1.
Glossary of vexillology
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Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
2.
State flag
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There are two separate meanings for the term of state flag in vexillology, the flag of the government of a sovereign state and the flag of an individual subnational state. A state flag is a variant of a national flag specifically designated and restricted by law or custom to use by a government or its agencies. For this reason they are referred to as government flags. Scandinavian countries also use swallowtailed state flags, to differentiate them from civil flags. In addition, some countries have state ensigns, separate flags for use by government ships such as guard vessels. For example, government ships in the United Kingdom fly the blue ensign, state flags should not be confused with the national flag as used by military organisations, these are referred to as war flags and naval ensigns. To avoid confusion with the first meaning of the term, however, such a flag would be more referred to as the flag of the state of X. For this usage, see also, Flags of the Australian states and territories Flags of Brazilian states Flags of the U. S. states Flags of German states Znamierowski, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
3.
War flag
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A war flag, also known as a military flag or a battle flag, is a variant of a national flag for use by a countrys military forces when on land. The nautical equivalent is a naval ensign, under the strictest sense of the term, few countries today currently have proper war flags, most preferring to use instead their state flag or standard national flag for this purpose. And either victory, or else a grave, field signs were used in early warfare at least since the Bronze Age. The word standard itself is from an Old Frankish term for a field sign, the use of flags as field signs apparently emerges in Asia, during the Iron Age, possibly in either China or India. Early field signs that include, but are not limited to a flag, are also called vexilloid or flag-like, the Roman Vexillum itself is also flag-like in the sense that it was suspended from a horizontal crossbar as opposed to a simple flagpole. Use of simple flags as military ensigns becomes common during the medieval period, the maritime flag also develops in the medieval period. The medieval Japanese Sashimono carried by foot-soldiers are a parallel development, some medieval free cities or communes did not have coats of arms, and used war flags that were not derived from a coat of arms. Thus, the city of Lucerne used a flag as a field sign from the mid 13th century. Colours, standards and guidons Wise, Terence Military flags of the world, FIAV Flag Information Symbols at Flags of the World
4.
Naval ensign
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Naval ensign is the ensign used by Navy vessels to denote nationality. It can be the same or different from the civil ensign and its also known as the war ensign. A large version of the naval ensign which is flown on a warships mast just before going into battle is called a battle ensign, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. Most countries have one national flag and ensign for all purposes. In other countries, a distinction is made between the flag and the civil, state and naval ensigns. Some naval ensign differ in shape from the flag, such as the Nordic naval ensigns which have tongues. Naval ensigns that are different from the ensign and the national flag
5.
Coat of arms of El Salvador
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The coat of arms of El Salvador has been in use in its current form since 15 September 1912. The volcanoes are all illuminated yellow on their side by sunshine. Above the volcanoes is a crimson red Phrygian cap on a staff before a sun with spiraling swirling rays. The date, Independence Day of El Salvador, in black letters over the sun, the colors in the rainbow usually depict from top to bottom five colors only, red, orange, yellow, green, and blue. The Native Indigenous shock troops made a decisive military attack on the Spaniards who fled from this strong Indigenous resistance. The Lencas of El Salvador were led by their mighty Warrior Princess Antu Silan Ulap who made a Guanacasco with chief Lempira of Honduras, the nickname Guanaco which means in Lenca language is coined to present day Salvadorans. The Pipil were led by their Warrior Prince, who defended the Cuzcatan nation, the spears in the coat of arms of El Salvador are a representation of the nations indigenous heroes and spirit. Under the triangle, there is a golden Amber scroll which states the motto of El Salvador, Dios, Unión, Libertad in capital. All of this is surrounded by a green Laurel wreath, which is tied together with a cobalt blue, the laurel wreath is divided into 14 different parts, which symbolize the 14 Departaments, the Salvadoran subnational administrative units. All this is surrounded by golden Amber letters, which form the Spanish words REPÚBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMÉRICA CENTRAL in capital, for special occasions the whole entire coat of arms of El Salvador is stylized in amber gold color with a white or royal cobalt blue background. The coat of arms of El Salvador is also recognizable in silhouette
6.
Civil flag
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A civil flag is a version of the national flag that is flown by civilians on nongovernmental installations or craft. The use of flags was more common in the past to denote buildings or ships not manned by the military. In some countries, the flag is the same as the war flag or state flag but without the coat of arms, such as in the case of Spain. In others, it is an alteration of the war flag, in Scandinavia, state and war flags can be double and triple-tailed variants of the Nordic Cross flag. Many countries, particularly those with a British heritage, still have distinctive civil flags for use at sea, many based on the Red Ensign
7.
Civil ensign
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Civil ensign is the ensign used by civilian vessels to denote nationality. It can be the same or different from the state ensign and its also known as the merchant ensign or merchant flag. Some countries have civil ensigns for yachts, and even for specific yacht clubs. Most countries have one national flag and ensign for all purposes. In other countries, a distinction is made between the flag and the civil, state and naval ensigns. The civil ensigns that are different from the flag can be grouped into a number of categories. Several countries use red flags with, in most cases, either the national flag or the Union Flag in the canton. British overseas territories fly the plain Red Ensign or a Red Ensign with the colonial arms in the fly. Saudi Arabia puts its national flag in the canton of an otherwise-green flag, Ghana stopped using its Red Ensign in 2003 with the adoption of a new merchant shipping act, which made the Ghanaian flag the proper national colors for Ghana ships. Similarly, Sri Lanka stopped using its Red Ensign in 1969, several countries have civil ensigns that are very different from the national flag, for instance Malta and Luxembourg. Well-known examples are the Italian civil ensign showing the shield with the arms of the sea republics or the Polish civil ensign with the arms of Poland, most of these emblems were added to distinguish the ensign from similar flags of other countries or from other signal flags. In several countries there are two versions of the flag, a simpler one and a more elaborate one with the national arms. The simpler one is used as ensign, whereas the version with the arms is mainly used by the government. In Spain and Argentina the flag without the arms is only a variant for civil use, in El Salvador, the civil ensign also differs from the national flag in the proportions. France is a case, the overall proportion is the same. Civil and merchant ensigns Civil air ensign
8.
Ensign
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Ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship, the naval ensign, used on warships, may be different from the civil ensign or the yacht ensign. Large versions of naval ensigns called battle ensigns are used when a warship goes into battle, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. In its widest sense, an ensign is just a flag or other standard, the European military rank of ensign, once responsible for bearing a units standard derives from it. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, liwa, derives from the command of a unit or units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is a general officer. In Arab armies, ensign is a title equivalent to a Western brigade. In nautical use, the ensign is flown on a ship or boat to indicate its appartenance, while this includes its nationality, it may well indicate more information rather than being the national flag itself. This is particularly common for commonwealth and European countries, ensigns are usually at the stern flagstaff when in port, and may be shifted to a gaff or mast amidships when the ship is under way, becoming known as a steaming ensign. Vexillologists distinguish three varieties of a national flag used as an ensign, A civil ensign is worn by merchant. In some countries the yacht ensign, used on boats or ships instead of merchant vessels. A state ensign or government ensign is worn by government vessels, a naval ensign is used by a countrys navy. Such ensigns are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, several Commonwealth countries national flags had their origin in the ensigns of their original colonising power, the United Kingdom. Most notable of these flags are those of Australia, New Zealand. It is also likely that the original design from which the flag of the United States developed was strongly influenced by the British Red Ensign or the flag of the East India Company. With the creation of independent air forces and the growth in aviation in the first half of the 20th century. These may be divided into air force ensigns and civil air ensigns, in heraldry, an ensign is the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet, or mitre, borne above the charge or arms. Distinguishing mark Maritime flag Znamierowski, Alfred, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
9.
Federal Republic of Central America
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It existed from September 1821 to 1841, and was a republican democracy. It is also incorrectly referred to in English as the United States of Central America. The republic consisted of the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua. Maps and borders hardly existed at the time so locations are only approximate, from 1838 to 1840 the federation descended into civil war, with conservatives fighting against liberals and separatists fighting to secede. From the 16th century through 1821, Central America, apart from Panama and that date is still marked as independence day by most Central American nations. Independence proved short-lived, as local law-and-order broke down, driven by regional rivalries, many localities refused to accept the newly formed federal powers in Guatemala—San Salvador, Comayagua, León, and Cartago were in open revolt. The ensuing anarchy prompted the land-owning wealthy and conservative class to advocate union with Mexico, on 25 January 1822 the Junta consultiva in Guatemala City voted for annexation. A few weeks later General Vicente Filísola, the envoy of Emperor Agustín de Iturbide of the First Mexican Empire arrived in Guatemala as the new ruler. The annexation was controversial, with some seeing the Mexican constitution with its abolition of slavery, Central American liberals in San Salvador objected to this and refused to accept Filísolas authority. The army was ordered to quell dissent, after Iturbide abdicated, Mexico became a republic and offered to the previously annexed Central American provinces the right to determine their own destiny. Filísola turned over his power to the hastily formed National Constituent Assembly, on July 1,1823 the Congress of Central America declared absolute independence from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, and established a republican system of government. The liberal-dominated Assembly elected Manuel José Arce as president but he turned against his own faction. San Salvador rose in revolt against federal authority, Honduras and Nicaragua joined the rebellion and Arce was deposed in 1829. The victors led by the Honduran Francisco Morazán took power and Morazán was proclaimed president in 1830, to appease liberal supporters, the capital was relocated from Guatemala City to San Salvador in 1831 but Morazáns hold on power was waning as conservatives regained control in the provinces. The Assembly in 1838 adjourned with the declaration that the provinces were free to rule themselves as the Federal Republic dissolved, in 1839 Morazán was exiled as rebels from Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua entered San Salvador, evicting the governing institutions that held the region together. In practice, the federation faced insurmountable problems, and the union slid into war between 1838 and 1840. Its disintegration began when Nicaragua separated from the federation on November 5,1838, followed by Honduras, in reality, this merely legally acknowledged the process of disintegration that had already begun. The union effectively ended in 1840, by which four of its five states had declared independence
10.
Greater Republic of Central America
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The Greater Republic of Central America was a short-lived union between Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador, lasting from 1896 to 1898. It was an attempt to revive the failed Federal Republic of Central America from earlier in the century, the three countries agreed to establish a union with the signing of the Treaty of Amapala on 20 June 1895. On 15 September 1896, after the countries had all ratified the treaty individually, the republic was rechristened the United States of Central America when its constitution came into effect on 1 November 1898. The capital was to be located at the Honduran town of Amapala on the Gulf of Fonseca, the union was dissolved after General Tomás Regalado seized power in El Salvador on 21 November. Before its dissolution, the Greater Republic established diplomatic relationships with the United States, guatemala and Costa Rica both considered joining the union, but neither of them eventually did. History of Central America Greater Republic of Central America, Recognition of the Political Union of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Salvador
11.
Cobalt blue
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Cobalt blue is a blue pigment made by sintering cobalt oxide with alumina at 1200 °C. Chemically, cobalt blue pigment is cobalt oxide-aluminium oxide, or cobalt aluminate, Cobalt blue is lighter and less intense than the pigment Prussian blue. It is extremely stable and has historically used as a coloring agent in ceramics, jewelry. Transparent glasses are tinted with the cobalt pigment smalt. Cobalt blue in impure forms had long used in Chinese porcelain. Commercial production began in France in 1807, the first recorded use of cobalt blue as a color name in English was in 1777. The leading world manufacturer of blue in the 19th century was Benjamin Wegners Norwegian company Blaafarveværket. Germany was also famous for production, especially the blue colour works in the Ore Mountains of Saxony, capable, by its superior brilliancy and contrast, to subdue the brightness of other blues. Cobalt blue has been used in paintings since its discovery by Thénard by painters such as Turner and it is stable and lightfast and also compatible with all other pigments. Maxfield Parrish, famous partly for the intensity of his skyscapes, used cobalt blue, Cobalt blue was the primary blue pigment used in Chinese blue and white porcelain for centuries, beginning in the late 8th or early 9th century. Automobiles Several car manufacturers including Jeep and Bugatti have cobalt blue as one paint options, construction Because of its chemical stability in the presence of alkali, cobalt blue is used as a pigment in blue concrete. Glassmaking The blue seen on many pieces is cobalt blue. Cobalt glass almost perfectly filters out the bright yellow emission of ionized sodium, sports Major League Soccers Sporting Kansas City have had cobalt blue as the secondary color of its home uniforms since 2008. Vexillology Several countries including the Netherlands and Romania, and a U. S. state - Nevada - have cobalt blue as one of three shades of their flags, video Games Segas official logo color is cobalt blue. Sonic the Hedgehog, Segas current mascot, was colored to match, Cobalt blue is toxic when inhaled or ingested. Potters who fail to take precautions when using cobalt blue may succumb to cobalt poisoning. List of colors List of inorganic pigments Cobalt glass Roy, A, Cobalt blue, in Artists’ Pigments, Berrie, B. H. National Gallery of Art Washington,2007 History of Cobalt blue
12.
Shades of white
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Shades of white are colors that differ only slightly from pure white. Variations of white include what are commonly termed off-white colors, which may be considered part of a color scheme. In color theory, a shade is a pure color mixed with black, strictly speaking, a “shade of white” would be a neutral gray. This article is also about off-white colors that vary from white in hue. Colors often considered shades of white include, cream, eggshell, ivory, Navajo white, even the lighting of a room, however, can cause a pure white to be perceived as off-white. Off-white colors were pervasively paired with beiges in the 1930s, whiteness measures the degree to which a surface is white in colorimetry. Below is a showing the computer web color shades of white. An achromatic white is a color in which the red, green. The web colors white and white smoke are achromatic colors, a chromatic shade of white is a white color in which the red, green, and blue codes are not exactly equal, but are close to each other, which is what makes it a shade of white. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness, white is the lightest possible color. The web color ghost white is a tint of white associated with what it is imagined the color of a ghost might be, there is no evidence that this color name was in use before the X11 color names were formulated in 1987. The web color white smoke is displayed on the left, there is no evidence that this color name was in use before the X11 color names were formulated in 1987. The Crayola crayon color baby powder was introduced in 1994 as part of its specialty Magic Scent crayon collection, the web color snow is displayed at left. The first recorded use of snow as a name in English was in 1000. The color snow was included as one of the X11 colors when they were formulated in 1987, ivory is an off-white color that resembles ivory, the material out of which the teeth and tusks of animals are made. It has a slight tint of yellow. The first recorded use of ivory as a name in English was in 1385. The color ivory was included as one of the X11 colors when they were formulated in 1987, the web color floral white is displayed at left
13.
Amber (color)
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The color amber is a pure chroma color, located on the color wheel midway between the colors of gold and orange. In English the first recorded use of the term as a color name, Amber is one of several technically defined colors used in automotive signal lamps. In North America, SAE standard J578 governs the colorimetry of vehicle lights, both standards designate a range of orange-yellow hues in the CIE color space as amber. In the past, the ECE amber definition was more restrictive than the SAE definition, the SAE formally uses the term yellow amber, though the color is most often referred to as yellow. This is not the same as selective yellow, a used in some fog lamps and headlamps. The color box shown above is an approximation, created by taking the centroid of the standard definition and moving it towards the D65 white point. Computers VT220 computer terminals were available with amber phosphors on their CRTs, interior design The original Amber Room in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg was a complete chamber decoration of amber panels backed with gold leaf and mirrors. Due to its beauty, it was sometimes dubbed the Eighth Wonder of the World. Sports In Gaelic games Armagh play in a darker Amber color, Offaly play in the colors of the Irish flag and Kilkenny also play in black and amber. Amber is a worn by English Football Clubs Hull City AFC, Bradford City AFC, Barnet FC, Shrewsbury Town FC, Mansfield Town, Cambridge United FC. The color is worn by the Scottish football club Motherwell FC. Traffic engineering Amber is used in traffic lights and turn signals, business management Amber is used in business management to indicate a status of work, as in RAG status. R stands for Red, A stands for Amber, usually represented as the color Yellow in the reports, spectral color List of colors UNECE Regulation No. 6, Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Direction Indicators for Motor Vehicles,48, Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Vehicles with Regard to the Installation of Lighting and Light-Signalling Devices
14.
Aspect ratio (image)
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The aspect ratio of an image describes the proportional relationship between its width and its height. It is commonly expressed as two separated by a colon, as in 16,9.5 yards high. The most common ratios used today in the presentation of films in cinemas are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Two common videographic aspect ratios are 4,3, the video format of the 20th century. Other cinema and video aspect ratios exist, but are used infrequently, in still camera photography, the most common aspect ratios are 4,3,3,2, and more recently being found in consumer cameras 16,9. Other aspect ratios, such as 5,3,5,4, in motion picture formats, the physical size of the film area between the sprocket perforations determines the images size. The universal standard is a frame that is four perforations high, the film itself is 35 mm wide, but the area between the perforations is 24.89 mm×18.67 mm, leaving the de facto ratio of 4,3, or 1.33,1. A4,3 ratio mimics human eyesight visual angle of 155°h x 120°v, the motion picture industry convention assigns a value of 1.0 to the image’s height, an anamorphic frame is often incorrectly described as 2.40,1 or 2.40. After 1952, a number of aspect ratios were experimented with for anamorphic productions, a SMPTE specification for anamorphic projection from 1957 finally standardized the aperture to 2.35,1. An update in 1970 changed the ratio to 2.39,1 in order to make splices less noticeable. This aspect ratio of 2.39,1 was confirmed by the most recent revision from August 1993, in American cinemas, the common projection ratios are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Some European countries have 1.66,1 as the wide screen standard, the Academy ratio of 1.375,1 was used for all cinema films in the sound era until 1953. During that time, television, which had a aspect ratio of 1.33,1. Hollywood responded by creating a number of wide-screen formats, CinemaScope, Todd-AO. The flat 1.85,1 aspect ratio was introduced in May 1953, and became one of the most common cinema projection standards in the U. S. and elsewhere. The goal of these lenses and aspect ratios was to capture as much of the frame as possible, onto as large an area of the film as possible. In either case the image was squeezed horizontally to fit the frame size. Development of various film camera systems must ultimately cater to the placement of the frame in relation to the constraints of the perforations
15.
Flag of the United States
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The flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, the current design of the U. S. flag is its 27th, the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48-star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49-star version became official on July 4,1959, the 50-star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21,1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the version of the U. S. flag and has been in use for over 56 years. At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the flag contemporaneously known as the Continental Colors has historically been referred to as the first national flag. The name Grand Union was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the American flag, the flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign. However, an East India Company flag could have nine to 13 stripes. In any case, both the stripes and the stars have precedents in classical heraldry, Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment. The first official U. S. flag flown during battle was on August 3,1777, Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag, the 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a flag did not yet exist. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee, on May 10,1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. However, the term, Standard, referred to a standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag, the appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows, one arrangement features 13 five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle, the so-called Betsy Ross flag
16.
Sonsonate, El Salvador
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Sonsonate, the capital of the department of Sonsonate, El Salvador, on the Sensunapan River and the railway from San Salvador to the Pacific port of Acajutla,21 km south. Historically, the area was a producer of cotton, most of the cotton produced, as of 1850, was retained for local use. Today, tobacco farming, cattle ranching and tourism are important industries and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Sonsonate. Media related to Sonsonate at Wikimedia Commons
17.
Mesoamerica
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It is one of six areas in the world where ancient civilization arose independently, and the second in the Americas along with Norte Chico in present-day northern coastal Peru. As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures, while Mesoamerican civilization did know of the wheel and basic metallurgy, neither of these technologies became culturally important. Among the earliest complex civilizations was the Olmec culture, which inhabited the Gulf coast of Mexico and extended inland, frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in Chiapas, Guatemala and Oaxaca laid the basis for the Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica and this Formative period saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic traditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes. In the subsequent Preclassic period, complex urban polities began to develop among the Maya, with the rise of such as El Mirador, Calakmul and Tikal. Mesoamerica is one of three regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around AD600, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as Xochicalco and Cholula, ensued. During the early period, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec. Towards the end of the period, the Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mesoamerica. The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, over the next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied through time, as the civilization extended North and South from its heartland in southern Mexico, Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypical cultural area, and the term is now fully integrated in the standard terminology of pre-Columbian anthropological studies. Conversely, the sister terms Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica, which refer to northern Mexico, 10° and 22° northern latitude, Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. A main distinction groups these different niches into two categories, the lowlands and the altiplanos, or highlands. In the low-lying regions, sub-tropical and tropical climates are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The highlands show much more diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold mountainous climates. The rainfall varies from the dry Oaxaca and north Yucatan to the humid southern Pacific, several distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits is not rigid, the Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups, the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands, the southern Maya lowlands are generally regarded as encompassing northern Guatemala, southern Campeche and Quintana Roo in Mexico, and Belize
18.
Indigo
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Indigo is a deep and rich color close to the color wheel blue, as well as to some variants of ultramarine. The color indigo is named after the indigo dye derived from the plant Indigofera tinctoria, the first known recorded use of indigo as a color name in English was in 1289. Species of Indigofera were cultivated in Peru, India, East Asia, the earliest direct evidence for the use of indigo dates to around 4000 BCE and comes from Huaca Prieta, in contemporary Peru. Pliny mentions India as the source of the dye, imported in small quantities via the Silk Road, the Greek term for the dye was Ἰνδικὸν φάρμακον, which, adopted to Latin as indicum and via Portuguese gave rise to the modern word indigo. El Salvador has lately been the biggest producer of indigo, Indigo was actually a plant that got its name because it came from the Indus Valley, discovered some 5,000 years ago, where it was called nila, meaning dark blue. And by the 7th Century BC, people starting using the plant as a dye — the Mesopotamians were even carving out recipes for making indigo dye onto clay tablets for record-keeping. By 1289, knowledge of the dye made its way to Europe, but it wasn’t until 1640 when demand started to pick up for indigo. Spanish explorers discovered an American species of Indigo and began to cultivate the product in Guatemala, the English and French subsequently began to encourage indigo cultivation in their colonies in the West Indies. Indigo dye could be made from two different types of plants — the indigo plant, which produced the best results, the British were producing indigo with woad, a plant that yielded a lesser quality dye, but a plant they could grow. They even tried to hold their monopoly on indigo dye by managing to ban the indigo plant for years, but eventually the British began to focus on tea and other crops — and meanwhile, the French started to get their fair share of the market. The French had gone to war with Britain, so the British could hardly rely on the French for this precious blue dye, consequently, the British had to turn to their colonies in America. It was Eliza Lucas from South Carolina who figured out how to grow the indigo plant, the same indigo dye is contained in the woad plant, Isatis tinctoria, for a long time the main source of blue dye in Europe. Woad was replaced by true indigo as trade routes opened up, the Early Modern English word indigo referred to the dye, and not to the color itself, and indigo is not traditionally part of the basic color-naming system. Modern sources place indigo in the spectrum between 420 and 450 nanometers, which lies on the side of color wheel blue. However, the correspondence of this definition with colors of actual indigo dyes is disputed, isaac Newton introduced indigo as one of the seven base colors of his work. In a pivotal experiment in the history of optics, the young Newton shone a narrow beam of sunlight through a prism to produce a band of colors on the wall. He linked the seven prismatic colors to the seven notes of a major scale, as shown in his color wheel, with orange. Indigo is therefore counted as one of the colors of the rainbow
19.
El Salvador
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El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador, is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. El Salvadors capital and largest city is San Salvador, as of 2015, the country had a population of approximately 6.38 million, consisting largely of Mestizos of European and Indigenous American descent. El Salvador was for centuries inhabited by several Mesoamerican nations, especially the Cuzcatlecs, as well as the Lenca, in the early 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered the territory, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City. In 1821, the country achieved independence from Spain as part of the First Mexican Empire, from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups, revolts, and a succession of authoritarian rulers. The conflict ended with a settlement that established a multiparty constitutional republic. El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying the economy by opening up trade and financial links, the colón, the official currency of El Salvador since 1892, was replaced by the U. S. dollar in 2001. As of 2010, El Salvador ranks 12th among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index, however, the country continues to struggle with high rates of poverty, inequality, and crime. Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado named the new province for Jesus Christ – El Salvador, the full name was Provincia De Nuestro Señor Jesus Cristo, El Salvador Del Mundo, which was subsequently abbreviated to El Salvador. Tomayate is a site located on the banks of the river of the same name in the municipality of Apopa. The site has produced abundant Salvadoran megafauna fossils belonging to the Pleistocene epoch, at the same time, it is considered the richest vertebrate paleontological site in Central America and one of the largest accumulations of proboscideans in the Americas. Sophisticated civilization in El Salvador dates to its settlement by the indigenous Lenca people, theirs was the first, the Lenca were succeeded by the Olmecs, who eventually also disappeared, leaving their monumental architecture in the form of the pyramids still extant in western El Salvador. The Maya arrived and settled in place of the Olmecs, the Pipil were the last indigenous people to arrive in El Salvador. They called their territory Kuskatan, a Pipil word meaning The Place of Precious Jewels, backformed into Classical Nahuatl Cōzcatlān, the people of El Salvador today are referred to as Salvadoran, while the term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage. In pre-Columbian times, the country was inhabited by various other indigenous peoples, including the Lenca. Cuzcatlan was the domain until the Spanish conquest. Since El Salvador resided on the edge of the Maya Civilization. However, it is agreed that Mayas likely occupied the areas around Lago de Guija. Other ruins such as Tazumal, Joya de Cerén and San Andrés may have built by the Pipil or the Maya or possibly both
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Tabebuia rosea
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Tabebuia rosea, also called pink poui, and rosy trumpet tree is a neotropical tree that grows up to 30 m and can reach a diameter at breast height of up to 100 cm. It is the tree of El Salvador, where it is called Maquilíshuat. This species is distributed from southern México, to Venezuela and Ecuador. It has been growing from sealevel to 1,200 m, in temperatures ranging from 20 °C to 30 °C on average, with annual rainfall above 500 mm. The tree crown is wide, with irregular, stratified ramification, the bark can be gray to brown, in varying darkness and may be vertically fissured. Leaves are compound, digitate and deciduous, each leaf has five leaflets of variable size, the middle one being the largest. Flowering occurs mainly in January and February, and is associated with dry periods, although flowering has also been observed in August, September, April. Flowers are large, in tones of pink to purple. Pollination occurs probably by insects, although the flowers are visited by birds such as tanagers, hummingbirds. The long and slender fruit capsules can measure up to 35 cm, after the drying fruit dehisces, the anemochorous, hyaline-membrane-winged seeds are released. There are an average of 45,000 seeds per kg with up to 13% water content, germination of seeds is extremely easy and efficient, reaching almost 100%. It is a fairly fast growing tree and this tree is often seen in Neotropical cities, where it is often planted in parks and gardens. In the rainy season it offers great shade and, in the dry season, preparations of the cortex of the tree are consumed to eliminate intestinal parasites, malaria and uterine cancer. A decoction of the cortex is recommended for anemia and constipation, a decoction of the flowers, leaves and roots has been used to reduce fevers and pain, cause sweating, to treat tonsil inflammation and various other disorders. Among the various active phytochemicals in the tree is lapachol, a organic compound isolated from various other Tabebuia species. Chemically, it is a derivative of naphthoquinone, related to vitamin K, once studied as a possible treatment for some types of cancer, lapachols potential is now considered low due to its toxic side effects. Lapachol also has antimalarial and antipanasomal effects, Tabebuia rosea at Atta, INBio Tabebuia rosea at Tropical Tree Seed Manual Tabebuia rosea at BIMs, INBio
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Yucca gigantea
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Yucca gigantea, is a Yucca species that is native to Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and the eastern part of Mexico. It is also naturalized in Puerto Rico, the Leeward Islands. Common names include spineless yucca, soft-tip yucca, blue-stem yucca, giant yucca and its flower, the izote, is the national flower of El Salvador. Although it can grow up to 9 m in height, with a spread to 4.5 m and it may have a thick, single trunk or be multitrunked resulting from a thickened, inflated, trunk-like lower base similar to an elephants foot. The leaves are strap-like, spineless and up to 1.2 m in length, white flowers are produced in the summer, followed by brown, fleshy fruits which are oval and up to 2.5 cm long. The species is most widely known today as Yucca elephantipes, the first mention of that name was by Eduard von Regel in February 1859. He claimed that a different species, Y. aloifolia, was known as Yucca elephantipes when grown in European gardens because of its thickened stem base. However, since he did not intend to offer Y. elephantipes as the correct name. In a major article on yuccas and allies in 1902, William Trelease also used the name Y. elephantipes and this came too late though, as Yucca gigantea had by then already been previously established. Charles Lemaire published the name Yucca gigantea in November 1859 and this is the name used by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as of January 2014, although other sources use Yucca guatemalensis, published by Baker in 1872. The species can be grown in a variety of soils and is drought-tolerant, young plants are occasionally used as houseplants. Yucca gigantea may be subject to a number of pests including scale, Yucca moth borers, plants are subject to root rot if overwatered. Leaf spot may affect the appearance of the leaves, but it does not affect the health of the plant, propagation is by suckers, cuttings or seed. A number of cultivars have been released including, Artola Gold Jewel Puck Silver Star, the plants are often used on coffee estates to prevent soil erosion on steep slopes
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Turquoise-browed motmot
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The turquoise-browed motmot is a colourful, medium-sized bird of the motmot family, Momotidae. It inhabits Central America from south-east Mexico, to Costa Rica and it lives in fairly open habitats such as forest edge, gallery forest and scrubland. It is more conspicuous than other motmots, often perching in the open on wires and fences, from these perches it scans for prey, such as insects and small reptiles. White eggs are laid in a long tunnel nest in a bank or sometimes in a quarry or fresh-water well. Its name originates from the color of its brow. The bird is approximately 34 cm long and weighs about 65 g and it has a mostly green-blue body with a rufous back and belly. There is a blue stripe above the eye and a blue-bordered black patch on the throat. The flight feathers and upperside of the tail are blue, the tips of the tail feathers are shaped like rackets and the bare feather shafts are longer than in other motmots. Unlike most bird species, where only males express elaborate traits, research indicates that the tail has evolved to function differently for the sexes. Males apparently use their tail as a signal, as males with longer tails have greater pairing success. In addition to function, the tail is used by both sexes in a wag-display, whereby the tail is moved back-and-forth in a pendulous fashion. This form of communication is referred to as a pursuit-deterrent signal. The call is nasal, croaking and far-carrying, the turquoise-browed motmot is a well-known bird in its range and has been chosen as the national bird of both El Salvador and Nicaragua. It has acquired a number of names including guardabarranco in Nicaragua, torogoz in El Salvador and pájaro reloj in the Yucatán. In Costa Rica it is known as momoto cejiceleste or the far-less flattering pájaro bobo, Fogden, Susan C. L. Fogden, Michael, Fogden, Patricia. A Photographic Guide to Birds of Costa Rica, howell, Steve N. G. Webb, Sophie. A Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Northern Central America, ridgely, Robert S. Gwynne Jr. John A. A Guide to the Birds of Panama with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Turquoise-browed Motmot research by Troy G. Murphy at Trinity University, Texas Stamps at bird-stamps. org Turquoise-browed motmot photo gallery at VIREO Turquoise-browed motmot media
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History of El Salvador
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The history of El Salvador has been a struggle against many conquistadors, empires, dictatorships and world powers. After gaining independence, several Spanish Creoles took control of the government, anastacio Aquino, king of the Nonoualquenos, led a rebellion against what was referred to as an abuse of power and corruption, but it was repressed by the government. This repression would have repercussions for the future of El Salvador, La matanza, and all the liberation movements from the 1930s to 1980s, would emerge from the injustices committed by Spanish rule, Creoles, and other foreign power interventions. Before the Spanish conquest, the area that is known as El Salvador was composed of three states and several principalities. In central El Salvador were the inhabitants, the Pipils, or the Pipiles. The Pipil were a people who stoutly resisted Spanish efforts to extend their dominion southward. The region of the east was populated and then governed by the Lencas, the North zone of the Lempa High River was populated and governed by the Chortis, a Mayan people. Their culture was similar to that of their Aztec and Maya neighbors, several notable archaeological sites contain dwellings and other evidence of daily life 1400 years ago, these were found preserved beneath 6 m of volcanic ash. In 1525, he returned and succeeded in bringing the district under control of the Audiencia of Mexico, pedro de Alvarado named the area for Jesus Christ - El Salvador. He was appointed its first governor, a position he held until his death in 1541, the area was under the authority of a short-lived Audiencia of Panama from 1538 to 1543, when most of Central America was placed under a new Audiencia of Guatemala. In the early 19th century, Napoleons occupation of Spain led to the outbreak of revolts all across Spanish America, in New Spain, all of the fighting by those seeking independence was done in the center of that area from 1810 to 1821, what today is central Mexico. Accepting this as a fact, El Salvador joined the other Central American Intendencies in a joint declaration of independence from Spain, the public proclamation was done through the Act of Independence in 1821. Should the king refuse the position, the law provided for a member of the House of Bourbon to accede to the New Spain throne. Ferdinand VII, however, did not recognize the independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of New Spain. By request of Parliament, the president of the regency Agustín de Iturbide was proclaimed emperor of New Spain, the Mexican Empire was the official name given to this monarchical regime from 1821 to 1823. The territory of the Mexican Empire included the continental intendencies and provinces of New Spain proper, El Salvador, fearing incorporation into Mexico, petitioned the United States government for statehood. But in 1823, a revolution in Mexico ousted Emperor Agustín de Iturbide, and that year, the United Provinces of Central America was formed of the five Central American Intendencies under General Manuel José Arce. The Intendencies took the new name of States, in 1832, Anastasio Aquino led an indigenous revolt against Criollos and Mestizos in Santiago Nonualco, a small town in the province of La Paz
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New Spain
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New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
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Captaincy General of Guatemala
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The governor-captain general was also president of the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala. The colonization of the area became the future Captaincy General began in 1524. In the north, the brothers Gonzalo and Pedro de Alvarado, Hernán Cortés and others headed various expeditions into Guatemala, in the south Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, acting under the auspices of Pedrarias Dávila in Panama, moved into what is today Nicaragua. The capital of Guatemala has moved many times over the centuries, on 27 July 1524, Pedro de Alvarado declared the Kaqchikel city, Iximche, as the first regional capital, styled Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. However, hostilities between the Spaniards and the Kaqchikel soon made the city uninhabitable, in 1526, the Spanish founded a new capital settlement at Tecpán Guatemala, Tecpán being the Nahuatl word for palace. Tecpán is sometimes called the first capital because of its status as the first permanent Spanish military center, the Spaniards soon abandoned Tecpán due to continuous Kaqchikel attacks that made defense of the city untenable. In 1527, the capital was moved yet again to the Almolonga Valley to the east, being refounded on the site of todays San Miguel Escobar district of Ciudad Vieja, near Antigua Guatemala. This settlement was destroyed by a lahar from Volcan de Agua in 1541. In 1543, the capital was again refounded several miles away at Antigua Guatemala, over the next two centuries, this city would become one of the richest of the New World capitals. However, it too was destroyed, this time by a series of earthquakes. The final and current capital is the modern-day Guatemala City, the Church played an important role in the administration of the overseas possessions of the Spanish crown. The first dioceses were established in León, Nicaragua and Guatemala in 1534, another diocese was created in Chiapas in 1539. The dioceses of Guatemala and Chiapas were suffragan to the Archdiocese of Seville, the Diocese of León was made suffragan to Archdiocese of Lima in 1546. Another short-lived diocese was set up in Verapaz, Guatemala in 1559, in 1543 the territory of the kingdom was defined with the establishment of the Audiencia of Guatemala, which took most of Central America as its jurisdiction. This audiencia, along with the one in Lima, took over the territory of the first Audiencia of Panama and it was the first institution to define Central America as a region within the Spanish Empire. Around the same time Habsburg Spain created other captaincies general in Puerto Rico, Cuba, in the 17th century a process of uniting the church hierarchy of Central America also began. The dioceses of Comayagua and León were made suffragan to the Archdiocese of Mexico in 1620 and 1647, as part of the Bourbon Reforms in 1786 the crown established a series of intendancies in the area, which replaced most of the older corregimientos. The intendants were granted broad powers and were charged with promoting the local economy
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1811 Independence Movement
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At the beginning of the 19th century, agitation grew in the American territories dominated by the Spanish crown. The previous century was dominated by the support of ideas of individual freedom, which characterized the Enlightenment that took place in Europe. In the Intendancy of San Salvador, many Creoles and other settlers wanted to control of the colony from the Guatemalan Captaincy General. This was largely due to economic and political reasons, greater administrative autonomy or outright independence for San Salvador would reduce the high level of taxes paid to Spain and Guatemala and would raise finances for the colony. Napoleón Bonapartes invasion of Spain in 1808 and the removal of Ferdinand VII from the Spanish throne created an atmosphere of unrest in San Salvador, the insurrectionists organized themselves along with prominent middle-class supporters of the cause of independence such as doctors and priests who took part in the event. These included doctors such as Santiago José Celis, the brothers, others included Manuel José Arce, Juan Manuel Rodríguez and Pedro Pablo Castillo. On November 5 the revolt began in San Salvador, according to tradition, the rebels waited for a signal from the bell tower of the Church of La Merced, but this did not occur on the scheduled time. The rebels later assembled on the square outside the church where Manuel José Arce proclaimed in front of the public, There is no King, nor Intendant. We only must obey our alcaldes, meaning that since Ferdinand VII had been deposed, a tumult in the square grew to the point that the intendant, Antonio Gutierrez y Ulloa, asked that the gathered name somebody to formally receive their demands. Manuel José Arce himself was chosen and selected as the leader by the crowd, despite this, the insurrectionists took arms and proclaimed the total independence of San Salvador from the Spanish crown, but were later subdued. In the following days, the movement extended to the cities of Santiago Nonualco, Usulután, Chalatenango, Santa Ana, Tejutla. The two other notable revolts occurred on November 24 in the city of Metapán and on December 20 in Sensuntepeque, despite the efforts of the insurrectionists, the cause of independence was not shared by the city councils of the Intendancy. Neither San Miguel, nor San Vicente nor Santa Ana joined them, unable to amass support, the rebels decided to negotiate with a delegation sent in from the Guatemalan capital to take control. The new Intendant Colonel Jose de Aycinena, arrived on December 8 with Guatemalan troops and priests to them to swear obedience to the crown. The new government was well received by the majority of the due to Aycinenas policy of understanding. However, several days later, unrest broke out in the neighboring Intendancy of Nicaragua, many of those involved in the events in El Salvador and Nicaragua were incarcerated, but José Matías Delgado was taken back with the delegation to Guatemala City. Despite his past activities, or perhaps because of them, Delgado was elected in 1813 as a representative on the Provincial Deputation of Guatemala created by the Spanish Constitution of 1812. He also became director of the Tridentino Seminary in the city, therefore, he was not in El Salvador at the time of the second insurrection in 1814
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Salvadoran Civil War
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By January 1980 the left-wing political organizations united to form the Coordinated Revolutionaries of the Masses. A few months later the armed groups united to form the Unified Revolutionary Directorate. It was renamed the FMLN following its merger with the Communist Party in October 1980, the full-fledged civil war lasted for more than 12 years and saw extreme violence from both sides. It also included the deliberate terrorizing and targeting of civilians by death squads, recruitment of soldiers and other violations of human rights. An unknown number of disappeared during the conflict, and the UN reports that more than 75,000 were killed. The United States contributed to the conflict by providing large amounts of aid to the government of El Salvador during the Carter. In 1990 the UN began peace negotiations and on January 16,1992, El Salvador is the smallest country in Central America after Belize. As in many nations of Latin America, the history of El Salvador has been characterized by marked socioeconomic inequality, in the late 19th century coffee became a major cash crop for El Salvador, bringing in approximately 95% of the countrys income. However, this income was restricted to only 2% of the population, socioeconomic tension grew through the 1920s and were compounded by a drop in coffee prices following the stock-market crash of 1929. In 1932 the Central American Socialist Party was formed and led an uprising of peasants, the government brutally suppressed it in what became known as the 1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre or simply La Matanza, with the military murdering between 10, 000-40,000 indigenous people. Farabundo Martí, the leader of the uprising, was arrested and put to death. La Matanza also served to reinforce feelings of strong distrust and animosity among the populace towards the government, the military, on July 14,1969, an armed conflict erupted between El Salvador and Honduras over immigration disputes caused by Honduran land reform laws. The conflict lasted only four days, but had major long-term effects for Salvadoran society, Trade was disrupted between El Salvador and Honduras, causing tremendous economic damage to both nations. An estimated 300,000 Salvadorans were displaced due to battle, many of whom were exiled from Honduras, in many cases, the Football War also strengthened the power of the military in El Salvador, leading to heightened corruption. The 1973 oil crisis led to rising prices and decreased agricultural output. This worsened the existent socioeconomic inequality in the country, leading to increased unrest, in response, President Arturo Armando Molina enacted a series of land reform measures, calling for large landholdings to be redistributed among the peasant population. The reforms failed, thanks to opposition from the landed elite, the period between the election and the formal inauguration of President Romero on 1 July 1977 was characterized by massive protests from the popular movement, which were met by state repression. On 28 February 1977 a crowd of demonstrators gathered in downtown San Salvador to protest the electoral fraud
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Geography of El Salvador
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El Salvador borders the North Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest, with Guatemala to the north-northwest and Honduras to the north-northeast. In the southeast, the Golfo de Fonseca separates it from Nicaragua, El Salvador is the smallest Central American country and is the only one without a coastline on the Caribbean sea. El Salvador, along with the rest of Central America, is one of the most seismologically active regions on earth, the motion of these plates causes the areas earthquake and volcanic activity. Most of Central America and the Caribbean Basin rests on the relatively motionless Caribbean Plate, the Pacific Ocean floor, however, is being carried northeast by the underlying motion of the Cocos Plate. The subduction of the Cocos Plate accounts for the frequency of earthquakes near the coast, as the rocks constituting the ocean floor are forced down, they melt, and the molten material pours up through weaknesses in the surface rock, producing volcanoes and geysers. North of El Salvador, Mexico and most of Guatemala are riding on the westward-moving North American Plate that butts against the edge of the stationary Caribbean Plate in southern Guatemala. The grinding action of two plates creates a fault that runs the length of the valley of the Rio Motagua in Guatemala. Motion along this fault is the source of earthquakes in northernmost El Salvador, El Salvador has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and suffered damage in the 1919,1982. The country has over twenty volcanoes, although two, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years. From the early nineteenth century to the mid-1950s, Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name Lighthouse of the Pacific and its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone. Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador to the west with a plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific. These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions, the mountain ranges and central plateau, covering 85 percent of the land, comprise the interior highlands. The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands, the northern range of mountains, the Sierra Madre, form a continuous chain along the border with Honduras. Elevations in this range from 1,600 to 2,700 meters. The area was heavily forested, but overexploitation led to extensive erosion. As a result, it is the countrys most sparsely populated zone, the southern range of mountains is actually a discontinuous chain of more than twenty volcanoes, clustered into five groups. The westernmost group, near the Guatemalan border, contains Izalco and Santa Ana, between the cones lie alluvial basins and rolling hills eroded from ash deposits
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Water resources management in El Salvador
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The river that drains the capital city of San Salvador is considered to be polluted beyond the capability of most treatment procedures. El Salvador has ample groundwater and partly relies on these supplies for domestic purposes, deforestation has ravaged the country to the point that very little primary forest remains. This has led to difficulties in managing stormwater when hurricanes. Torrential rain leads to floods and mudslides that have claimed many lives in El Salvador. A growing urban population coupled with high levels of water losses in urban centers is also challenging water institutions that are not well coordinated and this leads to inefficient water resources management. The Acelhuate River is an important drainage system for El Salvadors capital, San Salvador and this water is considered a biohazard, and the contamination is so severe that it is rendered untreatable by treatment methods such as reverse osmosis. Contaminated water from the Acelhuate River flows directly into the Cerron Grande reservoir, the Cerrón Grande reservoir is overloaded with sewage and industrial waste. The sedimentation volumes in the Cerron Grande Reservoir are dangerously high also, many shallow aquifers are becoming contaminated from the severe surface pollution, and this is critically challenging as deeper wells are more relied upon to provide potable water. In El Salvador, rivers and streams in the agricultural areas are highly polluted by pesticides. Concentrations of 3.15 mg of DDT per litre of water have been discovered in the Río Grande de San Miguel, El Salvador sits directly in the path of tropical storms and hurricanes as evidenced by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 causing US$400 million in damage. Hurricane Stan in 2005 caused considerable flooding throughout El Salvador, resulted in 67 deaths, damages from Stan were estimated at US$355 million. There was a storm in 2008 that also led to major flooding and mudslides. Another determining factor in the flood waters that plague El Salvador is deforestation. El Salvador is the second most deforested country in Latin America after Haiti, much of El Salvadors tree cover has been removed, leaving the country vulnerable to flash flooding. Only an estimated 2 per cent of the cover that existed before the 10-year civil war remains. Almost 85 percent of its cover has disappeared since the 1960s. The urbanized population in El Salvador was 61% in 2008 with an increase of 2% each year, in the case of San Salvador, the urbanized surface of the metropolitan area has increased almost exponentially, from 6.8 km2 in 1935 to 91.5 km2 in 2000. This has mainly taken place in the largest aquifer recharge areas, because of this, the areas with the highest rate of infiltration have been reduced, whereas the areas with a low infiltration rate of 0.05 mm/hour have increased by the same proportion
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Politics of El Salvador
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Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, El Salvador has a multi-party system. Two political parties, the Nationalist Republican Alliance and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front have tended to dominate elections, ARENA candidates won four consecutive presidential elections until the election of Mauricio Funes of the FMLN in March 2009. Geographically, the departments of the Central region, especially the capital, the departamentos azules, or blue departments in the east, western and highland regions are relatively conservative. El Salvador elects its head of state – the President of El Salvador – directly through a general election whose winner is decided by absolute majority. The presidential period is five years, consecutive re-election is not permitted, though previously elected presidents may run for a second, non-consecutive term. Twenty of the 84 seats in the Legislative Assembly are elected on the basis of a national constituency. The remaining 64 are elected in 14 multi-member constituencies and they range from 3-16 seats each according to department population size. It actively participates in the Central American Security Commission, which seeks to promote regional arms control, El Salvador also is a member of the World Trade Organization and is pursuing regional free trade agreements. An active participant in the Summit of the Americas process, El Salvador chairs a working group on market access under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative. Legislative Assembly of El Salvador Presidency of El Salvador Supreme Court of Justice of El Salvador Changing Colors in El Salvador by Emma Vawter, The Yale Globalist, May 11,2009
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Constitution of El Salvador
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The current constitution of El Salvador was enacted in 1983 and amended in 2003. The 1983 constitution is similar to that of 1962, often incorporating verbatim passages from the earlier document, the constitution consists of 11 titles, subdivided into 274 articles. Title One also specifies the conditions under which constitutional guarantees may be suspended, grounds for such action include war, invasion, rebellion, sedition, catastrophe, epidemic or grave disturbances of the public order. The declaration of the circumstances may be issued by either the legislative or the executive branch of government. The suspension of constitutional guarantees lasts for a maximum of 30 days, the declaration of suspension of guarantees grants jurisdiction over cases involving crimes against the existence and organization of the state to special military courts. The military courts which functioned from February 1984 until early 1987 under a suspension of guarantees were commonly known as Decree 50 courts, according to the constitution, all Salvadorans over 18 years of age are considered citizens. As such, they have rights and political obligations. Rights of the include the exercise of suffrage and the formation of political parties in accordance with the law. The exercise of suffrage is listed as an obligation as well as a right, failure to vote has technically been subject to a small fine. Voters are required to have their names entered in the electoral register, political campaigns are limited to four months preceding presidential balloting, two months before balloting for legislative representatives, and one month before municipal elections. Title Five defines the outlines of the economic order. As noted, private enterprise and private property are guaranteed, the latter is recognized as a social function, a phrase which may function as a loophole for the potential expropriation of unproductive land or other holdings. Individual landowners are limited to holdings of no more than 245 hectares, the expropriation of land may be undertaken for the public benefit in the social interest, through legal channels and with fair compensation. Amending the constitution is a complex process, initial approval of an amendment requires only a majority vote in the Legislative Assembly. Before the amendment can be incorporated, however, it must be ratified by a vote in the next elected assembly. Since legislative deputies serve three-year terms, an amendment could take long to win passage into law. The 60-member Constituent Assembly elected in March 1982 was charged with producing a new constitution, in addition to crafting the structure of that government, the Constituent Assembly was responsible for issuing a schedule for presidential elections. A majority of the members of the Constituent Assembly represented conservative political parties, conservative parties had drawn approximately 52 percent of the total popular vote
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Elections in El Salvador
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Elections in El Salvador gives information on elections and election results in El Salvador. El Salvador elects its head of state – the President of El Salvador – directly through a general election whose winner is decided by absolute majority. The presidential period is five years, consecutive re-election is not permitted, though previously elected presidents may run for a second, non-consecutive term. Salvadorans also elect a single-chamber, unicameral national legislature – the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador – composed of 84 members and they are elected by open-list proportional representation for three-year terms, with the possibility of immediate re-election. All 84 seats in the Legislative Assembly are elected on the basis of 14 multi-member constituencies and they range from 3-16 seats each according to department population size. El Salvador has a multi-party system, two political parties, the Nationalist Republican Alliance and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front have tended to dominate elections. ARENA candidates won four presidential elections until the election of Mauricio Funes of the FMLN in March 2009. Geographically, the departments of the Central region, especially the capital, the departamentos azules, or blue departments in the east, western and highland regions are relatively conservative
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_(Reverse).jpg)
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