central Junta, which had governed the Empire for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council, among those arrested were José Antonio de Rojas, Juan Antonio Ovalle and Bernardo de Vera y Pintado. Inspired by the May Revolution in Argentina, the movement had also propagated through the criollo elite. They resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that Cádiz was all that was left of a free Spain, count Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, a very unorthodox selection. He was an old man already and moreover a criollo as opposed to a peninsular. Immediately after his appointment in July, the juntistas began to lobby him in order to obtain the formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court took a loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open Cabildo meeting in Santiago to discuss the issue, the date was set for September 18,1810 at 11 AM
Chilean War of Independence
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Romanticized painting of the 1814
Battle of Rancagua by
Pedro Subercaseaux
Chilean War of Independence
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Mateo de Toro Zambrano
Chilean War of Independence
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Opening session of the
First Junta
Chilean War of Independence
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Juan Martínez de Rozas
27.
Government Junta of Chile (1810)
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It was the earliest step in the Chilean struggle for independence, and the anniversary of its establishment is celebrated as the national day of Chile. In May 1808 the overthrow of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, their replacement by Joseph Bonaparte, in the meantime, Chile was facing its own internal political problems. Governor Guzmán had suddenly died on February of that year and the crown had not been able to appoint a new governor before the invasion, since her father and brother were being held prisoners in France, she regarded herself as the heiress of her captured family. Allegedly among her plans was to send armies to occupy Buenos Aires and northern Argentina, brigadier García Carrasco was a man of crude and authoritarian manners, who managed in a very short time to alienate the criollo elites under his command. Already in Chile, as in most of Latin America, there had some independence agitation but very minimal. In 1809 Governor García Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption that managed to destroy remnants of moral authority he or his office had left. From that moment on the pressure for his removal began to build, in June 1810 news arrived from Buenos Aires that Napoleon Bonapartes forces had conquered Andalusia and laid siege to Cádiz, the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the Supreme Central Junta, which had governed the Empire for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council, among those arrested were José Antonio de Rojas, Juan Antonio Ovalle and Bernardo de Vera y Pintado. The autonomy movement also had, inspired by the May Revolution in Argentina and they resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that Cádiz was all that was left of a free Spain, finally solidified in their opposition to the Governor. Count Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, an unorthodox selection. He was an old man already and moreover a criollo as opposed to a peninsular. Immediately after his appointment in July, the juntistas began to lobby him in order to obtain the formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court took a loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open Cabildo meeting in Santiago to discuss the issue, the date was set for September 18,1810 at 11 AM. From the very beginning the juntistas took the political initiative and they were able to place their members in charge of sending the invitations, thus manipulating the assistance lists to their own advantage. At the September 18th session, they grabbed center stage with shouts of ¡Junta queremos. Count Toro Zambrano, faced with this very public show of force, acceded to their demands by depositing his ceremonial baton on top of the table and saying Here is the baton, take it. The discussion ended with the establishment of the Government Junta of the Kingdom of Chile, also known as the First Junta, in the discussion triumphed the idea of a local independent government as opposed to the monarchist idea of submitting themselves to the control of the Regency Council
Government Junta of Chile (1810)
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Opening session of the First Junta
Government Junta of Chile (1810)
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Francisco García Carrasco
Government Junta of Chile (1810)
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Mateo de Toro Zambrano
Government Junta of Chile (1810)
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Juan Martínez de Rozas
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